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coll. MACKENZIE'S 

TEN THOUSA:t^D RECEIPTS, 

m ALL THE 

USEFUL AND DOMESTIC AETS; 

CONSTITUTING 

A COMPLETE AND PRACTICAL LIBRARY, 

RELATING TO 

Agriculture, Angling, Bees, Bleaching, Book-keeping, Brewing, Cottos 
Culture, Crocheting, Carving, Cholera, Cooking, Calico Printing, 
Confectionery, Cements, Chemical Receipts, Cosmetics, Diseases, 
Dairy, Dentistry, Dialysis, Decalcomania, Dyeing, Distilla- 
tion, Enamelling, Engraving, Electro-Plating, Elec- 
trotyping, Fish Culture, Farriery, Food, Flower 
Gardening, Fireworks, Gas Metres, Gilding, 
Glass, Health, Horsemanship, Inks, Jew- 
ellers' Paste, Knitting, Knots, Litho- 
graphy, Mercantile Calculations, 
Medicine, Miscellaneous Re- 
ceipts, Metallurgy, Mez- 
zotints, Oil Colors, 
Oils, Painting, 
Perfumery, 
Pastry, Petroleum, Pickling, Poisons and Antidotes, Potichomania, 
Proof- Reading, Pottery, Preserving, Photography, Pyrotechnics, 
Rural and Domestic Economy, Sugar Raising, Silvering, 
Scouring, Silk and Silk-worms, Sorghum, Tobacco 
Culture, Tanning, Trees, Telegraphing, Var- 
nishes, Vegetable Gardening, Weights 
AND Measures, Wines, Etc., Etc. 

BEING AN ENTIRELY NEW EDITION 

CAREFULLY REVISED AND RE-WRITTEN, 

AND 

Containing the Improvements and Discoveries up to last Date of Publication. 
JANUARY, 1867. C^"^ "'^^ 

BY A ^ 

CORPS OP EXPERTS, r -^ 

Again Revised to Date of Present Issue, April 25th, 1867, with Addition of Special Articles 
upon the Hinderpest and Trichinae. 

ALSO, 

REPORT AND AWARD OF THE TRIAL OP AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AT THE GREAT NATIONAL 

FIELD trial held AT AUBURN, N. Y., IN JULY, 1866. 

V PHILADELPHIA: 

T. ELLWOOD ZELL k COMPANY, 

Nos. 17 & 19 SOUTH SIXTH STREET. * 

1867. 



x^^ 



s^ 



^ 

^\'* 



b^ 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by 

T. ELLWOOD ZELL, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of 

Pennsylvania. 



5 c 

V^r W STEBEOTYPEBS, ^ )VJ 



PHILADELPHIA. 

nmrsD by shsruan t oo. 



/i^/ 



PREFACE 

TO THE NEW AND EEVISED EDITION 
OP OCTOBER, 1865. 



In preparing a new edition of this popular work, the Editors have endeavored 
to incorporate all the improvements in the various branches, which have been intro- 
duced, since the publication of the last edition. Much of the work has been 
entirely re-written, and new articles have been added on Photography, Pyrotech- 
nics, Angling, Pisciculture, etc. The matter has not been simply scissored from 
newspapers, but carefully digested from standard authorities, the scientific journals, 
and from the practical knowledge of the Editors and contributors. The Editors 
have to acknowledge valuable assistance from gentlemen, eminent in the depart- 
ments of Agriculture, Horticulture, Wine-making, Perfumery, Cements, Engraviug, 
Photography, Angling, Tanning, etc. The work, it is believed, will be found 
more reliable and thorough than any one of its class now in print. The Miscel- 
laneous department is almost entirely new, and contains much valuable and inter- 
esting information. Some matters properly belonging under other heads, but 
received too late, have been transferred to it. The reader is especially requested 
to refer to the index, when seeking information. 



(iii) 



OPINIO.NS OF THE PRESS. 

From the Phila. North American, Dec. 22, 1865. 
Theyast amount of useful knowledge bearing on every-iliiy life wtiich constantly flits thTongh the world, hni 
often led to efforts forgathering and rendering it available by those who want it, when they want it. Mr. Zdl 
having made a previons successful effort in tliis direction, has enlarged the field of his usefulnes.s by a new cditic n 
of his work, which will be exceedingly useful to all, and almost indispen.sable to some. He has gatheied the formulas 
and directions of all the most recent discoveries in the useful and domestic arts, and has made it as nearly complete aa 
possible. Though the work is designed for popular rather than scientific use, it contains much that will interest 
Bcii'n^ific men, as well as general readers. Agriculture, horticulture, domestic economy, farriery, medicine, biewing, 
distillation, dyeing, paints and varnishes, metallurgy, photography, engraving, pottery, weights and mea-sures — these 
are among the subjects treated very fully, and which are of first importance. There is no effort to prepare treatises upon 
any of these. The kernel alone is retiiined, an<l that in the best form for use by practical men. There is a great 
body of what may be termed the cream of useful knowledge, under the general head of agriculture, which it were 
well all farmers should have for perusal at leisure moments. Manures, cropc, drainage, and the care of animals, are 
all treated in a condensed manner, with directions and information which cannot fail to advantage readers. The 
gardener, poulterer, and apiarian, are provided with excellent receipts. The half-hundred pages devoted to medicine 
will be useful where a physician cannot be procured; and under the miscellaneous head there are a variety of facts 
ou horsemanship and knitting, gunpowder and book-keeping, dogs and crocheting, which could not readily be found 
elsewhere. A great deal of the information hitherto published in this form has been of doulitful use, and h;is discredited 
honest efforts to aid the community. The counterfeit only proves the worth of what is genuine, and this really 
careful and useful vaiie mecum ought not to suffer from the reputation of the trash which it seeks to supplant. The 
index — an essential in such a comjiilation — has been carefully arranged, at much length. There are diagnims and 
illustrations where they are needed, and the whole forms a volume which ought to be very widely circulated, and 
which will repay its cost in almost any family within a year. 

From the Phila. Sunday Dispatch, Nov. 26, 1865. 
Mackenzie's Ten Thousand Receipts, containing new discoveries and processes in use up to October, 1865. 487 pages. 
To describe this volume projierly would require the space given to a catalogue, and the volubility of an auctioneer. 
We find in it almost everything that can be conceived as an object of inquiry involving the special preparation of 
materials or the management of processes. Agriculture, chemistry, cooking, maiuifactures, medicine, the decorative 
arts, household management, and a thousand other things which defy classification, are embraced in this closely- 
printed book, which, in the way of condensation, contains enough to stock a library with volumes printed in fashion- 
ably large type. We could not undertake to recite the whole title-page, which is of itself prodigious, affording but 
a feeble idea of what is within. Suffice it to say, that almost anything that anybody wants to know how to do will 
be found in this volume properly described, and illustrated in some cases by useful engravings. It has been re- 
written by a corps of scientific gentlemen, and is really a book which should be found ia every house. 

From the Germantown (Pa.) Telegraph, Nov. 22, 1S65. 
The editor and publisher of this extremely well gotten-up edition, has been many months in its preparation, hay- 
ing employed in this time a corps of able experts, in order that the work might be brought out not only in a style 
hitherto unapproached, but with intrinsic claims upon the commnnity which cannot but be acknowledged. Truth- 
fully, these "Ten Thousand Receipts in the Domestic Arts," constitute a "complete and practical library," relating 
to the hundreds of subjects treated of, connected with the indispi-nsable every-day affairs of family life The clear- 
ness of the print, the arrangement of the receipts, with the comprehensive index, render recourse to it at all times 
as easy almost as turning over the pages of a magazine, and obtaining from it the information sought in plain lan- 
guage and in condensed form, so that all can quickly see and readily understand. But this is not a work designed 
exclusively for domestio purposes, as the word "Domestic" is most generally understood ; but it contains valuable 
suggestions and advice upon almost every practical pursuit. There is scarcely anything omitted in which any con- 
siderable number of people are interested. 

From the Phila. Press, Nov. 24, 1865. 

This is a domestic cyclopaedia, of nearly 500 pages, in new type, small but clear. We are assured that two years' 
labor, by very competent gentlemen, has been bestowed upon tliis large and improved edition, and can well believe 
it. There is scarcely a subject connected with the useful and domestio arts about which a seeker for information 
cannot find what he wants in this book. The most recent improvements and discoveries, up to October, 1865, when 
the work was stereotyped, have been included. The quantity of information in this volume is very great — so far as 
we have tested it we can vouch for its accuracy. As a work of reference, it has been made complete by the addition 
of a copious index. 

From the Phila. Sunday Transcript, Dec. 10, 1865. 

It is one ofthe most remarkable books of the day, containing, as it does, a reference to every conceivable subject under 
the sun. In itself it is a complete and practical library, so arranged as to be invaluable in the household, on the 
farm, and in the counting-room. Pastry and petroleum, agriculture and knitting, receive equal atteution, while the 
entire volume presents a fund of information not accessible in any other form. The thrifty housekeeper can pick up 
numerous capital receipts for pies, or can learn the art of carving, which is treated as one of the exact sciences ; the 
merchant will find merciintjle calculations; the artist will find a dissertation upon oil colors, water colors, and mea- 
eotints; the farmer will learn something about gardening. In fact, there is no branch of trade but can be bene- 
fited by a perusal of this book. Although the receipts are quoted as 10,000, judging from the book they will doubla 
that figure. 

From the Phila. Inqlirer, Nov. 24, 1865. 

The present issue of this useful work by Mr. Zell, is a new and improved edition, carefully revised and re-written 
liy a corps of gentlemen eminently qualified for the peculiar task. To it has been likewise added all the impi-ove- 
ments and discoveries in the useful and domestic arts up to the date of publication, October, 1865. Two years of 
labor have been necessary to bring the book out in the present improved shape. 

From the Phila. EvENiNa Telegraph, Dec. 23, 1805. 
Mr. Zell maintains his position among the first-class houses of our land, principally through his agencies and tb« 
few well-selected works to which he has given life. Principal among the latter is " Mackenzie's Ten Thousand Re- 
ceipts," a work of universal information. In it are found, in fact, all the useful knowledge of the age comprettsej 
Into this universal compendium of information. If a man be familiar with all the contents of this book, he «ill bo 
an accomplished gentleman, a practical doctor, and in many respects a professional man. The work is one we can 
recommend as likely to be every day useful. We understand it is prepared by a gentleman well known in the 
world of science; it bears the impress of a well-informed mind. It is specific in its directions, and illustrated by 
numerous wood-cuts. Too much credit cannot be given to both the compiler and publisher for the remarkable care and 
skill exercised in compressing into onevolume, and that so carefully printed, so great an amount of useful information. 

From the Phila. Evening Rolletin, Dec. 12, 1865. 
This work has been thoroughly re-written, and comprises all manner of improvements and discoveries, brought up 
to October of this year. It forms a c-omplete library of valuable knowledge upon almost every imaginable subject 
connected with the useful and domestic arts, and is a most important volume of reference for th» mauufuciurer, 
agriculturalist and housekeeper. 



PEEEACE 



TO THE LATEST LONDON EDITION. 



As the object of all study, and the end of all wisdom, is practical utility, so a collec- 
tion of the most approved Receipts, in all the arts of Domestic and Social Life, may be 
considered as a volume containing nearly the whole of the wisdom of man, worthy of 
preservation. In truth, the present volume has been compiled under the feeling, that 
if all other books of Science in the world were destroyed, this single volume would be 
found to embody the results of the useful experience, observations, and discoveries of 
mankind during the past ages of the world. 

Theoretical reasonings and historical details have, of course, been avoided, and the 
object of the compiler has been to economize his space, and come at once to the point. 
Whatever men do, or desire to do, with the materials with which nature has supplied 
them, and with the powers which they possess, is here plainly taught and succinctly 
preserved ; whether it regard complicated manufactures, means of curing diseases, 
simple processes of various kinds, or the economy, happiness, and preservation of life. 

The best authorities have been resorted to, and innumerable volumes consulted, and 
•wherever different processes of apparently equal value, for attaining the same end, have 
been found, they have been introduced. 

Among the works consulted have been, 



The Monthly Magazine, 56 vols. 

The Repertory of Arts and Sciences, 60 vols. 

The London Journal of Arts and Sciences. 

The Transactions of the Society of Arts, 30 vols. 

The Magazine of Trade and Manufactures, 6 

vols. 
The Gazette of Health, 9 vols. 
The Series of the Horticultural Society, 5 vols. 
The Series of the Agricultural Society, 30 vols. 
The Farmer's Magazine, 16 vols. 
Young's Farmer's Calendar. 
Loudon on Gardening, 1 vol. 
Jennings's Domestic Cyclopaedia, 2 vols. 
TiNGREY on Varnishing. 
Richardson on the Metallic Arts. 



Thomas's Practice of Physic. 
Cooper's Dictionary of Surgery. 
Thornton's British Herbal. 
Waller's British Herbal. 
Imison's School of Arts. 
Handmaid to the Arts. 
Smith's Laboratory of the Arts. 
Hamilton on Drawing. 

The Editor's Thousand Experiments in Manu- 
factures and Chemistry. 
Davy's Agricultural Chemistry. 
Henry's Elements of Chemistry. 
Chaptal's Chemistry applied to the Arts. 
Gregory's Cyclopaedia. 
The English and other Cyclopaedias. 



Besides innumerable treatises on special subjects, minor journals, and a great variety 
of manuscript communications from friends and connections of the editor and publisher, 

A general, rather than a scientific, arrangement has been adopted, because the object 
of the work is popular and universal, and, though likely to be useful to men of science, 
it is more especially addressed to the public at large. In like manner, as far as pos- 
sible, technical and scientific language has been avoided, and popular names and simple 
descriptions have been preferred. 

Every care has been taken in the printing to avoid errors in quantities, as veil as to 
select the best receipts of each kind ; but notices of errors, omissions, or experimental 
improvements, will be thankfully received by the publisher, for the use of future 
editions. 

The Index will render it easy to refer to every article of importance. 

(V) 



PEEFACE 

TO THE EAELY AMEEICAN EDITION, 



In fulfilling the duty of preparing for the press a new and enlarged edition of the 
valuable work of Mackenzie, the Editor has steadily borne in mind its evident aim at 
general practical utility ; and consequently he has submitted both alterations and 
additions to its rules. While the former will be found but few — a circumstance arising 
from the nature of the book; the latter are both numerous and important — amounting 
to about fifty pages, exclusive of those contained in the Miscellaneous Department and 
the Appendix. 

The Medical part has been condensed, simplified, and adapted to the climate and 
diseases of the United States. A short, but complete manual of " Directions for rear- 
ing the Silk Worm, and the Culture of the White Mulberry Tree," together with an 
extensive article on the Diseases of the Horse, may be noticed as among the important 
additions. The Culinary art has not been neglected — the numerous original receipts 
from the best modern authorities of the " Kitchen," for preparing various delicacies of 
the animal and vegetable kingdom, including Pastry, Puddings, etc., will no doubt 
prove acceptable to American housekeepers. The man of family, the Sportsman, the 
Artist, the Mechanic, and the Farmer, have all been remembered. And an unusually 
large and correct Index gives every facility of reference that could be wished. 

The attention of the Reader is called to the "Miscellaneous Receipts." In this 
portion, which is very copious, numerous receipts have been placed, which could not 
with propriety be elsewhere arranged. It has also been made the receptacle of much 
valuable matter obtained from several kind female friends, and the fruH of researches 
into many curious and rare books ; and which was prepared at too late a period for 
insertion in the appropriate departments. The Appendix of " Instructions in the Art 
of Carving," with its numerous wood cuts, will, it is hoped, prove acceptable and 
useful to our country readers, for whose accommodatioc thb work waa originally 
designed. 

The Editor more especially notices the following works, as sources from which he has 
derived considerable assistance : The Franklin Journal ; Willich's Domestic Encyclo- 
psedia, by Professor Cooper; a Tract published by the Pennsylvania Society for the 
Rearing of Silk-Worms, etc. ; and the curious work of Colonel Hanger, of sporting 
memory. 

In conclusion, the publishers beg leave to state, that neither time nor expense has 
been considered in endeavoring to render this edition cheaper and better than any 
other which has been published, and at the same time worthy of the patronage which 
is solicited for it. They have availed themselves of the services of a gentleman as 
Editor, who has been for a considerable time engaged in the preparatory researches. 
The type, though small, is very legible and distinct ; and in the selection of the paper, 
whilst regard has been had to the color, it has been deemed of main importance that it 
should be sufficiently durable to resist the frequent usage into which a work of thia 
description must necessarily be called. 



CONTENTS. 



[FOR DKTAXIiS, SEE INDKX, AT CliOSS OF THE VOI.VMB.] 



PAOX 

AGRICULTURE 9 

Manurr 11, 18 

Wheat 27 

Drainage 49 

Sugar 52 

CoTToisr AND Tobacco 53 

Silk-Worm 54 

HORTICULTURE 60 

Budding and Grafting 34 

Fruit 67 

Insects and Diseases op Trees 76 

KbJeping Fruit 86 

Flower Gardening 88 

RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY 91 

Dairy Work 91 

Management op Bees 98 

FARRIERY 104 

Diseases of Horses 105 

" Docs 115, 449 

Hogs 116 

" Sheep 117 

" Cattle 120 

MEDICINE 122 

Diseases 122 

Cholera 162 

Accidents 143 

Wounds ■.... 144 

Fractures 146 

Dislocations 148 

Amputations 150 

Drowning 151, 180 

Poisons 152 

Medicines 154 

Diseases of Females 165 

Diseases of Children 169 

Domestic Medicines 173 

Hygiene 178 

Rules for Health . 184 

Teeth 186 

CULINARY ARTS . . , 188 

Cooking 188 

Confectionery 232 

Pickling . 238 

Preservinq t 239 

Carving 241 

Food .247 

(Tii) 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

BREWING 251 

Cider 263 

Wines 265 

DISTILLATION 277 

Essential Oils 289 

Waters 292 

Vinegar 296 

Artificial Waters 300 

PERFUMERY 303 

BLEACHING AND SCOURING 309 

DYEING 315 

Staining ............. 325 

PAINTS AND COLORS 327 

VARNISHES 339 

Lacquers 345 

CEMENTS 352 

Glue ' 355 

INKS ■ 358 

METALLURGY 362 

Assaying 363 

Parting 367 

Alloys 368 

Foils 373 

Electro-pIiATIng i . . . 374 

Gilding 376 

Iron and Steel ............ 381 

PYROTECHNY 384 

Matches 386 

TANNING 386 

ENAMELLING 390 

POTTERY '.394 

GLASS 399 

PHOTOGRAPHY 409 

Philolithographt 417 

ENGRAVING 419 

Lithography 424 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES „ . . 427 

Specific Gravity 429 

Gas Meters 430 

Value of Coins 431 

CHEMICAL RECEIPTS 432 

Boiler Encrustations 433 

Artificial Cold 435 

Antiseptics and Disinfectants ......... 435 

WEATHER PROGNOSTICS 439 

ANGLING 443 

Pisciculture 445 

MISCELLANEOUS 446 

To Tie Knots 446 

Knitting '. . 447 

Canary Birds 448 

Dogs 449 

Insects 449 

Petroleum 451 

Electric Telegraph 451 

Book-keeping 452 

Proof-reading 452 

Rowing 453 

Domestic Receipts 455-458-464 

Medical Receipts 460-163-464 

Dialysis 463 

Horsemanship 463 

Decalcomania 464 

Gunpowder 466 

Farm Seed 466 

INDEX 467-487 



MACKENZIE'S 



TEN THOUSAND RECEIPTS. 



-A^amCULTUIlE. 



THE MODERN THEORY OF AGRICUL- 
TURE. 
Liebig and other chemists have, within the last 
twenty-five years, endeavored to establish a science 
of agriculture, based upon a knowledge of the 
constitution of plants and of soils, and their mutual 
relations. We propose to give a very condensed 
account of the general conclusions arrived at. 

Food of Plant ». 
Plants derive their food from the air as well as 
from the earth; the former by their leaves, the 
latter by their roots. Elements most necessary 
to them are carbon, hydrogen, oxyijen, and nitro- 
gen, with various mineral substances present in 
the soil. Carbon is the most abundant. This is 
to a large extent e.xtracted from the atmosphere 
by the leaves of plants, during the day-time. 
Hydrogen and oxygen are in the water contained 
in the earth and air; and oxygen is in the air 
mixed with nitrogen. Plants do not seem able, 
however, to separate much nitrogen from the air 
as such, but more readil3' obtain it by the decom- 
position of iimmonia (composed of hydrngen and 
nitrogen), which is formed in the atmosphere, and 
washed down into the earth by rain-water, so a& 
to reach the roots. All ordinary waters, it must 
be remembered, contain substances dissolved in 
them. Irrigation of land does not act only by 
the vvater itself, but by that which is dissolved or 
diffused in it. Davy calculated that, supposing 
one part of sulphate of lime to be contained in 
every two thousand of river water, and every 
square yard of dry meadow land to absorb eight 
gallons of water, then, by every flooding, more 
than one and a half hundred weight of gypsum 
per acre is diffused by the water — a quantity 
equal to that generally used in spreading gypsum 
as a manure or fertilizer ; and so, if we allow only 
twenty-five parts of animal and vegetable remains 
to be present in a thousand parts of river water, 
we shall find that every soaking with such water 
will add to the meadow nearly two tons per acre 
of organic matter. The extraordinary fertility 
of the banks and delta of the river Nile is due to 
the natural annual overflow of the river, extended 
by artificial irrigation. In China also, the prin- 
ciple of irrigation is carried out very largely, and 
it is applicable, on a large or small scale, in any 
country. The water of lakes is usually charged 
with dissolved or suspended substances even more 
abundftntlj than that of rivers. 



Humus, 

Soils contain a great amount of matter which 
results from the decay of vegetables and animals; 
to a compound of which with earthy material tho 
name of humus is given. This was once incor- 
rectly supposed to give the whole nutriment of 
the plant. Trees and plants, instead of abstracU 
iiu/ carbon from the earth, really, by taking it 
from the air, and subsequently dying and decay- 
ing, annually by their leaves, and finally alto- 
gether, yine carbon and other atmospheric elements 
to the soil. As above said, all plants by their 
leaves absorb carbonic acid from the air, and 
retain carbon, giving out oxygen. It is evident, 
therefore, that the leaves are of great importance 
to the plant. So are the roots, for their absorbing 
oflBce. Thus it is true that the growth of a plant 
is always proportioned to the SHrfuce of its roots 
and leaves together. Vegetation, in its simplest 
form, consists in the abstraction of carbon from 
carbonic acid, and hydrogen from water; but the 
taking of nitrogen also, from ammonia especially, 
is important to them, and most of all, to those 
which are most nutritious, as the wheat, rye, 
barley, &c., whose seeds contain gluten and other 
nitrogenous principles of the greatest value for 
food. Plants will grow well in pure charcoal, if 
supplied with rain-water, for rain-water contains 
ammonia. 

Animal substances, as they putrefy, alwa;^ 
evolve ammonia, which plants need and absorb. 
Thus is explained one of the benefits of manuring, 
but not the only one, as we shall see presently. 
Animal manure, however, acts chiefly by the 
formation of ammonia. The quantity of gluten 
in wheat, rye, and barley is very different; and 
they contain nitrogen in varying proportions. 
Even in samples of the same seed the quantity 
varies ; and why ? Evidently because one variety 
has been better fed with its own appropriate fer- 
tilizer than another which has been reared on a 
soil less accurately adapted by artificial means 
for its growth. French wheat contains 12 per 
cent, of gluten ; Bavarian 24 per cent. Sir H. 
Davy obtained 19 per cent, from winter, and 24 
from summer wheat; from Sicilian 21, from Bar- 
bary wheat 19 per cent. Such great differ- 
ences must be owing to some cause, and thi» 
we find in the different methods of cultivation. 
An increase of animal manure gives rise not 
only to an increase in the number of seeds, but 
also to a remarkable difference in the propor« 

C9J 



10 



AGRICULTURE. 



tion of gluten which those seeds contain. Among 
manures of aniuial origin tliere is great diversity. 
Cow dung contains but a small proportion of 
nitrogen. One hundred parts of wheat, grown 
on a soil to which this material was applied, 
afiforded only 11 parts of gluten and 64 of starch ; 
while the sauie quantity of wheat, grown on a soil 
fertilized with Ihiukih urine, yielded 35 per cent. 
of gluten, and of course a smaller proportion of 
less valuable ingredients. During the putrefaction 
of urine, ammoniiical salts are formed in large 
quantity, it may be said, e.xciusively; for under 
the influence of warmth and moisture, the most 
prominent ingredient of urine is converted into 
carbonate of ammonia. 

Guano. 

Guano consists of the e.xcrements of sea-fowl, 
collected during long periods on certain islands 
in the South Sea. A soil which is deficient in 
organic matter is made much more productive by 
the addition of this manure. It consists of am- 
monia, combined with uric, phosphoric, oxalic, 
and carbonic acids, with some earthy salts and 
impurities. 

The urine of men and animals living upon flesh 
contains a large quantity of nitrogen, partly in 
the form of urea. Human urine is the most 
powerful manure for all vegetables which contain 
nitrogen; that of horses and horned cattle con- 
tains less of this element, but much more than 
the solid excrements of these animals. In the 
face of such facts as these, is it not pitiable to 
observe how the urine of the stable or cow-shed 
is often permitted to run off, to sink uselessly into 
the earth, or to form a pool in the middle of a 
farm-yard, from which, as it putrefies, the am- 
monia formed in it rapidly escapes into the atmos- 
phere ? 

Cultivated plants need more nitrogen than wild 
ones, being of a higher and more complex organ- 
ization. The result of forest growth is chiefly 
the production of carbonaceous woody fibre; of 
garden or field culture, especial'y the addition of 
as much nitrogen as the plant can be made to 
take up. 

Solid Manure, 

The solid excrements of animals do not con- 
tain as much nitrogen as those which are voided 
in a liquid form, and do not constitute so power- 
ful a fertilizing material. In urine, moreover, 
ammonia loses a good deal of its volatility by 
being combined and dissolved in the form of 
Baits. In an analogous manner, one of the uses 
of sulphate of lime or gypsum, as a manure, is to 
fix the ammonia of the atmosphere. Charcoal 
and hutnus have a similar property. 

Ifineral Matter in Plants. 

Besides the substances already mentioned, 
others are needed by plants as part of their food, 
to form their structure. The firmness of straw, 
for example, is due to the presence in it of silica, 
the principal constituent of sand and flints. Po- 
tassa, soda, lime, magnesia, and phosphoric acid, 
are contained in plants, in different proportions. 
All of these they must obtain from the soil. The 
alkalies above-named (potassa and soda) appear 
to be essential to the perfect development of the 
higher vegetable forms. Some plants require 
them in one mode 'of combination, and some in 
another; and thus the soil that is very good for 
one, may be quite unfit for others. Firs and 
pines find enough to support them in barren, 
Bandy soil. 

The proportion of silicate of potash (necessary 
for the firmness of wheat straw) does not vary 



perceptibly in the soil of grain-fields, because what 
is removed by the reaper, is again replaced in 
putrefying straw. But this is not the case with 
meadow-land. Hence we never find a luxuriant 
crop of grass on sandy and limestone soils which 
contain little potash, evidently because one of the 
constituents indispensable to the growth of the 
plants is wanting. If a meadow be well manure!, 
we remove, with the increased crop of grass, a 
greater quantity of potash than can, by a repe- 
tition of the same manure, be restored to it. So, 
grass-land manured with gypsum soon ceases to 
feel its agency. But if the meadow be strewed 
from time to time with wood ashes, or soap- boilers' 
lye made from wood ashes, then the grass thrives 
as luxuriantly as before. And why? The ashes 
are only a means of restoring the necessary potash 
for the grass stalks. So oats, barley, and rye 
may be made for once to grow upon a sandy 
heath, by mixing with the scanty soil the ashes 
of the heath-plants that grow upon it. Those 
ashes contain soda and potash, conveyed to the 
growing furze or gorse by rain-water. The soil 
of one district consists of sandstone; certain trees 
find in it a quantity of alkaline earths sufficient 
for their own siistenance. When felled, and burnt, 
and sprinkled upon the soil, oats will grow and 
thrive that without such aid would not vegetate. 

The most decisive proof of the absurdity of the 
indiscriminate use of any strong manure was ob- 
tained at Bingen, a town on the Rhine, where the 
produce and development of vines were highly 
increased by manuring them with animal matters, 
such as shavings of horn. After some years, the 
formation of the wood and leaves decreased per- 
ceptibly. Such manure had too much hastened 
the growth of the vines : in two or three years 
they had exhausted the potash in the formation 
of their fruit leaves and wood; so that none re- 
mained for the future crops, as shavings of horn 
contain no potash. Cow-dung would have been 
better, and is known to be better. 

Conditions of Vegetation. 

The sun's heat and light, air, water, and the 
common elements of the earth are necessary to 
the existence of plants. But a greater or less 
abundance of certain elements, and their existence 
in more or less favorable states of combination, 
determines the magnitude and fertility, or, in a 
word, the whole productiveness, of the vegetable 
growth. 

The rules of agriculture should then, if ration- 
ally perfected, enable us to give to each plant 
what it requires for the attainment of the special 
object of its culture; namely, the increase of cer- 
tain parts which are used as food for men and 
animals. 

One instance may illustrate this idea. The 
means to be resorted to for the production of fine 
pliable straw for hats and bonnets are the very 
opposite to those which would tend to produce the 
greatest possible amount of seed or grain from the 
same plant. 

Sand, clay, and lime, as has been said,, are the 
principal constituents of soils. Clay and marl 
always contain potash and soda. Pure land, or 
pure limestone, would alone constitute absolutely 
barren soils. All arable land contains an admix- 
ture of clay, although an excess of it, in propor- 
tion, is of course disadvantageous. 

Rotation of Crops. 

The exhaustion of alkalies in a soil by sncoes- 

sive crops is the true reason why practical farmers 

suppose themselves compelled to suffer land to lie 

fallow. It is the greatest possible mistake to 



FERTILIZERS. 



11 



tbink thnt the temporary diminution of fertility 
in afield 's chiefly owing to the loss of the decay- 
ing vegetable matter it previously ccjntained : it 
is princiiJally the consequence of the exhaustion 
of potash and soda, which are restored hy the 
Blow process nf the more complete disintegration 
of the materials of the soil. It is evident that the 
careful tilling of fallow land must accelerate and 
increase this further breaking up of its mineral 
ingredients. Nor is this repose of the soil always 
necessary. A field, which has become unfitted for 
a certain kind of produce, may not, on that oc- 
caimt, be unsuitable for another; and upon this 
observation a system of agriculture has been 
gradually formed, the principal object of which is 
to obtain the greatest possible produce in a suc- 
cession of years, with the least outlay for mnnure. 
Because ])lants require for their growth different 
constituents of soil, changing the crop from year 
to year will maintain the fertility of that soil 
(provided it be done with judgment) quite as well 
as leaving it at rest or fallow. In this we but 
imitate nature. The oak, after thriving for long 
generations on a particular spot, gradually sick- 
ens ; its entire race dies out ; other trees and 
shrubs succeed it, till, at length, the surface be- 
comes so charged with an excess of dead vegetable 
matter, that the forest becomes a peat moss, or a 
surface upon which no large tree will grow. 
Generally long before this can occur, the opera- 
tion of natural causes has gradually removed from 
the soil substances, essential to the growth of oak, 
leaving others favorable and necessary to the 
growth of beech or pine. So, in practical farm- 
ing, one crop, in artificial rotation icith others, ex- 
tracts from the soil a certain quantity of necessary 
materials ; a second carries off, in preference, 
those which the former has left. 

One hundred parts of wheat straw yield 15^ of 
ashes; the same quantity of barley straw, 8^ ; of 
oat straw, only 4 ; and the ashes of the three are, 
chemically, of about the same composition. Upon 
the same field, which will yield only one harvest 
of wheat, two successive crops of barley may be 
raised, and three of oats. We have in these facts 
a clear proof of what is abstracted from the soil, 
and the key to the rational mode of supplying the 
deficiency. 

Since wheat consumes a large amount of silicate 
of potassa from the soil, the plants which should 
succeed or alternate with it must be such as re- 
quire but little potassa, as potatoes or turnips. 
After three or four years the same lands may well 
bear wheat ; because, during the interval, the soil 
will have heen, by the action of the atmosphere, 
and the solution of vegetable and animal sub- 
stances decaying upon or in it, again rendered 
capable of yielding what the wheat requires. 
Whether this process can be artificially antici- 
pated, by supplying the exhausted ingredient to 
the soil, is a further and most interesting and im- 
portant inquiry. 

We could keep our fields in a constant state of 
fertility by replacing, every year, as much as is 
removed from them by their produce. An in- 
crease of fertility may be expected, of course, 
only when moi-e is added of the proj)er material 
to the soil than is taken away. Any soil will 
partially regain its strength by lying fallow. But 
any soil, under cultivation, must at length (with- 
out help) lose those constituents which are re- 
moved in the seeds, roots and leaves of the plants 
raised upon it. To remedy this loss, and also in- 
crease the productiveness of the land, is the ob- 
ject of the use of proper manures. 

Land, when not employed in raising food for 
animals or man, should, at least, be applied to 



the purpose of raising manure for itself; and 
this, t(i a certain extent, may be effected by means 
of green crops, which, by their decomposition, not 
only add to the amount of vegetable mould con« 
tained in the soil, but supply the alkalies that 
woUld be found in their ashes. That the soil 
should become richer by this burial of a crop, 
than it was before the seed of that crop was sown, 
will be unilerstood by recollecting that three- 
fourths of the whole organic matter we bury has 
been derived from the air: that by this process of 
ploughing in, the vegetable matter is more 
equally diffused through the whole soil, and 
therefore more easily and rapidly decomposed ; 
and that by its gradual decomposition, ammonia 
and nitric acid are certainly generated, though 
not so largely as when animal matters are em- 
ployed. He who neglects the green sods, and 
crops of weeds that flourish by his hedgerows 
and ditches, overlooks an important natural 
means of wealth. Left to themselves, they ripen 
their seeds, exhausting the soil, and sowing them 
annually in his fields: collected in compost heaps, 
they add materially to his yearly crops of corn. 

Organic Manures. 
The following conclusions may be regarded as 
scientifically sustained, as well as confirmed by 
practical experience : 

1. That fresh human urine yields nitrogen in 
greater abundance to vegetation than any other 
material of easy acquisition ; and that the urine 
of animals is valuable for the same purpose, but 
not equally so. 

2. That the mixed excrements of man and 
animals yield (if carefully preserved from further 
decomposition), not only nitrogen, but other in- 
valuable saline and earthy matters that have 
been already extracted in food from the soil. 

3. That animal substances which, like urine, 
flesh, and blood, decompose rapidly, are fitted to 
operate immediately and powerfuUj' on vegetation. 

4. That dry animal substances, as horn, hair, 
or woollen rags, decompose slowly, and (weight 
for weight) contain a greater quantity of organized 
as well as unorganized materials, manifesting 
their influence it may be for several seasons. 

5. That bones, acting like horn, in so far as 
their animal matter is concerned, and like it for a 
number of seasons more or less, according as 
they have been more or less finely crushed, may 
ameliorate the soil by their earthy matter for a 
long period (even if the jelly they contain have 
been injuriously removed by the size maker), per- 
manently improving the condition and adding to 
the natural capabilities of the land. 

Uses of Guano. 

This manure is a powerful stimulant to vege- 
table development generally; it is especially 
available in raising wheat, corn, potatoes, gat den 
vegetables, and tobacco. If the land needs it, it 
may be put on as often as a crop is to be raised; 
though not, it is said, as a top dressing. For 
wheat, 150 to 200 pounds of guano may be used 
to the acre; for Indian corn, 300 to 400 pounds; 
unless it is put directly in the hills, when 100 
pounds per acre will do. For potatoes, 300 to 400 
pounds, in a drill, with bone dust. The addition 
of the latter makes the good effects of the guano 
more durable. 

Mineral Fertilizers. 

Simple lime, although an important constituent 
of plants, is rarely suitable as an application to 
them in its pure state. Carbonate of lime (rep- 
resented by chalk, <fec.) is a natural ingredient m 
very many soils. The sulphate of lime (gypsum. 



12 



AGEICULTURE. 



plaster of Paris) is often used for fertilizing pur- 
poses. It is less eiisily decomposed than the car- 
bonate. The precise conditions which make it 
most ndvantaiieous, are not positively determined 
yet. Phosphate of lime is a very important con- 
stituent of plants; and, as it exists also in the 
bones of animals, a double relation follows : 
namely, that it should be abundant in soil on 
which plants are raised for food of men and ani- 
mals ; and, on the other hand, that animal bones 
contribute it to the soil when they decay upon it. 
Wood ashes contain a large amount of car- 
bonate of potassa, with also the sulphate and 
silicate of that alkali. Peat ashes vary in different 
regions, but always are found useful as manure. 
Kelp, or the ashes of sea-weeds, are often em- 
ployed in the same way; they contain soda in 
considerable amount. Nitrate of potassa (nitre, 
or saltpetre) is said to quicken vegetable action 
when a Ided to the soil, and to give the leaves a 
deeper }';reen. A hundred pounds to the acre of 
grass or young corn, have been reported to pro- 
duce a beneficial effect. In localities far inland, 
common salt, chloride of sodium, is indispensable 
to the soil, although a small amount of it will 
suffice. Animal manures contain it. An excess 
of salt will render land barren; as was well 
known to the ancients. 

Conclusions. 

We may take it for granted that every thinking, 
practical mind, will admit it as proved, that there 
must he an exact adaptation and fitnens between the 
condition oj" any given soil and the plants intended 
to he raised ujjon it; and, further, that if this 
mutual fitness does not naturally exist, a know- 
ledge of its requirements will enable us to supply 
it artificially. The great difficulty is, to obtain 
this knowledge fully and accurately. It must be 
confessed that, at present, much is wanting to 
render it complete and directly available. Indus- 
trious observation and experiment may, hereafter, 
make it so ; and thus give us a system of truly 
scientific agriculture. 

A few statements only remain to be added to 
what has been said. The best natural soils are 
those where the materials have been derived 
from the breaking up and decomposition, not of 
one stratum or layer, but of many — divided mi- 
nutely by air and water, and minutely blended 
together : and in improving soils by artificial 
additions, the farmer cannot do better than imi- 
tate the processes of nature. 

We have spoken of soils as consisting mostly 
of sand, lime, and clay, with certain saline and 
organic substances in smaller and varying pro- 
portions ; but the examination of the ashes of 
plants shows that a fertile soil must of necessity 
contain an appreciable quantity of at least eleven 
difi"erent substances, which in most cases exist in 
greater 3r less relative abundance in the ash of 
cultivated plants; and of these ihe proportions 
are not by any means immaterial. In general, 
the soils which are made up of the most various 
materials are called alluvial ; having been formed 
from the depositions of floods and rivers. Many 
of them are extremely fertile. Soils consist of 
two parts; of an organic part, which can readily 
be burned away when the surface-soil is heated 
to redness; and of an inorganic part, which re- 
mains fixed in the fire, consisting of earthy and 
saline substances ; from which, if carbonic acid 
or any elastic gas be present, it may, however, be 
driven by the heat. The organic part of soils is 
derived chiefly from the remains of vegetables 
and animals which have lived and died in and 
lipoa the soil, which have been spread over it bj 



rivers and rains, or which have been added by the 
industry of man for the purposes of increased 
fertility. 

This organic part varies much in quantity, a> 
well as quality, in difi"erent soils. In peaty soils 
it is very abundant, as well as in some rich, long 
cultivated lands. In general, it rarely amounts 
to one-fourth, or 25 per cent., even in our best 
arable lands. Good wheat soils contain often as 
little as eight parts in the hundred of organic 
animal or vegetable matter; oats and rye will 
grow in a soil containing only H per cent. ; and 
barley when only two or three parts per cent, are 
present. 

The inorganic portion of any given soil, again, 
is divisible into two portions; that part which is 
soluble in water, and thus easily taken up by 
plants, and a much more bulky portion which is 
insoluble. 

Sir Humphrey Davy found the following to be 
the composition of a good productive soil. In 
every 9 parts, 8 consisted of siliceous sand; the 
remaining (one-ninth) part was composed, in 100 
parts, as follows: 

Carbonate of lime (chalk), . . .63 grain*. 
Pure silex, ..... 15 grains. 
Pure alumina, or the earth of clay, . 11 grains. 
Oxide (rust) of iron, ... 3 grains. 

Vegetable and other saline matter, . 5 grains. 
Moisture and loss, .... 3 grains. 

100 
Thus the whole amount of organic matter in this 
instance is only 1 part in 200, or one-half of one 
per cent.; a fact which, in itself, would demon- 
strate the fallacy of supposing that decomposed 
animal and vegetable matter in the soil form the 
exclusive supply to growing plants. 

In another instance, soil was taken frooi a field 
in Sussex, remarkable for its growth of flourishing 
oak trees. It consisted of 6 parts of sand, and 1 
part of clay and finely-divided matter. One 
hundred grains of it yielded, in chemical lan- 
guage— 
Of silica (or silex), . . . .54 grains. 

Of alumina, ..... 28 grains. 

Carbonate of lime, . . ... 3 grains. 

Oxide of iron, ..... 5 grains. 

Vegetable matter in a state of decom- 
position, ...... 4 grains. 

Moisture and loss, .... 6 grains. 

100 

To wheat soils, the attention of the practical 
farmer will be most strongly directed. An ex- 
cellent wheat soil from West Drayton, in Eng- 
land, yielded 3 parts in 5 of silicious sand; and 
the remaining two parts consisted of carbonate 
of lime, silex, alumina, and a minute pro-portion 
of decomposing animal and vegetable remains. 

Of these soils, the last was by far the most, 
and the first the least, coherent in texture. In all 
cases, the constituent parts of the soil which give 
tenacity and stiffness, are the finely-divided por- 
tions; and they possess this quality in proportion 
to the quantity of alumina (or earth of clay) they 
contain. 

The varying power of soils to absorb and retain 
water from the air, is much connected with their 
fertility. This absorbent power is always greatest 
in the most fertile lands. Their productiveness 
is also much influenced by the nature of the sub- 
soil on which they rest; for, when soils are situ- 
ated immediately upon a bed of rock or stone, 
they dry sooner by the sun's agency than when 
the subsoil is clay or marl. 

A great deal more might be said upon other 



SOILS. 



13 



kindred points. But, as has been already re- 
marked, agricultural science is, as yet, imperfect. 
It is a mistake for the practical farmer to contemn 
"book farming," as if it were something visionary 
or useless; while, on the other hand, the agricul- 
tural chemist and vegetable physiologist must 
submit all their inductions and conclusicms to the 
test of careful and repeated trials. The one can 
seldom analyze soils, and the other can rarely 
attend to raising crops; so they must help each 
other, and, together, aid in advancing the oldest 
of human arts, and one of the most beautiful of 
the sciences — that of the earth's culture. 



PRACTICAL FARMING. 

Component parts of Soil. 
The principal component parts of the soil, what- 
ever miiy be the color, are clay, lime, sand, water, 
and air. The primitive earths, argil, lime, and 
Band, contain each, perhaps in nearly equal de- 
grees, the food of plants; but in their union the 
purposes of vegetation are most completely an- 
swered. The precise quantities of each necessary 
to make this union perfect, and whether they 
ought to be equal, it is not very easy to ascertain, 
since that point is best determined in practice, 
when the soil proves to be neither too stiff nor 
adhesive, from the superabundance of clay, nor 
of too loose and weak a texture, from an over 
quantitj' of sand in its composition. The medium 
is undoubtedly best; but an excess towards adhe- 
sion is obviously most safe. A stiff or strong soil 
holds the water which falls upon it for a long 
time, and, being capable of much ploughing, is 
naturally well qualified for carrying the most 
valuable arable crops. A light sod, or one of a 
texture feeble and easily broken, is, on the con- 
trary, soon exhausted by aration, and requires 
renovation by grass; or otherwise it cannot be 
cultivated to advantage. 

To distinguish Clayey Soils. 

A clayey soil, though distinguished by the 
color which it bears, namely black, white, yellow, 
and red, differs from all other soils, being tough, 
wet, and cold, and consequently requiring a good 
deal of labor from the husbandman before it can 
be sufficiently pulverized, or placed in a state for 
bearing artificial crops of corn or grass. Clay 
land is known by the following qualities, or pro- 
perties. 

It holds water like a cup, and once wetted does 
not soon dry. In like manner, when thoroughly 
dry, it is not soon wetted; if we except the varie- 
ties which have a thin surface, and are the worst 
of all to manage. In a dry summer, clay cracks 
and shows a surface full of small chinks, or open- 
ings. If ploughed in a wet state, it sticks to the 
plough like mortar, and in a dry summer, the 
plough turns it up in great clods, scarcely to be 
broken or separated by the heaviest roller. 

To manage Sandy Soils. 

Soils of this description are managed with infi- 
nitely less trouble, and at an expense greatly infe- 
rior to what clays require; but at the same time, 
the crops produced from them are generally of 
emaller value. There are many varieties of sand, 
however, as well as of clay ; and in some parts of 
the country, the surface is little better than a bare 
barren sand, wherein artificial plants will not take 
root unless a dose of clay or good earth is previ- 
ously administered. This is not the soil meant 
by the farmer when he speaks of sands. To speak 
practically, the soil meant is one where sand is 
predominant, although there be several other 



earths in the mixture. From containing a great 
quantity of sand, these snils are all loose and 
cruml>ling, and never get into a elod, even in the 
driest weather. This is the great article of dis- 
tinction betwixt sand and sandy loams. A sandy 
loam, owing to the clay that is in it, docs not 
crumble down, or become loose like a real sand, 
but retains a degree of adhesion after wetness or 
I drought, notwithstanding the quantity of sand 
j that is mixed with it. Perhaps a true sandy loam, 
I incumbent upon a sound subsoil, is the most valu- 
able of all soils. Upon such, every kind of grain 
may be raised with advantage, and no soil is 
better calculated for turnips and grass. 

The real sands are not favorable to the growth 
of wheat, unless when preceded by clover, which 
binds the surface, and confers a temporary strength 
for sustaining that grain. Much of the county of 
Norfolk, in England, is of this description ; and it 
is well known that few districts of the kingdom 
yield a greater quantity of produce. Till Norfolk, 
however, was invigorated by clay and marl, nearly 
one-half of it was little better than waste; but by 
the success which accompanied the use of these 
auxiliaries, a new soil was in a manner created; 
which, by a continuation of judicious manage- 
ment, has given a degree of fame to the husbandry 
of that country, far surpassing that of other dis- 
tricts naturally more fertile. 

Gravelly Soile. 

The open porous nature of these soils disposes 
them to imbibe moisture, and to part with it with 
great facility: from the latter of which circum- 
stances they are subject to burn, as it is termed, 
in dry seasons. The main difference between 
gravel and sand is, that the former is chiefly com- 
posed of small soft stones; though in some in- 
stances the stones are of a silicious or flinty na- 
ture, and, in others, of the calcareous or chalky. 
From tliese constitutional circumstances arises the 
propriety of deepening gravelly soils by coats of 
marl or earth, and of keeping them fresh by fre- 
quent returns of grass, and repeated applications 
of manure. Gravelly soils, from the lightness of 
their texture, are not expensive or difficult in the 
means of cultivation. All the necessary business 
required for gravels may be carried forward with 
ease and expedition; and such soils are, in gene- 
ral, soon brought into a proper state for the re- 
ception of crops. 

The constitutional qualities of gravels point out 
the propriety of ploughing them deep, so that the 
surface soil may be augmented, and greater room 
given to the growth of the plants cultivated on 
them. A shallow-ploughed gravel can stand no 
excess of weather, however enriched by manure. 
It is burnt up liy a day or two of drought, and it 
is almost equally injured by an excessive fall of 
rain, unless the pan or firm bottom, which such 
soils easily gain, be frequently broken through by 
deep ploughing. 

Uses of different Soils. 
Clayey soils, when sufiBciently enriched with 
manures, are naturally well qualified for carrying 
crops of wheat, oats, beans, and clover; but are 
not fitted for barley, turnips, potatoes, etc., or even 
for being kept under for grass longer than one 
year. Such soils ought to be regularly summer- 
fallowed once in six, or at least once in eight years, 
even when they are comparatively in a clean state, 
as they contract a sourness and adhesion from wet 
ploughing, only to be removed by exposure k) the 
sun and wind during the dry months of summer. 
Soils of this kind receive little benefit from winter 
ploughing, unless so far as their surface is thereby 



u 



AGRICULTURE. 



presented to the frost, which mellows and reduces 
them ill a. manner infinitely superior to what could 
be accomplished by all the (iperafions of man. 
Still tliey are not cleaned or made free of weeils 
by winter ploughing; and therefore this operation 
can onlj' be considered as a good means for pro- 
curing a seed-bed, in which the seeds of the future 
crop may be safely deposited. Hence the neces- 
sity of cleansing clay soils during the summer 
months, and of having always a large part of every 
clay farm under summer fallow. All clayey soils 
require great industry and care, as well as a con- 
siderable portion of knowledge in dressing or 
mnnagement, to keep them in good condition; yet 
when their natural toughness is got the better of, 
they always yield the heaviest and most abundant 
ero))s. One thing requisite for a clayey soil, is to 
keep it rich and full of manure; a poor clay being 
the most ungrateful of all soils, and hardly capa- 
ble of repaying the expense of labor, after being 
worn out and exhausted. A claj'ey soil also re- 
ceives, comparatively, small benefit from grass; 
and when once allowed to get into a sterile con- 
dition, the most active endeavors will with diffi- 
culty restore fertility to it after the lapse of many 
years. 

Upon light soils the case is very different. These 
flourish under the grass husbandry; and bare 
summer fallow is rarely required, because they 
may be cleaned and cropped in the same year, 
with that valuable esculent, turnip. Upon light 
soils, however, wheat can seldom be extensively 
cultivated; nor can a crop be obtained of equal 
value, either in respect to quantity or quality, as 
on clay sand loams. The best method of procur- 
ing wlieat on light lands, is to sow upon a clover 
stubble, when the soil has got an artificial solidity 
of body and is thereby rendered capable of sus- 
taining the grain till it arrives at maturity. The 
same observation applies to soils of a gravelly na- 
ture; and upon both barley is generally found 
of as great benefit as wheat. 

Thin clays and peat earths are more friendly to 
the growth of oats than of other grains, though in 
favorable seasons a heavy crop of wheat may be 
obtained from a thin clayey soil, when it has been 
completely summer-fallowed and enriched with 
dung. A first application of calcareous manure 
is generally accompanied with great advantage 
upon these soils; but when once the efi'ect of this 
application is over, it can hardly be repeated a 
second time, unless the land has been very cau- 
tiously' managed after the first dressing. Neither 
of these soils is friendly to grass, yet there is a 
necessity of exercising this husbandry with them, 
because they are incapable of standing the plough 
more than a year or two in the course of a rotation. 

Wheat ought to be the predominant crop upon 
all the rich clays and strong loams, and light 
Soils of every kind are well qualified for turnips, 
barley, etc. Upon the thin and moorish soils, oats 
must necessarily preserve a prominent rank, and 
grass seeds may be cultivated upon every one of 
them, though with different degrees of advantage, 
according to the natural and artificial richness of 
each soil, or to the qualities which it possesses for 
encouraging the growth of clover, in the first in- 
stance, and preserving the roots of the plant after- 
wards. 

Operation of Tillage. 

Tillage is an operation whereby the soil is either 
cleared from noxious weeds, or prepared for re- 
ceiving the seeds of plants cultivated by the hus- 
bandman. When this operation is neglected, or 
even partially executed, the soil becomes foul, 
barre:;, and unproductive ; hence, upon arable 



farms, tillage forms tne prominent branch of work ; 
and, according to the perfection (-r imperfection 
with wiiich it is executed, the crops of the hus- 
bandman, whether of corn or grass, are in a great 
measure regulated. 

Tillage, in the early ages, was performed by 
hand labor; but, in modern times, the plough has 
been the universal instrument used for executing 
this necessary and important branch of rural work. 
In no other way can large fields be turned over, 
because the expense of digging with the spade, 
the only other method of turning over the ground, 
would much exceed any profit that can be reaped. 

Stones lying above or below the surface are the 
most formidable obstruction to perfect tillage. 
On stony ground, the work is not only imjierfectly 
executed, but in many cases the imjilement is 
broken to pieces, and a considerable portion of 
time lost before it is repaired and put in order. 
The removal of stones, therefore, especially of 
such as are below the surface, ought to be a pri- 
mary object with every agriculturist; because a 
neglect of this kind may afterwards occasion him 
considerable loss and inconvenience. 

To drain the ground, in other words, to lay it 
dry, also facilitates tillage exceedingly ; for plough- 
ing cannot be performed with advantage where 
either the surface or subsoil is wet. 

Best Mode of Tillage. 

The only sure and certain way by which the soil 
is cleaned or rendered free of weeds, is by plough- 
ing in the summer months, when the ground is 
dry, and when, by the influence of the sun and 
air, the weeds may be destroyed with facility. 
Seldom at any other period is the soil much bene- 
fitted by ploughing, unless so far as a seed-bed is 
thus procured for the succeeding crop ; and though 
the situation or state of the ground, when these 
intermediate ploughings are bestowed, is of im- 
portance in judging of their utility, yet the radi- 
cal process of summer fallow cannot, by any means, 
be altogether dispensed with. Though, if the win- 
ter and spring ploughings are executed under 
favorable circumstances, and plenty of manure is 
at hand, it may be delayed for a greater number 
of years than is otherwise practicable, if good 
husbandry is to be maintained. 

Without summer fallow, or, which is the same 
thing, without working the ground in the summer 
months, perfect husbandry is unattainable on all 
heavy or cold soils, and upon every variety in- 
cumbent on a close or retentive bottom. 

To keep his land clean will always be a princi- 
pal object with every good farmer; for if this is 
neglected, in place of carrying rich crops of gram 
or grass, the ground will be exhausted by crops 
of weeds. Where land is foul, every operation of 
husbandry must be proportionably non-effective; 
and even the manures applied will, in a great 
measure, be lost. 

The necessity of summer fallow depends greatly 
upon the nature and quality of the soil; as, upon 
some soils, a repetition of this practice is less fre- 
quently required than upon others. Wherever 
the soil is incumbent upon clay or till, it is more 
disposed to get foul, than when incumbent upon 
a dry gravelly bottom ; besides, wet soils, from be- 
ing ploughed in winter, contract a stifl'ness which 
lessens the pasture of artificial plants, and prevents 
them from receiving sufficient nourishment. When 
laud of a day gravelly bottom gets foul, it may 
easily be cleaned without a plain summer fallow; 
since crops, such as turnips, etc., may be substi- 
tuted in its place, which, when drilled at proper 
intervals, admit of being ploughed as often as 
necessary ; whereas wet soils, which are naturally 



IMPLiEMENTS. 



15 



unfit for carrying swell crops, must be cleaned 
and brought into good order by frequent plough- 
ings and liarrowings during the summer months. 

To Conduct a Fallow. 

Upon all clayey soils (and upon such only is 
a complete summer fallow necessary) the first 
ploughing ought to be given during the winter 
months, or as early in the spring as possible; 
•which greatly promotes the rotting of the sw:ird 
and stubble. This should be done by gathering 
up the riilge, which both lays the ground dry and 
rips up the furrows. As soon as seed-time is over, 
the ridge should be cloven down, preparatory to 
cross ploughing; and after lying a proper time, 
should be harrowed and rolled repeatedly, and 
every partiiile of quickens that the harrows have 
brought above, should be carefully picked off with 
the hand. It is then proper to ridge or gather it 
up immediately, which both lays the land in pro- 
per condition for meeting bad weather, and opens 
up any fast land that may have been missed in 
the furrows when the cross ploughing was given. 
After this harrow, roll, and gather the root weeds 
again ; and continue so doing till the field is per- 
fectly clean. 

To Prepare the Ground. 

The above object is most completely accom- 
plished, when the ground is ploughed deep and 
equal, while the bottom of the furrow immediately 
above the subsoil is perfectly loosened and turned 
equally over with the part which constitutes the 
surface. In many places these properties are 
altogether neglected, the ground being ploughed 
in a shallow way, while the bottom of the ploughed 
land remains something like the teeth of a saw, 
having the under part of the furrow untouched, 
and consequently not removed by the action of 
the plough. While these things are suffered, the 
I object of tillage is only partially gained. The 
food of plants can only be imperfectly procured : 
and the ground is drenched and injured by wet- 
ness ; these ridges, or pieces of land, which are 
not cut, preventing a descent of the moisture from 
above to the open furrows left for carrying it off. 
Where the seed-bed is prepared by one ploughing, 
the greatest care ought to be used in having it 
closely and equally performed. When two are 
given, they should be in opposite directions, so 
that any firm land left in the first may he cut up 
in the second ploughing. It is not profitable to 
plough twice one way, if it can be safely avoided. 
Another important point towards procuring 
good tillage, is never to plough the land when in 
a wet state ; because encouragement is thus given 
to the growth of weeds, while a sourness and ad- 
hesion is communicated to the ground, which is 
rarely got the better of till the operations of a 
summer fallow are again repeated. 

All soils ought not to be wrought or ploughed 
in one manner. Each kind has its particular and 
appropriate qualities ; and, therefore, each requires 
a particular and appropriate mode of tillage. 
i Ploughing, which is the capital operation of hus- 
bandry, ought, on these accounts, to be adminis- 
1 tered according to the nature of the soil which is 
I to be operated ui)0ii, and not executed agreeably 
to one fixed and determined principle. On strong 
i clays and loams, and on rich gravels and deep 
I sands, the plough ought to go as deep as the cat- 
' tie are able to work it; whereas, on thin clays 
I and barren sands the benefit of deep ploughing is 
Very questionable; especially when such are in- 
I cuuibent on a till bottom, or where the subsoil is 
of a yelliiw-ochre nature; such, when turned up, 
being little better than poison to the surface, un- 



less highly impregnated with alluvial compost, 
the eflfectof which expels the poisonous substania 
contained in this kind of subsoil, and gives a fer- 
tility to the whole mass, more decisively perma- 
nent than would follow a heavy application of tL« 
best rotten dung. 

Two seta of Ploughs required for perfect Tillage. 
On clayey soils, where the ridges are so that 
the ground may be preserved in something like 
a dry condition, the plough used for tillage 
ought to have a mould-board considerably wider 
set than is required for light soils, in order that 
the furrow may be close cut below, and only 
turned over. The method of constructing the 
plough necessarily makes a heavier draught than 
would be the case were the mould-board placed 
differently ; though if good and sufficient work 
be wanted, the necessity of constructing the im- 
plement in the way mentioned, is absolute and 
indispensable. The plough to be used on light 
soils, or on all soils that admit of what is tech- 
nically called crown and furrow ploughing, 
may be made much straighter below, and yet 
be capable of executing the work in a perfect 
manner. On every farm, consisting of mixed 
soils, two sets of ploughs ought to be kept, 
otherwise proper work cannot be performed. AH 
land ought to be ploughed with a shoulder, and 
the advantages of ploughing in this way are, 
that, if ploughed before winter, the surface is 
enabled to resist the winter rains, and afterwards 
present a face on which the harrows can make a 
proper impression, when the seed process is to be 
executed. This deserves particular attention 
when old grass fields are broken up; as, by neg- 
lecting it, the harrows are often unable to cover 
the seed. It is perfectly practicable to plough 
land with a tolerably broad furrow, say 10, 11, or 
12 inches, and yet to plough it clean, provided 
the implement used is properly constructed ; but, 
then, care must be taken that the furrow be of 
proportionate deepness, otherwise it will be laid 
on its back, instead of being deposited at an angle 
proper for undergoing the harrowing process. 

The use o( subsoi/ers is now common, to turn up 
the depth of the soil. In sandy earth, beneath a 
ten-inch furrow, a subsoiler may go ten inches 
deeper; but this is not easy or possible in all 
soils. 

Implements of Husbandry. * 

No country in the world is better provided with 
implements for executing rural labor than Great 
Britain ; and to this superiority may, in some 
measure, be attributed the increased and in- 
creasing perfection of agriculture over the whole 
island. American ingenuity has gone still further 
in the same direction. We have ploughs of all 
the different kinds that ever were constructed : as 
for wheel carriages, the variety is immense; 
whilst harrows, and other common implements, 
of various constructions and dimensions, are 
equally numerous. But it is in the articles more 
pri'perly allied to machinery, that the superiority 
of A merican rural implements is most conspicuous. 
Drills for sowing grain and small seeds with 
regularity, have been constructed upon scientifio 
principles; and machines for separating grain 
from straw, have been invented, and brought to 
a degree of perfection which few people expected 
when these machines were first introduced. 

The double Michigan plough is an important 
improvement on the old plough. Instead of a 
coulter it has a small plough attached to the 
beam in front of the other, which takes a slice 
from the sod, and makes cleaner work for the 
plough. Steam ploughs have also been invented. 



* See page 470. 



16 



AGRICULTURE. 



The universal Sowing Machine, 

This machine, whether made to be worked by 
hand, drawn by a horse, or fixed to a plough, nnd 
used with it, is extremely simple in its construc- 
tion, and not liable to be put out of order; as 
there is but one movement to direct the whole. 
It will sow wheat, barley, oats, rye, clover, cole- 
seed, hemp, flax, canary, rape, turnip; besides a 
great variety of other kinds of grain and seeds, 
broadcas^t, with an accuracy hitherto unknown. 
It is equally useful when fixed to a plough; it 
will then drill a more extensive variety of grain, 
pulse, and seed (through every gradation, with 
regard to quality), and deliver each kind with 
greater regularity than any drill plough whatever. 

Among many other valuable and peculiar pro- 
perties, it will not only sow in the broadcast way 
with a most singular exactness, but save the ex- 
pense of a seedsman ; the seed being sown (either 
over or under furrow at pleasure), and the land 
ploughed at the same operation. 

Another advantage attending the use of this 
machine is, that the wind can have no effect on 
the falling of the seed. 

The machine, when made to be used without a 
plough, and to be drawn by a horse, may be of 
different lengths. The upper part contains the 
hoppers, from which the grain or seed descends 
into the spouts. The several spouts all rest upon 
a bar, which hangs and plays freely by two dia- 
gonal supporters ; a trigger, fixed to this bar, 
bears a catch wheel: this being fixed on the axle, 
occasions a regular and continued motion, or 
jogging of the spout*, quii-ker or slower in pro- 
portion to the space the person sowing with it 
drives. At the bottom of the machine is placed 
an apron or shelf, in a sloping position, and the 
corn or seed, by falling thereon from the spouts 
above, is scattered about in every direction. 

To sow the corn or seed in drills, there are 
movable spouts, which are fixed on or taken off 
at pleasure, to direct the seed from the upper 
spout to the bottom of the fuTow. 

Harrmos, 
These beneficial implements are of various sizes 
and dimensions; but the harrow most commonly 
used consists of four bulls, with cross-mortised 
sheaths, each bull containing five teeth, of from 
five to seven inches in length below the bulls, the 
longest being placed forwards. Harrows of this 
kind, drawn by one horse, are generally used on 
most farms for all purposes, though on others 
large brake-harrows, consisting of five bulls, each 
containing six teeth, and worked by two horses, 
are employed during the fallow process, and for 
reducing rough land. Some of these brake-har- 
rows are constructed with joints, so as to bend 
and accommodate their shape to the curvature of 
ridges. A small harrow, with short teeth, is also 
used for covering grass seeds, though we have 
rarely seen any detriment from putting grass 
seeds as deep into the ground as the teeth of ordi- 
nary sized harrows are capable of going. 

The best methods o/ Harrowing. 
When employed to reduce a strong obdurate 
soil, not more than two harrows should be yoked 
together, because they are apt to ride and tumble 
upon each other, and thus impede the work, and 
execute it imperfectly. On roug^ soils, harrows 
ought to be driven as fast as the horses can walk ; 
because their effect is in the direct proportion to 
the degree of velocity with which they are driven. 
In ordinary cases, and in every case where har- 
rowing is meant for covering the seed, three har- 
rows are the best joke, because they fill up the 



ground more effectually, and leave fewer vacan* 
cies, than when a smaller number is employed. 
The harrowman's attention, at the seed process, 
should be constantly directed to prevent these 
implements from riding upon each other, and to 
keep thetn clear of every impediment from stones, 
lumps of earth, or clods, and quickens or grass 
roots; for any of these prevents the implement 
from working with perfection, and causes a mark 
or trail upon the surface, always unpleasing to 
the eye, and generally detrimental to the vege- 
tation iif the seed. Harrowing is usually given 
in different directions, first in length, then across, 
and finally in length as at first. Careful hus- 
bandmen study, in the finishing part of the pro- 
cess, to have the harrows drawn in a straight 
line, without suffering the horses to go in a zigzag 
manner, and are also attentive that the horses 
enter fairly upon the ridge, without making a 
curve at the outset. In some instances, an excess 
of harrowing has been found very prejudicial to 
the succeeding crop ; but it is always necessary 
to give so much as to break the furrow, and level 
the surface, otherwise the operation is imperfectly 
performed. 

Mollers. 

The roller is an implement frequently used for 
smoothing the surface of land when in tillage, 
especially when the processes of summer fallow 
are going forward. Several kinds of rollers are 
used in America. Some are of stone, others of 
wood or iron, according to the nature of the opera- 
tion intended to be performed. The only material 
difference in rollers is their weight; but it should 
be attended to, when a roller is made of large 
diameter, that its weight ought to be the greater, 
for in proportion to the largeness of its diameter 
will be the extent of surface upon which the 
roller rests. The weight of a roller ought there- 
fore to be in proportion to its diameter, otherwise 
its effect will be proportionably diminished. 

Rolling, however, is a modern improvement, 
and used for different purposes. In the first place, 
it is of great advantage to roll young grasses 
after the ground is stoned, because the scythe can 
then be placed nearer the surface, and the crop 
cut more equally than when the operation is 
neglected. 2dly. Land on which turnips are to 
be cultivated can rarely be made fine enough, 
without the repeated use of this implement. And 
3dly. The process of summer fallow, upon strong 
soils, is much advanced by rolling, because 
without its aid the large and obdurate clods can- 
not be reduced or couch-grass eradicated. From 
these circumstances it will readily appear, that 
rollers of various sizes and dimensions are re- 
quired on every farm, for accomplishing different 
purposes. Wooden rollers, drawn by one horse, 
answer very well for grass and turnip land; bat 
massy stone rollers, drawn either by two or three 
horseg, are absolutely necessary on clay soils. 

It is obvious, that when a large field is to be 
rolled, a number of rollers ought at once to be set 
at work, otherwise an opportunity may be lost, 
never to be regained. The deficiency is most 
conspicuous when barley is taken after turnips in 
a dry season. From poaching the ground with 
carts, in order to carry off' the crop, and even by 
the treading of sheep, a degree of stiffness is 
contracted, which requires the use of the roller 
before grass seeds can be sown. 

On all occasions it is most beneficial to roll 
across, because, when going in length, the imple- 
ment is of small benefit to the furrows, the 
slightest acclivation of the ridges preventing the 
work from being equally performed. The expe- 



IMPLEMENTS. 



17 



dition which takes place when rollers are used, 
compared with the tedious and expensive process 
of breaking clods with malls, formerly the gene- 
ral custom, sufficiently proves the importance of 
these implements, though it deserves to be re- 
marked, that, when rolling is bestowed upon a 
«pring-sown field, harrowing it afterwards is of 
great advantage. By harrowing when the clods 
»ro reduced, the earth stands the effects of rain 
better afterwards, and does not consolidate so 
firmly as when that process is neglected. 

Mincers and Reapers. * 

These machines are of great value, especially 
to those with large farms. One machine, the 
mower, can be made to perform duty both with 
grass and grain ; but reapers are constructed 
especially for the latter. Weeders are also in use 
in some parts of the country, drawn by horse 
power. 

The Thrashing Machine. 

The thrashing machine is the most valuable 
implement in the farmer's possession, and one 
which adds more to the general produce of the 
country, than any invention hitherto devised. 
The saving of manual labor thereby obtained is 
almost infalculable ; while the work is performed 
in a much more perfect manner than was formerly 
practicable, even when the utmost care and ex- 
ertion were bestowed. In fact, had not the 
thrashing machine been invented, it is hardly 
possible to conceive what would have been the 
rate of expense of thrashing, or even whether a 
sufiScient number of hands could, at any rate of 
expense, have been obtained for thrashing the 
grain of the country. 

Since the invention of this machine, Mr. Meikle 
and others have progressively introduced a variety 
of improvements, all tending to simplify the labor, 
and to augment the quantity of the work performed. 
When first erected, though the grain was equally 
well separated from the straw, yet as the whole 
of the straw, chafif, and grain, was indiscrimi- 
nately thrown into a confused heap, the work 
could only with propriety be considered as half 
executed. By the addition of rakes, or shakers, 
and two pairs of fanners, all driven by the same 
machinery, the different processes of thrashing, 
shaking, and winnowing are now all at once per- 
formed, and the grain immediately prepared for 
the public market. When it is added, that the 
quantity of grain gained from the superior powers 
of the machine is fully equal to a twentieth part 
of the crop, and that, in some cases, the expense 
of thrashing and cleaning the grain is considerably 
less than what was formerly paid for cleaning it 
alone, the immense saving arising from the in- 
Tention will at once be seen. 

The expense of horse labor, from the increased 
Talue of the animal and the charge of his keep- 
ing, being an object of great importance, it is 
recommended that, upon all sizable farms, that 
is to say, where two hundred acres, or upwards, 
of grain are sown, the machine should be worked 
by wind, unless where local circumstances afford 
thi; conveniency of water. 

Where coals are plenty and cheap, steam may 
be advantageously used for working the machine. 

Method of Treading Grain.. 

In some countries wheat is trodden out by 
horses, nearly in the same way as it was formerly 
done in Palestine by oxen. 

The treading floors are generally from sixty to 
100 feet in diameter; but the larger their diameter 
it, the easier is the work to the horses. The 
track, or path, on which the sheaves are laid, and 



on which the horses walk, is from twelve to twen- 
ty-four feet wide, or more. The floors are com- 
monly enclosed by fences; and the horses are 
generally driven between them promiscuously and 
loose, each pressing to be foremost, so that fresh 
air may be obtained, — biting, jostling, and kick- 
ing each other with the greatest fury. The labor 
in this way is extremely severe. Upon some 
small floors a centre-stick is placed, to which 
hangs a rope, or a pole and swivel, and four or 
five horses being fastened together, travel round 
upon the sheaves with the utmost regularity. 
Previously to laying down the wheat sheaves, the 
state of the air, and the probability of its con- 
tinuing dry through the day, is fully considered. 
If they resolve to tread, the morning is suffered 
to pass away till the dew is removed. A row of 
sheaves is first laid upon the floors with the heads 
and butts in a line across the track of it, as a 
bolster for receiving other sheaves; and these 
sheaves range with the path, or circle, the butts 
resting on the floor. Other sheaves are ranged in 
like manner, with the heads raised on the former, 
till the whole floor is filled, when it appears to be 
filled with nothing but ears of wheat, sloping a 
little upwards. Upon laying down each sheaf, 
the baud thereof is cut with a knife. A west 
wind is always desirable while treading is going 
on, as when wind is from the eastward dampness 
generally prevails. 

In some instances, twenty-four horses are 
formed at some distance from the floor into four 
ranks; and when the floor is ready laid, the word 
is given to advance. For the sake of order and 
regular work, a boy mounted on one of the fore- 
most horses advances in a walk with the whole 
rank haltered or tied together, ami enters upon 
the bed of wheat, walking the horses slowly over 
it; another rank is ordered to follow as soon as 
the first is supposed to have obtained a distance 
equal to a fourth part of the circumference of the 
bed, and in the same manner the other ranks 
proceed. They are forbidden to go past a walk, 
till they have proceeded five or six rounds, when 
the word is given to move at a sober trot, and to 
keep their ranks at a full distance from each 
other, regularity and deliberate movement being 
necessary for preventing confusion. The gentle 
trot is continued till it may be supposed the 
horses have travelled eight or nine miles, which 
is the extent of their first journey; they are then 
led off to be foddered and watered, when the 
trodden light straw is taken off as deep as the 
place where the sheaves lie close, and are but 
partially bruised. 

As soon as this first straw is removed, one-third 
of the width of the bed is turned over on the other 
two- thirds from the inner side or circle of the bed, 
which narrows the neck of the next journey. The 
hjorses are again led on, and trot out their second 
journey, till the straw be clear of wheat. The 
outer part of the bed is then turned upon the 
middle part, when the horses take another jour- 
ney. The loose straw being then taken off, the 
whole remaining bed is turned up from the floor, 
and shaken with forks, and handles of rakes, 
after which the horses give another tread, which 
finishes the work. The grain is then shoved up 
from the floor with the heads of rakes turned 
downwards, and put into heaps of a conical form, 
in which situation it often remains exposed to the 
weather for several days. The correct American 
agriculturists, however, have houses adjoining 
the treading floor, where the grain is deposited 
till it is cleared from the chaff and offal; though, 
as most of them continue treading, if the weather 
be favorable, till the whole crop is separated from 



* See page 470. 



18 



AGRICULTURE. 



the straw, it is pretty obvious that the grnin 
stands a considerable chance of beinj; damaged 
before the several processes are concluded. 

Fanners. 

If thrashing machines are of much advantage 
to the public, by separating grain completely from 
the straw, the introduction of fanners, or the ma- 
chine by which grain is cleansed from chatf, and 
all sorts of offal, may, with justice, be considered 
as of equal benefit to the practical agriculturist. 

Since thrashing machines were introduced, fan- 
ners almost in every case are annexed to them, 
and in some instances, where powerful machines 
are used, fitted internally with suitable riddles, it 
is perfectly practicable to measure and market the 
grain immediately as it comes from the machine. 

Mamireit. 

The term manure is applied indiscriminately to 
all substances, which are known from experience 
either to enrich the different soils, or contribute 
in any other way to render them more favorable 
to vegetation. 

In an agricultural point of view, the subject of 
manures is of the first magnitude. To correct 
what is hurtful to vegetation in the different soils, 
and to restore what is lost by exhausting crops, 
are operations in agriculture which may be com- 
pared to the curing of diseases in the animal body, 
or supplying the waste occasioned by labor. 

To manage Dung upon Light Lands. 

For soils of this description, where turnips are 
taken as a first crop, dung can hardly be too well 
prepared; because the nature of the crop to which 
it is applied renders a complete incorporation 
with the ground absolutely necessary; without 
which the young plants might be starved at their 
very entrance into life. In the best farmed Eng- 
lish counties, dung is often kept more than a year, 
in order that it may be perfectly rotted. 

In general there is not much difiiculty in pre- 
paring dung upon turnip farms ; because, in the 
driest season, from the nature of the food used, 
juch a quantity of liquid passes from the animals, 
IS to prevent burning, provincially fire-fanging, 
the greatest obstacle to the rotting of dung that 
ean be experienced. If turnip dung is regularly 
removed, if it is properly mixed with the horse 
litter and other e.xcrementitious matter accumu- 
lated upon the farm, it will be found an easy task 
to prepare all that is made by the middle of April, 
at which time the fold-yard should be cleared. 
What is produced after that time .should be stored 
up separately, receive waterings if the weather is 
dry, and be reserved for clover-stubbles, or other 
fields that are to be dunged in autumn. 

The middle of April is a good time for clearing 
the fold-yard; but this does not prevent the work 
from going partially forward through tbe winter, 
when suitiible opportunities occur. 

When driven out of the fold-yard, the dung 
should be laid up in a regular heap or pile, not 
exceeding six quarters, or four feet and a half in 
height; and care should be taken not to put either 
torse or cart upon it, which is easily avoided by 
backing the cart to the pile, and laying the dung 
compactly together with a grape or fork. It is 
also useful to face up the extreuiities with earth, 
which keeps in the moisture, and prevents the sun 
and wind from doing injury. Perhaps a small 
quantity of earth strewed upon the top might also 
prove useful. Dung, when managed in this man- 
ner, generally ferments very rapidly; but if it is 
discovered to be in a backward state, a complete 
turn over, about the 1st of May, when the weather 
becomes warm, will quiokon the process ; and the 



better it is shaken asunder, the sooner will theob. 
ject in view be accomplished. 

A secluded spot of ground, not much exposed to 
wind, and perfectly secure from bein'^ floated with 
water, ought alwaj's to be chosen for the site of 
such piles or heaps. If the field to which it is to 
be applied is at hand, a little after-trouble may be 
saved by depositing it there in the first instance. 
But it is found most convenipnt to reserve a piece 
of ground adjacent to the homestead for this pur- 
pose. There it is always under the farmer's eye, 
and a greater quantity can be moved in a shorter 
time than when the situatiim is more distinct. 
Besides, in wet weather (and this is generally the 
time chosen for such an operation), the roads are 
not only cut up by driving to a distance, but the 
field on which the heap is made, may be poached 
and injured considerably. 

Upon Heavy Lands. 

Upon clay soils, where wheat forms a principal 
part of the crop, where great quantities of beans 
are cultivated, and few turnips sown, unless for 
the use of milch cows, the rotting of dung is not 
only a troublesome but an expensive affair. In- 
dependent of what is consumed by the ordinary 
farm stock, the overplus of the straw must, some- 
how or other, be rotted, by lean cattle kept in the 
fold-yard, who either receive the straw in racks, 
or have it thrown across the yard, to be eaten and 
trodden down by them. According to this mode 
of consumption, it is evident that a still greater 
necessity arises for a frequent removal of this un- 
made dung; otherwise, from the trampling of 
beasts, and the usual want of moisture, it would 
compress so much as altogether to prevent putre- 
faction. To prepare dung sufiiciently upon farms 
of this description is at all times an arduous task, 
but scarcely practicable in dry seasons; for if it 
once gets burnt (fire-fanged), it is almost physi- 
cally impossible to bring it into a suitable state of 
preparation afterwards; and, at all events, its 
virtues are thereby considerably diminished. 

Straw flung out in considerable portions to the 
fold-yard, after being compressed by the tramp- 
ling of cattle, becomes rather like a well-packed 
stack, than a mass of dung in a preparatory state. 
The small quantity of water and dung made by 
the animals is barely sufficient to cause a slight 
fermentation ; and this slight fermentation, when 
the heap gets into a compressed state, is sure to 
bring on fire-fang, as already said, after which 
its original powers can rarely be restored. To 
prevent such an injury, no measure can be so 
successfully used as a frequent removal of this 
unmade dung, especially if the weather is wet at 
the time. If people can stand out to work, there 
cannot be too much wetness while executing this 
operation; for there is always such a quantity of 
the straw that has not passed through the en- 
trails of the cattle, as renders it almost impossible 
to do injury, in the first instance, by an e.xjess of 
moisture. 

It is therefore recommended, upon every olay- 
land farm, especially those of considerable size, 
that the fold-yard be frequently cleared ; and that 
the greatest care be taken to mix the stable or 
horse-dung in a regular way with what is gathered 
in the fold-yard, or made by other animal?, in 
order that a gradual heat or fermentation may be 
speedily produced. Where the materials are of 
the sorts now described (that is, a small quantity 
of dung, or excrementitious matter, and a large 
store of unrotten straw, only partially moistened), 
no damage can ensue from putting horses and 
carts upon the heap ; nay, a positive benefit will 
be gained from this slight compression. 



MANURES. 



19 



The hcitp or pile, in the case of turnip dung, 
should be formed in a secluded sput, if suth can 
be got at hand; beciiuse the less it is exposed to 
the influence of the sun and wind, the faster 
will fermentation proceed. It should be con- 
structed on a broad basis, which lessens the 
bounds of the extreiniUes, and separate heaps are 
necessary, so that too much may not be de- 
posited at once. By shifting the scene frequently, 
iind allowing each covering or coat to settle and 
ferment before laying on any more, the most 
happy effects will follow, and these heaps (at 
least all such as are completed before the first of 
May), may reasonably be expected to be in a fit 
condition for applying to the summer-fallow 
fields, in the end of July, or first of August. If 
the external parts get dry at any time during the 
process, it will be proper to water them thorough- 
ly, and in many cases to turn over the heap com- 
pletely. It may be added, that much benefit has 
been experience<l from laying a thick coating of 
snow upon such heaps, as by the gradual melting 
thereof the whole moisture is absorbed, and a 
strong fermentation immediately follows. 

Upon 1mi;;o '■•I'-'rs', where the management of 
manure is suffiuitutly understoo 1 and practised, 
it is an important matter to have dunghills of all 
ages, and ready for use whenever the situation of 
a field calls for a restorative. No method of ap- 
plication to elaj' soils, however, is so beneficiar as 
during the year of summer fallow, though in such 
a situation a greater stock of manure is often 
gathered than is required for the fields under 
this process. 

As to the proper quantity of dung to be used, 
no greater quantity ought to be given at one time 
than is sufficient to fructify the grounds; in other 
words, to render it capable of producing good 
crops, before the time arrives when a fresh dose 
can be administered. 

The Spreading of Dung. 

The increased attention now bestowed, in all 
the cultivated districts, to the spreading of dung, 
originated from the measure of limiting the quan- 
tity applied. When forty, fifty, nay even sixty 
double loads were applied to an acre, it was not 
very difficult to cover its surface, even with an 
imperfect separation, though it certainly was im- 
practicable to bury the big lumps with a furrow 
of ordinary size; but when the quantity was 
brought down to eighteen and twenty loads, and, 
still more, when twelve or fourteen loads were 
thought sufficient, a different conduct became ab- 
solutely necessary. Another improvement also 
followed, viz., spreading dung when raw or green, 
that is, immediately after the carts; in which way, 
at least during summer, it will be separated at 
one-half the expense, and to much better purpose, 
than when it is suffered to lie in the heap for a 
day or two. In short, it is a sure mark of a slov- 
enly fanner to see dung remain unspread in a 
field, unless' it be in the winter months, when it 
may happen that hands cannot be got for carry- 
ing on such operations with the usual regularity. 
At that time the injury sustained by losing a few 
days is not great, though as a general rule it will 
bo found that the expense is always smallest when 
the carts are regularly followed up. 

AjipUcation of Dung to Turnips. 
"When turnip husbandry forms the chief branch 
of fallow process, dung is naturally of a superior 
quality, and requires little artificial management 
for bringing it to a proper state of preparation. 
In the greater part of Scotland, and even in Eng- 
land, where the drill and horse-hoeing system is 
pi kctised, the common, and undoubtedly the most 



approved way of applying dung to turnips, is bj 
laying it in the intervals of the drills or small 
ridges, which are previously made up by a boutf 
or two furrows of the plough. These drills otf 
ridges are formed at a distance of from twenty- 
four to thirty inches from the centre of each ; and 
by driving the horses and cart along the middle 
one of the space intended to be manured, th« 
dung is drawn out either by the carter, or by 
another man specially appointed for that pur- 
pose, in such proportions as the poverty of the 
soil, or the disposition of the occupier, may rei kon 
necessary. If the breadth of three drills is unly 
taken at a time, the dung stands a better chance 
of being regularly administered; for it often hap- 
pens, that when a gre:iter number are included in 
one space, the two outside drills receive a less 
quantity than the intervening ones. Those, 
therefore, who limit themselves to three drills, 
generally divide the spreaders; as it requires six 
hands, women or boys, to follow up what is usu- 
ally called a head of carts, the number of carts 
to a head being regulated by the distance of the 
dunghill, or the kind of road over which it is to 
be carried. 

The quantity of.dung usually given for turnips 
is from twelve to fifteen double cart loads, of one 
and a half cubic yards each, to a Scots acre. la 
some cases only ten loads are given: but the 
land ought to be in hi„'h condition where such a 
small quantity is bestowed. In fact, no soil can 
be made too rich for turnips or other green crops, 
peas excepted; but the object to be attended to 
in this, and every other case, is an allotment of 
the manure collected on the premises, in such a 
way as that the greatest possible return over the 
whole farm, not from a particular field, may be 
gained by the occupier. 

Application of Dung to Potatoes. 
The culture is in several respects similar to 
that of turnips, but in others it differs materially. 
Potatoes are planted earlier in the season than 
turnips: the grcjund rarely receives so much 
work; the soils upon which they are cultivated 
are more variable; and the dung considered to be 
most suitable for promoting their growth, does 
not require such high preparation. Jiany far- 
mers, notwithstanding these circumstances, follow 
out the same process as described under the head 
of turnips. After the ground receives three, or 
at most four ploughings. the drills are made up, 
dung deposited in the intervals, the seed planted 
above the dung, and the drills reversed; after 
which, say at the distance of two or three weeks, 
a slight harrowing is given. They avoid making 
up drills, but dung the ground in what may be 
called the broadcast way; and. entering the 
plough, plant the seed in every thiiJ furrow, into 
which only the dung is raked; and so on till the 
whole is finished. Before the young plants ap- 
pear, or even after they are above the surface, a 
complete harrowing is given, which is considered 
as equal to a hand-hoeing; and from the dung 
being completely covered, scarce any of it is 
dragged up, while the seed, being undermost, 
none°of it is disturbed by the operation. Some 
farmers do not dung their potato fields; but, re- 
serving the manure till the crop is removed, find 
the remainder of the rotation greatly benefited. 
Potatoes scourge severely, and, in general cases, 
require a larger quantity of dung than turnips, 
but, as the extent of land under this culture is not 
great in common farming, few people grcdga this 
extra quantity, because, except in a fevr favored 
situations, a good crop cannot otherwise be re*- 
sonably expected. 



20 



AGRICULTURE. 



To Manure Clayey Soils. 

Upon all soils incumbent on a wet or close bot- 
tom, whether oharncterized as clay, loam, or moor, 
it may be laid down as a primary principle, that 
dung cannot be so profitably applied, as while the 
ground ,s under the process of summer fallow. 

When the ground is under the process of sum- 
mer fallow, it is then the best and most appro- 
priate time for applying manure to cliiyey soils. 
When under this process, the soil, comparatively 
•peaking, is reduced into minute particles, which 
affords an opportunity of conveying the virtues 
of manure through the veins or pores of all its 
parts. The soil, at that time, is also freed from 
its aboriginal inhabitants, quickens and other root- 
weeds, which claim a preferable right of support ; 
hence the artificial plants, afterwards cultivated, 
possess, without a rival, such supplies as have 
been granted, without any deduction whatever. 
In short, without laying any stress upon ele- 
mentary effects during the procees, it does not 
admit of a doubt, that the same quantity of ma- 
nure, bestowed upon the ground when summer- 
fallowed, will produce a greater return to the 
occupier, than if it had been applied at any other 
stage of the rotation. 

Dung should not be laid upon fallows before 
they are completely cleaned ; though, no doubt, 
in wet summers, that operation is not easily ac- 
complished. 

To make sure work, the fallows, if possible, 
ihould be early stirred, and no opportunity slipped 
of putting them forward with the utmost expedi- 
tion ; for it rarely happens that much good can 
be done towards the destruction of root-weeds 
after the month of July. Before that time a ju- 
dicious farmer will have his fallow dressed up, 
and in a suitable state for receiving dung. It 
should be well harrowed, if the weather is favor- 
able, previous to the dung being laid on ; and if 
rolled, or made smooth, the spreaders will be en- 
abled to perform their task with much more pre- 
cision. 

At the proper season every other operation 
ought to be laid aside, so that dung may be ex- 
peditiously spread out. To do it in wet weather is 
attended with pernicious effects; the horses are 
oppressed, a longer time is required, the land is 
poached, and in some measure deprived of all 
benefit from the previous fallow. These circum- 
stances will be reflected upon by the attentive 
farmer; they will stimulate him not to lose a mo- 
ment when the weather is favorable, and prevent 
him from forcing on the work, when injury, rather 
than benefit, may be expected. After all, seasons 
are so perverse as to render every rule nugatory. 
These must, however, be taken as they come, 
avoiding at such times to break the land down, ac- 
Clivating the ridges sufiiciently, and keeping the 
water-furrows completely clear. 

Quantity of Dung for Fallows. 
The quantity of dung usually applied to fal- 
low.s in ordinary condition is from fourteen to 
twenty double loads per acre; though often good 
crops are reaped when twelve loads only have been 
jiven. Much, however, depends upon the con- 
dition of the land, upon the quality of the dung, 
and the way in which the carts are loaded. A 
decent load may contain one cubic yard and 
three-fourths, and weigh a ton, or thereabouts. 
It also deserves notice, that less dung will serve 
some lands than others, especially if they have 
lately been ploughed from grass ; but, at all events, 
sixteen such loads as are mentioned will answer 
for any sort of soil, unless it has been previously 
quite wruugiit out. Even if it were in this forlorn 



stnte, it is better management to dung upon th» 
stubble of the first crop than to give an over-dose 
when under summer fallow. 

' Time of Spreading the Dung. 

All dung laid upon summer fallow ought to bo 
spread the moment it is pulled out of the cart. 
It can at no other time be done so well, or so 
cheaply, though on many farms, small ones espe-. 
cially, where a full supply of hands is wanting, 
this beneficial practice is much neglected. Four 
spreaders, boys or girls, with an attentive overs- 
man to follow up and supply any omissions, are 
sufficient for one head of carts; the number in- 
cluded in a head being regulated by the distance 
of the field from the dunghill. Some farmers 
employ a person on whom they can depend to 
draw the dung from the cart, who has judgment 
to proportion it according to circumstances, and 
is responsible for any failure in the execution; 
but the carter is the person usually employed, 
though, unless a boy is given him to drive, a regu- 
lar distribution can hardly be expected. To in- 
sure accuracy in laying down, fields are some- 
times thrown into a dam-broad figure; and, a 
heap being drawn into each square, you could 
have nearly ascertained the quantity required for 
the whole. The great object, after a regular and 
economical distribution, is to shake and part the 
wh'ole completely; as, by minute attention to this 
circumstance, a much greater effect is necessarily 
produced. 

Intermediate Dunging. 

After the fallows are dunged, the remainder in 
hand is reserved for what may be called the inter- 
mediate dunging, generally bestowed either upon 
clover stubbles, upon wheat stubbles previously 
to taking beans, or upon bean stubbles before the 
seed furrow is given for wheat. It is obvious, 
that the farmer must be regulated, in this inter- 
mediate dunging, by the weather at the time, 
though it rarely happens but that dung may bo 
got out upon clover stubbles at one time of the 
winter or other. When applied to beans, a bene- 
ficial practice, the dung, as we said above, is by 
some people laid upon the wheat stubble, and 
ploughed down before winter; hence it is in full 
action in the spring, when the seed furrow is 
given. Others make up drills at seed time, de- 
positing the dung in the intervals, as for turnips 
or potatoes; but it seldom occurs that weather 
can then be got, at least on real bean soils, for 
executing this management. 

Many arable farms, under the strictest economy, 
are unable to furnish supplies for an intermediate 
dunging, at least to its full extent; but persons so 
circumstanced have it always in their power to 
overcome the defect, and preserve a regular rota- 
tion, by keeping certain fields longer in grass, 
which of course will yield weightier crops when 
broken up, and stand less in need of manure du- 
ring the after rotation. As, for instance, in a 
rotation of six, and it is here that the greatest 
shortcoming is felt, grass seeds to a certain ex- 
tent, say a half, may be thrown in with the crop 
of wheat taken after fallow, which is the second 
year of the rotation ; this part may be pastured 
for three years, and broken up in the sixth for 
oats, which concludes the course. Again, in a 
rotation of eight, grass seeds, in like manner, may 
be sown with a part of the fallow wheat, which 
part can be pastured for three years, then broken 
up for oats, succeeded by beans and wheat. By 
such arrangements, made according to circum- 
stances, it is an easy matter to preserve a regulai 
rotation, and to proportion the corn crops to th< 
quantity of manure collected upon the premises. 



MANURES. 



21 



To increase the Quantily of Dung hy Soiling. 

The practice of soiling, or feeding horses or 
cattle in the hnuse or farm yard, is eminently 
calculated to increase the quantity of manure up- 
on every farm, and improve its quality. 

The soiling of horses, in the suinuier months, 
on green clover and rye-grass, is a practice which 
prevails in many grain districts where farm labor 
is regularly executed. The utility of the practice 
does not need the support of argument, for it is 
not only economical to the farmer, but saves much 
fatigue to the poor animal ; besides, the quantity 
of dung thereby gathered is considerable. 

Oxen and cows of all sorts, might be supported 
and fed in like manner, during the whole of the 
grass season. It is well known that milch-cows 
have, in several instances, been so kept; but it 
has rarely happened that other descriptions of 
cattle have been fed for the butcher according to 
this mode, though it is perfectly practicable. 

The chief benefit of soiling may be considered 
as arising from the immense quantity of fine dung 
which would thus be accumulated, and which can 
be returned to the ground in the succeeding sea- 
son, alter being properly fermented and prepared. 
In all grain-farms, at least those of clayey soils, it 
is a work of great difficulty to rot the straw pro- 
duced upon it; and much of it is misapplied, in 
consequence of such soils being naturally unfit 
for raising green winter-crops. 

If a numerous stock of cattle were kept either in 
the house or in separate divisions of the fold yard, 
all the straw threshed in the summer months 
might be immediately converted into dung, the 
quality of which would be equal, if not superior, to 
what is made from turnips consumed at the stake. 

Dung is the mother of good crops; and it appears 
that no plan can be devised by which a large quan- 
tity can be so easily and cheaply gathered, or by 
which straw can be so efi'ectually rotted and ren- 
dered beneficial to the occupier of a clay-land farm, 
as the S'dling of grass in the summer season. In 
a word, the dung of animals fed upon green clover, 
may justly be reckoned the richest of all dung. It 
may, from the circumsiances of the season, be ra- 
pidly prepared, and may be applied to the ground 
at a verj' early period, much earlier than any other 
sort of dung can be used with advantage. 

To make Composts. 
The use of manure, in the shape of compost, or 
ingredients of various qualities, mixed together in 
certain proportions, has long been a favorite prac- 
tice with many farmers: though it is only in par- 
ticular situations that the practice can be exten- 
. sively or profitably executed. The ingredients 
used in these composts are chiefly earth and lime, 
sometimes dung, where the earth is poor; but lime 
may be regarded as the main agent of the process, 
acting as a stimulus for bringing the powers of 
the heap into action. Lime, in this view, may be 
considered as a kind of yeast, operating upon a 
heap of earth as yeast does upon flour or meal. 
It is obvious, therefore, that unless a sufficient 
quantity is given, the heap may remain unfer- 
mented, in which case little benefit will be derived 
from it as a manure. 

The l)est kind of earth for compost is that of 
the alluvial sort, which is always of a rich greasy 
substance, often mixed with marl, and in every 
respect calculated to enrich and invigorate barren 
soils, es|iecially if they are of a light and open 
texture. Old yards, deep headlands, and scourings 
<f ditches, offer themselves as the basis of com- 
|ost middens; but it is proper to summer-fallow 
them before hand, so that they may be entirely free 
vf weeds. When tbe lime id mixed with the soil 



of these middens, repeated turnings are necessary, 
that the whole may be suitably fermented, and soma 
care is required to apply the fermente<l mass at a 
proper time to the field on which it is to be used. 
The benefit of such a compost in nourishing 
soils is even greater than what is gained by dress- 
ing them with dung. 

Lord ileadowhank's Directions for making C'om,- 
posls of Peat-moss. 

Let the peat-moss, of which compost is to be 
formed, be thrown out of the pit for some weeks 
or months, in order to lose its redundant moisture. 
By this means, it is rendered the lighter to carry, 
and less compact and weighty when made up with 
fresh dung for fermentation; and, accordingly, 
less dung is required for the purpose, than if the 
preparation is made with peat taken recently from 
the pit. The peat taken from near the surface, or 
at a considerable depth, answers equally well. 

Take the peat-moss to a dry spot convenient for 
constructing a dunghill to serve the field to bo 
manured. Lay the cart-loads of it in two rows, 
and of the dung in a row betwixt them. The dung 
thus lies nearly on an area of the future compost 
dunghill, and the rows of peat should be near 
enough each other, that workmen, in making up 
the com])ost, may be able to throw them together by 
the spade. In making up, let the workmen bt gin at 
one end, and, at the extremity of the row of dung 
(which should not extend quite so far at that end 
as the rows of peats on each side of it do), let them 
lay a bottom of peat, six inches deep and fifteen 
feet wide, if the grounds admit of it, then throw 
forward, and lay on, about ten inches of dung abovo 
the bottom of peat; then add from the side rows 
about six inches of peat ; then four or five of dung, 
and then six more of peat; then another thin layer 
of dung; and then cover it over with peat at the 
end where it was begun, at the two sides, and 
above. The compost should not be raised above 
four feet, or four feet and a half high ; otherwise it 
is apt to press too heavily on the under parts, and 
check the fermentation. When a beginning is 
thus made, the workmen will proceed working 
backwards, and adding to the columns of compost, 
as they are furnished with the three rows of ma- 
terials directed to be laid down for them. They 
must take care not to tread on the compost, or 
render it too compact ; and, m proportion as the 
peat is wet, it should be made up in lumps, and 
not much broken. 

In mild weather, seven cart-loads of common 
farm-dung, tolerably fresh made, is sufficient for 
twenty-one cart-loads of peat-moss; but in cold 
weather, a larger proportion of dung is desirable. 
To every twenty-eight carts of the compost, when 
made up, it is of use to throw on, above it, a cart- 
load of ashes, either made from coal, peat, or 
wood ; half the quantity of slacked lime, the mors 
finely powdered the better. 

The compost, after it is made up, get.'j into a 
general heat, sooner or later, according to the 
weather, and the condition of the dung. In sum- 
mer, in ten days or sooner; in winter, not perhaps 
for many weeks, if the cold is severe. In the for- 
mer season, a stick should be kept in it in different 
parts, to pull out and feel now and then ; for, if it 
approaches blooil-heat, it should either be watered 
or turned over; and, on such an occasion, advantage 
may be taken to mix with it a little fresh moss. 
The heat subsides alter a time, and with great 
variety, according to the weather, the dung, and 
the perfection of the compost; which should then 
be allowed to be untouched, till within three weeks 
of using, when it should be turned over upside 
down, and outside in, and all lumps broken : thaa 



22 



AGRICULTURE. 



it comes into a second heat, but soon cools, and 
shcalil be taken out for use. In this state the 
whole, except bits of the old decayed wood, ap- 
pears a black free mass, and spreads like garden 
mould. Use it weight fur weight, as farm-yard 
dung; and it will he found, in a course of crop- 
pinir, fully to stand the comparison. 

Peat, nearly as dry as garden-mould in seed- 
time, may be mixed with the dung, so as to 
double the volume. Workmen must begin with 
using layers; but, when accustomed to the just 
prvpiirtions, if they are furnished with peat mod- 
erately dry, and dung not lost in litter, they throw 
it up together as a mixed mass, and make a less 
proportion of dung serve for the preparation. 

The rich coarse earth, which is Ireiiueutly found 
cn the surface of peat, is too heavy to be admit- 
ted into this compost; but it makes an excellent 
top-dressing, if previously mixed and turned over 
with lime. 

Dr. Rennie's Jletkod of Converting Moss into 3Ia- 
nure. 

The importance of moss as a manure is now 
generally admitted by all who have had an op- 
portunity of making experiments on that subject. 
The Rev. Dr. Rennie, of Kilsyth, having proved 
the utility of filtration, has recommended, in pri- 
vate letters, to water the collected heap of moss 
for about ten days, once each day, very copiously ; 
and when that is done, to trim it up to a compact 
body, allow it to dry, and to receive a gentle de- 
gree of heat. The degree of heat necessary for 
accomplishing that end, is sufiBcietit. though not 
discoverable by the hand. If it only affects the 
thermometer a little, it is declared to be a ma- 
nure. The doctor also declares, that moss can be 
converted by filtering steam through it; and 
more expeditiously still, by exposing it to a run- 
ning stream of water. If the water penetrates 
the moss, it expels its poisonous qualities sooner 
and more effectually than any other mode ever 
devised. When it is sufiiciently purified by any 
of these means, it must be laid up to dry, and is 
in a short time ready for applying to the land. 

Use of Lime as 3Ianure. 

This mineral, after undergoing the process of 
calcination, has long been applied by husband- 
men as a stimulus to the soil, and. in consequence 
of such an application, luxuriant cro]is have been 
produced, even upon soils apparently of inferior 
quality, and which would have yielded crops of 
trifling value had this auxiliary been withheld. 
In fact, the majority of soils cannot be cultivated 
with advantage till they are dressed with lime; 
and whether this beneficial effect shall be consid- 
ered as an alterative, or as a stimulant, or as a 
manure, it will be found to be the basis of g' od 
husbandry, and of more use than all other ma- 
nures put together. Wherever lime has been 
prcperly applied, it has constantly been found to 
piove as much superior to dung, as dung is to 
the rakings of roads, or the produce of peat-mire. 

In respect of operation, it is immaterial whether 
lime be used upon grass land or summer-fallow. 
Upon old grass land, it is perhaps best to plough 
first, and to summer-fallow in the second year, 
when lime can be applied. On new and clean 
grass land, it may be limed at the outset, that is 
before the plough is admitted. 

To lime moorish soils is a hazardous business, 
unless dung is likewise bestowed : but to repeat 
the application upon such soils, especially if they 
have been severely cropped, is almost a certain 
loss; a compost of lime and rich earth is, in such 
cases, the only substitute. 



Strong loams and clays require a full dose to 
bring them into action ; such soils being capable 
of absorbing a greater quimtity of calcareouB 
matter. Lighter soils, however, require less lima 
to stimulate them, and may be injured by admin- 
istering a quantity that would prove moderately 
beneficial to those of a heavy nature. 

•Upon fresh land, or land in a proper state for a 
calcareous application, lime is much superior to 
dung. Its effects continue for a longer [)eriod; 
while the crops produced are of a suiierior kind 
and less susceptible of injury from the excesses 
of drought and moisture. Finally, the ground, 
particularly what is of a strong nature, is much 
easier wrought; and, in many instances, the 
saving of labor would almost tempt a judicious 
farmer to lime his land, were no greater benefit de- 
rived from the application than the opportunity 
thereby gained of working it in a perfect manner. 

It may be added, that though strong soils re- 
quire to be animated with a strong dose of lime, 
those of a light texture will do well with little 
more than half the quantity requisite on the 
others, especially if they are fresh, '^r have not 
already received an application of calcareous 
matter. 

Application of Marl. 

In many places the value of land has been 
much augmented by the application of marl. 
Treating of this article in a practical way, it may 
be divided into shell-marl and earth-marl. Shell- 
marl is composed of animal shells dissolved ; 
earth-marl is also fossil. The color of the latter 
is various; its hardness being sometimes soft and 
ductile, like clay; sometimes hard and solid, like 
stone; and sometimes it is extended into thin 
beds, like slate. Shell-marl is easily distin- 
guished by the shells, which always appear in it ; 
but the similarity betwixt earth-marl and many 
other fossil substances, renders it difficult to dis- 
tinguish them. 

Shell-marl is very different in its nature from 
clayey and stone marls, and, from its effects upon 
the soil, is commonly classed among the animal 
manures : it does not dissolve with water as the 
other marls do. It sucks it up, and swells with 
it like a sponge. Dr. Home saj's, that it takes 
six times more of acids to saturate it than any of 
the other marls which he had met with. But the 
greatest difference betwixt the shell-marl and the 
other marls consists in this, the shell-marl con- 
tains oils. 

This marl, it would seen; from the qualities 
which it possesses, promotes vegetation in all the 
different waj-s. It increases the food of plants; 
it communicates to the soil a power of attracting 
this food from the air; it enlarges the pasture of 
plants; and it prepares the vegetable food for 
entering their roots. 

Shelly Sand. 
The shelly sand, often found deposited in beds 
in the crevices and level parts of the sea-coasts, 
is another substance capable of being employed, 
both as a manure and stimulant, not only on ac- 
count of its containing calcareous matter, in 
greater or less proportions, but also from the 
mixture of animal and vegetable substances that 
are found in it. The pt)rtion of calcareous matter 
contained in these substances must vary accord- 
ing to circumstances; but, when the quantity is 
any way large, and in a reduced or attenuated 
state, the quality is so much the more valuable. 
On that account the quantity which ought to be 
applied to the soil, must be regulated by the ex- 
tent of calcareous matter, supposed, or founds 
upon trial, to be contained in the article. 



MANURES. 



25 



Clayey and Stone Maria. 

The clayey and stone marls are distinguished 
by their colors, viz., white, black, blue, and red. 
The white, being of a soft, crumbly nature, is 
eonsidered to be the best for pasture land; and 
tbo blue, which is more compact and firm, for 
grain land. Fn the districts where mnrl is much 
used, these distinctions of management nre at- 
tended with advantage, if the following rules are 
adhered to : 

If marl is of the blue kind, or of any kind that 
is compact or firm, lay it upon the land early in 
the season, so as the weather may mellow it down 
bt.fore the last plough; and, if on pasture land, 
let it also be early laid on, and spread very thin, 
breaking any lumps afterwards which are not 
completely ,«ep:i rated by the first spreading. If 
Diarl is of the white, or any of the loose or crum- 
bling sorts, it need not be laid on so early; be- 
cause these varieties break and dissolve almost as 
soon as exposed to the weather. 
Sea-weed. 

Sea- weed is driven ashore after storms, and is 
found to be an excellent article for manuring light 
and dry soils, though of little adv.antage to those of 
a clayey description. This article may be applied 
on the proper soil with advantage to any crop, and 
its effects are immediate, though rarely of long 
continuance. As the coast-side lands of Great 
Britain are, in every case, of superior fertility to 
those that are inland, we may attribute this su- 
perior fertility to the great quantity of manure 
found upon their shores after every storm or high 
tide, whereby the resources of the ocean are in a 
manner brought forward for the enrichment of 
tba lands locally situated for partici|)ating in such 
benefits. The utmost attention has long been 
paid to the gathering and laying on of this valu- 
able manure. 

Application of Sea-weed. 

Sea-weed is applied at all seasons to the surface, 
and sometimes, though not so profitably, it is 
mixed with untrodden dung, that the process of 
putrefaction may be hastened. Generally speak- 
ing, it is at once applied to the soil, which saves 
labor, and prevents that degree of waste which 
otherwise would necessarily happen. Sea-weed 
is, in one respect, preferable to the richest dung, 
because it does not produce such a quantity of 
weeds. The salt contained in sea-weed, and ap- 
plied with it, is the real cause of the after-clean- 
liness. This may be inferred from the general 
state of coast-side lands, where sea-weed is used. 
These lands are almost constantly kept in tillage, 
and yet are cleaner and freer from weeds than 
those in the inland situations, where grain crops 
are not so often taken. 

When a coast-side farm contains mixed soils, 
the best management is exercised, by applying 
sea-weed to dry, and dung to day-land. In this 
way, the full advantage of manure may be ob- 
tained, and a form so circumstanced is of infi- 
nitely greater value, with respect to manuring 
ELd laboring, than the one which contains no such 
Tariety. 

Biiruiiiff the Surf are. 
The practice of burning the surface, and apply- 
ing the ashes as manure to the soil that remains, 
has been long prevalent in Britain; and is con- 
sidered as the most advantageous way of bring- 
ing in and improving all soils, where the surface 
carried a coarse sward, and was compo-ed of peat- 
earth, or other inactive substances. The burning 
of this surface has been viewed as the best way 
of bringing such soils into action ; the ashes, fur- 
nished bjr the burning, serving as a stimulant to 



raise up their dorm:)nt powers, thereby rendering 
them fertile and produitive in a superior degre* 
to what could otherwise be accomplished. 

3fr. Curwen's Method of Burning Surface Soil and 
Clay. 

Mounds of seven yards in length, and three and 
a half in breadth, are kindled with seventy-two 
Winchester bushels of lime. First, a layer of dry 
sods or parings, on which a quantity of lime is 
spread, mixing sods with it, then a covering of 
eight inches of sods, on which the other half of 
the lime is spread, and covered a foot thick, the 
height of the mound being about a yard. 

In twenty-four hours it will take fire. The lime 
should be immediately from the kiln. It is bettor 
to suffer it to ignite itself, than to effect it by the 
operation of water. When the fire is fairly kin- 
dled, fresh sods must be applied. I should re- 
commend obtaining a sufficient body of ashes be- 
fore any clay is put on the mounds. The fire 
naturally rises to the top. It takes less time, and 
does more work to draw down the ashes from the 
top, and not to suffer it to ri^e above six feet. The 
former practice of burning in kilns was more ex- 
pensive; did much less work; and, in many in- 
stances, calcined the ashes. 

I think it may fairly be supposed that the lime 
adds full its worth to the quality of the ashes. 
Where limestone can be had, I should advise the 
burning of a small quantity in the mounds, which 
would be a great improvement to the ashes, and, 
at the same time, help to keep the fire in. 

The general adopting of the system of surface 
and soil clay-burning, is likely to be an important 
discovery for the interests of agriculture. 

To burn Moss with the Ashes. 
The following directions for burning moss along 
with the ashes are of considerable importance: 
Begin the fire with dry faggots, furze, or straw, 
then put on dried moss finely minced and well 
beaten with a clapper; and when that is nearly 
burnt down, put on moss less dry, but well minced 
and clapped, making holes with a prong to carry 
on the fire, and so adding more moss till a hill of 
ashes, something of the size of a wagon load, is 
accumulated, which, when cold, carry to the bins, 
or store heaps, before the ashes get wet. 

Mr. lioscoe's Method of Improving Moss Land. 

The best method of improving moss land is by 
the application of a calcareous substance in a suf- 
ficient quantity to convert the moss into a soil, 
and by the occasional use of animal or other ex- 
traneous manures, such as the course of cultiva- 
tion and the nature of the crops may be found to 
require. 

After setting fire to the heap and herbage on 
the moss, and ploughing it down as far as practi- 
cable, Mr. Roscoe ploughs a thin sod or furrow 
with a very sharp horse plough, which he burns 
in small heaps and dissipates; considering it of 
little use but to destroy the tough woods of the 
ediophorus, nardus stricta, and other plants, 
whose matted roots are almost imperishable. 
The moss being thus brought to a tolerably dry 
and level substance, then plough it in a regular 
furrow six inches deep, and as soon as possible 
after it is turned up, set upon it the necessary 
quantity of marl, not less than 200 cubic yar.ls to 
the acre. As the marl begins to crumble and fall 
with the sun or frost, it is spread over the land 
with considerable exactness, after which put in a 
crop as early as possible, sometimes by the plough, 
and at others with the horse-scuffle, or scarifier, 
according to the nature of the crop, a quantity of 
manure, setting on about twenty tons to the acr*. 



24 



AGRICULTURE. 



Moss-lnnd, thus treated, may not only be ad- 
vantageously cropped the first year with green 
crops, as potatoes, turnips, etc., but with any kind 
of grain. 

Peat and Peat Ashes vned as Manure. 

In the county of Bedford, England, peat ashes 
are sold as manure, and are used as a top dressing 
for clovers, and sometimes for barley, at the rate 
of from forty to sixty bushels per acre. They are 
usually spread during the month of March, on 
olover, and on the surface of the barley-lands 
after the seed is sown. Peat ashes are also admir- 
ably useful as manure for turnips, and are easily 
drilled with or over the seed, by means of a drill- 
box connected with a loaded cart. 

After the quantity required has been cast, a por- 
tion sufficient to kindle a large heap (suppose two 
cart-loads), is dried as much as if intended for 
winter's use. A conical pile is then built and 
fired, and as soon as the flame or smoke makes its 
appearance at any of the crevices, it is kept back 
by fresh peat, just sufficiently dry to be free from 
water; and thus the pile is continually increased, 
until it has burnt thirty or forty loads, or as much 
more as may be required. The slower the process 
the better; but, in case of too languid a consump- 
tion, the heap should be stirred by a stick, when- 
ever the danger of extinction seems probable. 

In case of rain, the workmen should be prepared 
with some coarse thick turf, with which to cover 
the surface of the cone. 

Coal Ashes used as Manure. 
Coal ashes may likewise be made a most useful 
article of manure, by mixing with every cart-load 
of them one bushel of liuie in its hottest state, 
covering it up in the middle of the heap for about 
twelve hours, till the lime be entirely slacked, and 
incorporating them well together ; and, by turn- 
ing the whole over two or three times, the cinders, 
or half-burnt parts of the coal, will be reduced to 
as fine a powderas the lime itself. The coal-ashes 
should, however, be carefully kepi dry ; this mix- 
ture will be found one of the best improvers of 
moorish and benty land. 

Method of Burning Lime ioithout Kilns. 

The practice of lime-burners in Wales has for- 
merly been to burn lime in broad shallow kilns, 
but lately they have begun to manufacture that 
article without any kiln at all. 

They place the limestcjne in large bodies, which 
are called coaks, the stones not being broken small 
as in the ordinary method, and calcine these heaps 
in the way used for preparing charcoal. To pre- 
vent the flame from bursting out at the top and 
sides of these heaps, turfs and earth are placed 
against them, and the aperture partially closed; 
and the heat is regulated and transfused through 
the whole mass, that notwithstanding the increased 
size of the stones, the whole becomes thoroughly 
calcined. As a proof of the superior advantage 
that lime burnt in these clamps or coaks has over 
lime burnt in the old method, where farmers have 
an option of taking either lime at the same price, 
a preference is invariably given to that burned in 
heaps. This practice has long prevailed in York- 
sbire and Shropshire, and is also familiar in Scot- 
land. 

Mr. Craig's Improved Method of Burning Clay. 
Make an oblong enclosure, of the dimensions 
©f a small house — say fifteen feet by ten- of 
green turC-seeds, raised to the height of three and 
a half or fnur feet. In the inside of this enclosure 
air-pi]ics arc drawn diagonally, which communi- 
cate with holca left at each corner of the exterior 



wall. These pipes are formed of sods put on edge, 
and the space between s;; wide only as another 
sod can easily cover. In each of the four sjiaces 
left between the air-pipes and the outer wall, a 
fire is kindled with wood and dry turf, and then 
the whole of the inside of the enclosure or kiln 
filled with dry turf, which is very soon on fire; 
and, on the top of that, when well kindled, is 
thrown on the clay, in small quantities at a time, 
and rejieated as often as necessary, which must 
be regulated by the intensity of the burning. The 
air-pipes are of use only at first, because if tha 
fire burns with tolerable keenness, the sods lorra- 
ing the pipes will soon be reduced to ashes. The 
pipe on the weather side of the kiln only is left 
open, the mouths of the other three being stopped 
up, and not opened except the wind should veer 
about. As the inside of the enclosure or kiln 
begins to be filled up with clay, the outer wall 
must be raised in height, at least fifteen inches 
higher than the top of the clay, for tiie purpose 
of keeping the wind from acting on the fire. 
When the fire burns through the outer wall, 
which it often does, and particularly when the 
top is over-loaded with clay, the breach must be 
stopped up immediately, which can only be effeo- 
tually done by building another sod wall from 
the foundation opposite to it, and the sods that 
formed that part of the first wall are sotm re- 
duced to ashes. The wall can be raised as high 
as may be convenient to throw on the clay, and 
the kiln may be increased to any size by forming 
a new wall when the previous one is burnt through. 
The principal art in burning consists in having 
the outer wall made quite close and impervious to 
the external air, and taking care to have the top 
always lightl}', but completely, covered with clay ; 
because if the external air should come in contact 
with the fire, either on the top of the kiln or by 
means of its bursting through the sides, the fire 
will be very soon extinguished. In short, the 
kilns require to be well attended, nearly as closely 
as charcoal-pits. Clay is much easier burnt than 
either moss or loam — it does not undergo any 
alteration in its shape, and on that account allows 
the fire and smoke to get up easily between the 
lumps — whereas moss and loam, by crumbling 
down, are very apt to smother the fire, unless care- 
fully attended to. No rule can be laid down for 
regulating the size of the lumps of clay thrown on 
the kiln, as that must depend on the state of the 
fire. After a kiln is fairly set going, no coal or 
wood, or any sort of combustible, is necessary, the 
wet clay burning of itself, and it can only be ex- 
tinguished by intention, or the carelessness of the 
operator, the vicissitudes of the weather having 
hardly any effect on the fires, if properly attended 
to. When the kiln is burning with great keenness, 
a stranger to the operation may be apt to think that 
the fire is extinguished. If, therefore, any person, 
either through impatience or too great curiosity, 
should insist on looking into the interior of the 
kiln, he will certainly retard, and may possibly 
extinguish, the fire; the chief secret consisting, as 
before-mentioned, in keeping out the external air. 
The above method of burning clay may be con- 
sidered as an essential service rendered to agri- 
culture; as it shows farmers how to convert, at a 
moderate expense, the most worthless barren sub- 
soil into excellent manure. 

To decompose Green Vegetables for Manure. 

The following process for the decomposition of 
green vegetables, for manure, has been practised 
with great success in the couniies of Norfolk and 
Suflolk, England : — 

Place a layer of vegetable matter a foot thick. 



MANURES. 



25 



then a thin layer of lime, alternately ; in a few 
hours tlie decomposition will begin, and, unless 
prevented by sods, or a fork full of vegetables, will 
break out into a blaze; this must be guarded 
against; in twenty-four hours the process will be 
completed. Weeds of every description wilt an- 
swer for vegetables; two pounds' worth of lime 
•will produce manure for four acres. Use the 
vegetables as soon after cutting as possible, and 
the lime fresh from the kiln, as distance will allow. 

Bone Jfaniire. 

Mills are constructed for the purpose of bruis- 
ing (not pounding) bones; and the dust riddled 
therefrom is reckoned a still stronger manure. 
The same person selects the best bones, which 
are sawn into pieces, for button-moulds and 
knife-handles: and the saw-dust from this ope- 
ration is particularly useful in gardens and hot- 
beds. It suits every vegetable, hot-house, or 
green-house plant. 

Bone manure is best adapted for cold and light 
sandy land. The usual quantity per acre is 
seventy bushels, when used alone; but when 
mixed with ashes, or common manure of any 
sort, thirty bushels per acre is thought quite 
enough. It is applied at the same periods as 
other manure, and has been found in this way 
to remain seven years in the ground. The rough 
part of this manure, after being five years in 
the ground, has been gathered off one field and 
thrown upon another of a different soil, and has 
proved, even then, good manure. 

The bones which are best filled with oil and 
marrow are certainlj' the best manure; and the 
parts generally used for buttons and knife-hafts 
are the thigh and shank hemes. The powdered 
bones are dearer, and generally used for hot-beds 
in gardens, being too expensive for the field, and 
not so durable as bruised bones, yet, for a short 
time, more productive. 

A dry, light, or gentle soil, is best adapted for 
the use of bone-manure; as it is supposed that, 
in land \?hich retains wet, the nutritive part of 
the hone washes to the surface of it and does not 
incorporate sufficiently with the soil. 

Bruised bones are better when mixed with 
ashes or any other manure, aa the juice of the 
bone is then more equally spread over the field. 
Bone manure ought to be ploughed into the land 
in tillage. On the grass the powder should be 
sown in the hand. 

Super-Phosphate of Lime. 
To Liebig is due the greatest credit for the theory 
that the organic matter of plants is supplied abund- 
antly by nature from air and water ; that the ashes 
of plants exhibit the mineral matters most needed 
for a fertile soil ; that the ashes of the most valu- 
able parts, such as the husk of wheat, especially 
show what matters are required for the most 
abundant production of those parts ; that soils are 
most frequently deficient in phosphoric acid, which 
should be supplied in the form of bones, guano, 
and more especially as a more or less soluble phos- 
phate of lime. Long and extensive experience 
has proved the great value of a fertilizer which 
contains a portion of so-called super-phosphate of 
lime ; that is, a bone-phosphate of lime, which is 
treated with sulphuric acid, so that more or less 
of the phosphate will dissolve in water. Of course 
a true chemical super-phosphate would wholly dis- 
folve, but such a one is impracticable in use; 
moreover it is found by practice that a few per 
cent, of phosphoric acid in a fertilizer is sufficient 
to insure its promotion of fertility. Hence some 
fertilizers in commerce consist almost wholly of a 



phosphate of lime mixed with a little sulphate of 
lime (plaster), resulting from the action of tha 
sulphuric acid, so that it contains 15 to 20 per 
cent, phosphoric acid, one-third or one-fourth of 
which readily dissolves in water. The.se fertilizers 
are found to yield excellent results when applied 
to the soil. 

The superiority of these nitrogenous superphcs- 
phated fertilizers over all others may be summed 
up in a few words. Tliey surpass stable manure 
in their extremely small bulk and weight for the 
same fertilizing effect, and consequently in the 
greater ease and less expense of their handling, 
hauling and spreading, and yet further in their 
never fouling land by the seeds of weeds and 
noxious plants. They excel bones and phosphatio 
guano in their more rapid action and their yield- 
ing a quicker return. They excel Peruvian guano 
in continuing their fertilizing effects for a longer 
period of time, in their being less violent at first, 
and yet sufficiently energetic to yield a return the 
first season of their application. Most of our 
land is either poor by nature or through exhaust- 
ive cropping, and there is nothing that will more 
rapidly restore and increase their fertility than 
the ammoniated super-phosphates. It may be 
yet further observed, that there is scarcely any 
soil to which their application will not prove a 
decided benefit, and scarcely a crop which they 
will not improve, whether grain, vegetables, cot- 
ton, tobacco, fruits, etc. 

Various Substances used as Manure. 

J. B. Bailey, Esq., presented to the Agricul- 
tural Society of Manchester, the following enu- 
meration of substances which may be apjdied 
usefully as manures instead of stable dung, viz., 
mud, sweepings of the streets, and coal-ashes, 
night-soil, bones, refuse matters, as sweepings 
and rubbish of houses, etc., sea-weeds, sea-shells, 
and sea-gravel, river-weeds, sweepings of roads, 
and spent tanner's bark to mix with lime. Peat 
or moss, decayed vegetables, putrid water, the 
ashes of weeds, etc., the refuse of bleacher's 
ashes, soap suds, or lye, peat ashes, water in- 
floating, refuse salt. 

The use of liquid manure, so long common in 
China and Japan, is gaining in favor with agri- 
culturists everywhere. Peruvian guano is one 
of the important discoveries of modern times : with 
its use ground almost barren may be made produc- 
tive; it is available for almost all kinds of crops. 

Plaster of Paris used as Manure. 

Plaster of Paris is used as a manure in Pennsyl- 
vania and elsewhere. The best kind is imported 
from hills in the vicinity of Paris: it is brought 
down the Seine, and exported from Havre de Grace. 
The lumps composed of fiat shining spicula are pre- 
ferred to those which are formed of round parti- 
cles like sand; the simple method of finding out 
the quality is to pulverize some, and put it dry 
into an iron pot over the fire, when that which is 
good, will soon boil, and great quantities' of the 
fixed air escape by ebullition. It is pulverized 
by first putting it in a stamping-mill. The finer 
its pulverization the better, as it will thereby bo 
more generally diffused. 

It is best to sow it on a wet day. The most 
approved quantity for grass is six bushels per 
acre. No art is required in sowing it more than 
making the distribution as equal as possible rn 
the sward of grass. It operates altogether as a 
top manure, and therefore should not be put on in 
the spring until the principal frosts are over and 
vegetation has begun. The general time for 
sowing in America is in April, May, June, July, 



26 



AGRICULTUKE. 



m 



Angust, and even as late as September. Its 
effects will generally appear in ten or fifteen diiys ; 
after which the growth of the grass will be so 
great as to produce a large burden at the end of 
eix weeiis .after sowine:. 

H iniist De sown on dry land, not subject to be 
overflown. It hns been sown on sand, loam, and 
cliiy, iind it is difficult to say on which it has be.st 
answered, although the effect is sooner visible on 
eand. It has been used as a manure in this state 
for twelve years; for, like other manure, its con- 
tinuance very much depends on the nature of the 
soil on which it is placed. 

Mode of Applying Blubber as a Ifnnnre. 

This is a very rich ingredient, as well for ara- 
ble- as pasture lands, when mixed at the rate of 
one ton of blubber to twenty loads of mould, and 
one chaldron of lime, per acre. It must be turned 
over and pulverized ; and when it has lain in 
this state three or four months, it will become fit 
for use, and may be put upon the land in such 
quantities as the quality of the land to be ma- 
nured requires. It is a very strong manure, and 
very excellent. 

Applicntion of Manures to Land. 

Early in autumn, after the hay crop is removed, 
is the most convenient and least olijectionable pe- 
riod for the purpose. The common practice is to 
apply manures during the frost, in the winter. 
But the elastic fluids being the greatest supports 
of vegetation, manures should be applied under 
circumstances that favor their generation. These 
will occur in spring, after the grass has, in some 
degree, covered the ground, the dung being then 
shaded from the sun. After a frost much of the 
virtues of the dung will be washed away by the 
thaw, and its soluble parts destroyed, and in a 
frosty state the ground is incapable of absorbing 
liquids. 

Management of Arable Land. 

Alternate husbandry, or the sj'stem of having 
leguminous and culmiferous crops to follow each 
other, with some modifications, is practicable on 
every soil. According to its rules, the land would 
rarely get into a foul and exhausted state; at 
least, if foul and exhausted under alternate hus- 
bandry, matters would be much worse were any 
other system followed. The rotation may be long 
or short, as is consistent with the richness of the 
soil, on which it is executed, and other local cir- 
cumstances. The crops cultivated may be any of 
the varieties which compose either of the two tribes, 
according to the nature of soil and climate of the 
district where the rotation is exercised, and where 
circumstances render ploughing not so advanta- 
geous as pasturing, the land may remain in grass, 
till those circumstances are obviated, care being 
always taken, when it is broken up, to follow 
alternate husbandry during the time it is under 
tillage. 

In this way we think it perfectly practicable to 
follow the alternate system in every situation ; nor 
do we consider the land being in grass for two, 
three, or four years, as a departure from that sys- 
teia, if called for by a scarcity of manure, poverty 
of soil, want of markets for corn, or other acci- 
dental circumstances. The basis of every rotation 
we hold to be either a bare summer fallow, or a 
fallow on which drill turnips are cultivated, and 
its conclusion to be with the crop taken in the 
year preceding a return of fallow or drilled tur- 
nips, when, of course, a new rotation commences. 
Fimt Rotation of Crops. 

According to this rotation, wheat and drilled 
beans are the crops to be cultivated, though clover 



and rye-grass may be taken for one year, in place 
of beans, should such a variety be viewed as more 
eligible. The rotation begins with summer fallow, 
because it is only on strong deep lands that it can 
be profitably practised; and it may go on tor any 
length of time, or so long as the land can be kept 
clean, though it ought to stop the moment that 
the land gets into a contrary condition. A con- 
! siderable quantity of manure is required to go on 
successfully ; dung should be given to each l)ean 
crop; and if this crop is drilled and attentively 
horse-hoed, the rotation may turn out to be one 
of the most profitable that can be exercised. 
Second Rotation. 

Upon loams nnd clays, where it may not be ad- 
visable to carrj the first rotation into execution, a 
ditterent one can be practised, according to which 
labor will be more divided, and the usual grains 
more generally cultivated; as, for instance: 

1. Fallow, with dung. 2. Wheat. 3. Beans, 
drilled and horse-hoed. 4. Barley. 5. Clover 
and rye-grass. 6. Oats, or wheat. 7. Beans, 
drilled and horse-hoed. 8. AVlieat. 

This rotation is excellently calculated to insure 
an abundant return through the whole of it, pro- 
vided dung is administered upon the clover stub- 
ble. Without this supply the rotation would be 
crippled, and inferior crops of course produced in 
the concluding years. 

Third Rotation. 

This rotation is calculated for clays and loams 
of an inferior description to those already treated 
of: 

1. Fallow, with dung. 2. Wheat. 3. Clover 
and rye-grass. 4. Oats. 6. Beans, drilled and 
horse-hoe<l. 6. Wheat. 

According to this rotation, the rules of good 
husbandry are studiously practised, while the se- 
quence is obviously calculated to keep the land in 
good order, and in such a condition as to insure 
crops of the greatest value. If manure is be- 
stowed either upon the clover stubble or before 
the beans are sown, the rotation is one of the best 
that can be devised for the soils mentioned. 

Fourth Rotation. 

On thin clays gentle husbandry is indispens.ably 
necessary, otherwise the soil may be exhausted, 
and the produce unequal to the expense of culti- 
vation. Soils of this description will not improve 
much while under grass, but unless an additional 
stock of manure can be procured, there is a neces- 
sity of refreshing them in that way, even though 
the produce should, in the meantime, be compara- 
tively of small value. The following rotation is 
an excellent one : 

1. Fallow, with dung. 2. Wheat. 3. Grass, 
pastured, but not too early eaten. 4. Grass. 5. 
Grass. 6. Oats. 

This rotation may be shortened or lengthened, 
according to circumstances, but should never ex- 
tend further in point of ploughing, than when 
dung can be given to the fallow break. This is 
the keystone of the whole, and if it is neglected 
the rotation is rendered useless. 
Fifth notation. 

Peat-earth soils are not friendly to wheat unless 
aided by a quantity of calcareous matter. Taking 
them in a general point of view, it is not advi- 
sable to cultivate wheat, but a crop of oats may 
almost be depended upon, provided the previous 
management has been judiciously executed. If 
the sub-soil of peat-earth lands be retentive of 
moisture, the process ought to commence with a 
bare summer fallow; but if such are incumbent 
on free and open bottoms, a crop of turnips may 



WHEAT. 



27 



be substituted for f-illow, according to which 
methvjd the surface will get a body which natu- 
rally; it did not possess. Grass, on such soils, must 
always occupy a great space of every rotation, be- 
cause physical circumstances render regular crop- 
ping utterly impracticable. 

1. Fallow, or turnips, with dung. 2. Oats, of 
an early var-ety. 3. Clover, and a considerable 
quantity of perennial rye-grass. 4. Pasture for 
several years, till circumstances permit the land 
to be broken up, when oats are to be repeated. 

Sixth Rdtation. 

Light soils are easily managed, though to pro- 
cure a full return of the profits which they are 
capable of yielding, requires generally as much 
attention as is necessary in the management of 
those of a stronger description. Ujion light soils 
a bare suiuraer fallow is seldom called for, as 
cleanliness may be preserved by growing turnips 
and other leguminous articles. Grass also is of 
eminent advantage upon such soils, often j'ielding 
a greater profit than what is afforded by culmifer- 
ous crops. 

1. Turnip?. 2. Spring wheat, or barley. 3. 
Clover and rye-grass. 4. Oats, or wheat. 

This rotation would be greatly improved, were 
it e.\tended to eight years, whilst the ground by 
such an extension, would be kept fresh, and con- 
stantly in good condition. As for instance, were 
seeds for pasture sown in the second year, the 
ground kept three years under grass, then broken 
up for oats in the si.\th year, drilled with beans 
and peas in the seventh, and sown with wheat in 
the eiglith, the rotation would be complete; be- 
cause it included every branch of husbandry, and 
admitted a variety in management generally 
agreeable to the soil, and always favorable to the 
interest of cultivators. The rotation naiiy also 
consist of si.'c crops, were the land kept only one 
year in grass, though few situations admit of so 
much cropping, unless additional manure is 
within reach. 

Seventh Rotation. 

Sandy soils, when properly manured, are well 
adapted to turnips, though it rarely happens that 
wheat can be cultivated on them with advantage, 
unless they are dressed witli alluvial compost, 
marl, cliij', or some such substance, as will gi> e a 
body or strength to them which they do not natu- 
rally possess. Barley, oats, and rye, the latter 
especially, are, however, sure crops on sands ; and, 
in favorable seasons, will return greater profit 
than can be obtained from wheat. 

1. Turnips, consumed on the ground. 2. Bar- 
ley. 3. Grass. 4. Rye or oats. 

By keeping the land three years in grass, the 
rotation would be extended to six years, a mea- 
sure highly advisable. 

From what has been stated, every person capa- 
ble of judging will at once perceive the facility of 
arranging husbandrj' upon correct principles, and 
of cropping the ground in such a way as to make 
it produce abundant returns to the occupier, 
whilst at the same time it is preserved in good 
condition, and never impoverished or exhausted. 
All these things are perfectly practicable under 
the allsrnate system, though it is doubtful whether 
they can bs gained under any other. 

It maj- be added, that winter-sown crops, or 
crops sown on the winter furrow, are most eligible 
on all clayey soili. 

Ploughing, with a view to clean soils of the de- 
scription under consideration, has little effect un- 
less given in the summer months. This renders 
summer fallow indispensably necessary; and, 
without this radical process, none of the heavy 



and wet soils can be suitably managed, tr pre. 
served in a good condition. 

To adopt a judicious rotation of chopping for 
every soil, requires a degree of judgment in the 
fanner, which can only be gathered from obser- 
valiori and experience. The old rotations were 
calculated to wear out the soil, and to render it 
unproductive; but the modern rutations, such as 
thoj^e which we have described, are founded on 
principles which insure a full return from the 
soil, without lessening its value, or imuoverishing 
its condition. Much depends, however, upon the 
manner in which the ditlerent processes are exe- 
cuted; for the best-arranged rotation may be of 
no avail, if the processes belonging to it are im- 
perfectly and unreasonablj' executed. 

To cultivate Wheat. 
On soils really calculated for wheat, though in 
different degrees, summer fallow is the first and 
leading step to gain a good crop or crojis of that 
grain. The first furrow should be given before 
winter, or as early as the other operations of the 
farm will admit; and every attentio-n should be 
used to go as deep as possible; for it rarely hap- 
pens that any of the succeeding furrows exceed 
the first one in that respect. The number of 
after-ploughings must be regulated by the condi- 
tion of the ground and the state of the weather; 
but, in general, it may be observed, that plough- 
ing in length and across, alternately, is the way 
by which the ground will be most completely cut, 
and the intention of fallowing accomplished. 

Varieties of Seed. 

Wheat may be classed under two principal di- 
visions, though each of these admits of several 
subdivisions. The first is composed of all the 
varieties of red wheat. The second division com- 
prehends the whole varieties of white wheat, 
which again may be arranged under two distinct 
heads, namely, thick-chafled and thin-chaft'ed. 

The thick-chaffed varieties were formerly in 
greatest repute, generally yielding the whitest 
and finest flour, and, in dry seasons, not inferior 
in produce to the other; but since 1799, when the 
disease called mildew, to which they are consti- 
tutionally predisposed, raged so extensively, they 
have gradually been going out of fashion. 

The thin-chaffed wheats are a hardy class, and 
seldom mildeweil. unless the weather be particu- 
larly inimical during the stages of blossoming, 
filling, and ripening, though some of them are 
rather better qualified to resist that destructive 
disorder than others. In 1799, thin-chatted 
wheats were seriously injured; and instances 
were not wanting to show, that an acre of them, 
with respect to value, exceeded an acre of thick- 
chaffed wheat, quantity and quality considered, 
not less than fifty per cent. Since that time, 
therefore, their culture has rapidly increased; and 
to this circumstance may, in a great measure, be 
attributed the high character which thin-chaffed 
wheats now bear. 

Method of Sowing. 

Sowing in the broadcast way may be said to be 
the mode universally practised. Upon well pre- 
pared lands, if the seed be distributed equally, it 
can scarcely be sown too thin; perhaps two 
bushels per acre are sufficient; for the hea\iest 
crops at autumn are rarely those which show the 
most vigorous appearance through the winter 
months. Bean stubbles require more seed than 
summer fallows, because the roughness of their 
surface prevents such an equal distribution ; and 
clover leas ought to be still thicker sown than 
bean stubbles. Thin sowing in spring ought not 



28 



AGRICULTURE. 



in hfl practised, otherwise the crop will he late, 
and imperfectly ripened. No more harrowing 
should be given to fields that have been lallowed, 
than what is necessary to cover the seed, and 
level the surface suflSciently. Ground, which is 
to lie in a broken-down state through the winter, 
sufiFers severely when an excessive harrowing is 
given, especially if it is incumbent on a close 
bottom; though, as to the quantity necessary, 
none can give an opinion, except those who are 
personally present. 

7'o soic Grain by Ribbing. 
The ribbing of grain crops was introduced into 
Great Britain in the year 1810. The process is 
as follows : Suppose the land in fallow, or tur- 
nips eat off, let it be gathered into ridges of twelve 
feet each; then harrow it well, particularly the 
furrows of the ridges ; after which take a narrow- 
bottomed swing plough, five inches and a half 
broad at the heel, with a narrow-winged sock, 
drawn by one horse; begin in the furrow, as if 
you intended to gather two ridges together, which 
will make a rib exactly in the middle of the fur- 
row ; then turn back up the same furrow you 
came down, keeping close to the rib made; pursue 
the same mode on the other side, and take a little 
of the soil which is thrown over by the mould- 
board from the back of each rib, and so on till you 
come near the furrow, when you must pursue the 
same mode as at first. In water furrowing you 
will then have a rib on each side of the furrow, 
distance between the rib, ten or twelve inches. 
The seed to be sown from the hand, and, from the 
narrowness or sharpness of the top of the ridges, 
the grain will fall regularly down, then put on a 
light harrow to cover the seed. In wet soils the 
ridges ought to be twice gathered, as ribbing re- 
duces them. 

It will answer all kinds of crops, but not all 
soils. Strong clayey soils cannot be pulverized 
BuflRciently for that purpose ; nor can it be effected 
in clover-lea, unless it be twice ploughed and well 
harrowed. Ribbing is here esteemed preferable 
to drilling, as you have the same opportunity of 
keeping the land clean, and the grain does not 
fall so close together as by drilling. 

The farmer may hand or horse-hoe his crops, 
and also hoe in his clover-seed, which is consider- 
ed very advantageous. It is more productive of 
grain, especially when it is apt to lodge, and, in 
all cases, of as much straw; and ribbing is often 
the means of preventing the corn lodging. 

In a wet season ribbing is more favorable to 
harvesting, because the space between the ribs 
admits the air freely, and the corn dries much 
sooner. The reapers also, when accustomed to it, 
cut more and take it up cleaner. 

Improved Method of Drilling Wheat. 
The drill contains three coulters, placed in a 
triangular form, and worked by brushes, with 
east-iron nuts, sufficient for one horse to draw, 
and one man to attend to. It will drill three acres 
i)er day of wheat, barley or oats, at five inches 
asunder; and five acres per day of beans, peas, 
etc., at twelve inches asunder. The general prac- 
tice is to drill crossways, and to set the rows five 
or six inches, and never exceeding seven inches, 
apart, it being found that if the distance is greater 
they are too long filling up in the sjiring, that 
^hey afford a greater breadth for the growth of 
weeds, are more expensive to hoe, and more liable 
tc be laid in the summer. In drilling wheat never 
harrow after the drill if it can be avoided, the 
6.rill generally leaving the corn sufficiently cover- 
ed ; and by this plan the vegetation is quickened, 
and the ridges of soil between each two rows pre- 



serve the plants in winter, and render the operation 
of harrowing in the spring much more efficacious. 
The spring harrowing is performed the contrary 
way to that of the drilling, as the harrow working 
upon the riages does not pull up the plants, and 
leaves the ground mouldy for the hoe. This point 
should be particularly attended to. The harrow- 
ing after the drill evidently leaves the ground in 
a better state to the eye, but the advantages in 
the produce of the crop are decidedly in favor of 
the plan of leaving the land in the rough ^ta.ta 
already described, us the operation of the winte/ 
upon the clods causes them to pulverize, and fur- 
nishes an abundant nutrition to the plants in the 
spring; and followed by the hoe about the tiiua 
the head or ear is forming, it makes the growtii 
of the plant more vigorous, and greatly improves 
the size of the he,ad or ear. The drilling for wheat 
should generally commence about the latter end 
of September, at which time the farmer may drill 
about two bushels per acre. As the season ad- 
vances, keep increasing the quantity to three 
bushels per acre, being guided by the quality of 
the soil and other circumstances. A great loss 
has frequently arisen through drilling too small a 
quantity of seed, as there can be none spared in 
that case for the rooks and grubs: and a thick, 
well-planted crop will always yield more abun- 
dantly than a thin stooling crop, and ripen sooner. 

The drill system would have been in more gene- 
ral practice, if its friends had also recommended 
the use of a larger quantity of seed to the acre, 
and the rows to be planted nearer together. It is 
impossible to obtain so great a produce per acre 
by the broadcast system as by the drill system at 
the same expense, be the land ever so free from 
weeds. Fifty bushels per acre may be raised by 
the drill, but never more than forty bushels by 
sowing broadcast. The wheat crops should gene- 
rally be top-dressed in winter with manure com- 
post, or some other dressing in frost, or when you 
can cart upon the land; but if that operation ia 
rendered impracticable, sooting in March, or any 
other dressing of that description, hoed in at the 
spring, is preferable to a dressing laid on in the 
autumn and ploughed in. 

The advantages of the drill over the broadcast 
system are numerous and decisive, as it enables 
the farmer to grow corn without weeds, is sooner 
ready for stacking after the scythe or sickle, pro- 
duces a cleaner and more regular sample for the 
market, and hence obtains a better price, leaves 
the land in a better state for a succeeding crop, 
and materially increases the quantity of food for 
human consumption. 

To Pickle the Seed. 
This process is indispensably necessary on every 
soil, otherwise smut, to a greater or less exteiit, 
will, in nine cases out of ten, assuredly follow. 
Stale urine may be considered as the safest and 
surest pickle, and where it can be obtained in a 
sufficient quantity, is commonlj' resorted to. TLe 
mode of using it does not however seem to be 
agreed upon, for while one party contends that 
the grain ought to be steeped in the urine, another 
party considers it sufficient to sprinkle the urine 
upon it. But whatever difterence of opinion there 
may be as to the kind of pickle that ought to be 
used, and the mode of using it, all a^lmit the utility 
of mixing the wetted seed with hot lime fresh 
slaked; and this, in one point of view, is abso- 
lutely necessary, so that the seed may be equally 
distributed. It may be remarked that experience 
justifies the utility of all these modes, provided 
they are attentively carried into execution. There 
is some danger from the first, for if the seed steep- 



INDIAN CORN, SOUGnUM. 



29 



•d in urine is not immediately sown, it will infal- 
libly lose its vegetative power. The second, viz., 
sprinkling the urine on the seed, seems to be the 
Bafest if performed by an attentive hand, whilst 
the last may do equiiliy well, if such a quantity of 
•alt be incorporated with the water as to render it 
of sufficient strength. It may also be remarked, 
that this last mode is often accompanied with 
smut, owing no doubt to a deficiency of strength 
in the pickle; whereas a single head with smut is 
rarely discovered when urine has been used. 

To cultioale Indian Corn. 
The land should be a loamy sand, very rich. In 
April th« grains should be set like hops, at three 
to four feet distance, three to six grains in a hill, 
each grain about an inch deep in the ground. 
The seed from New England is the best. In 
May the alleys should be hoed and the hills weed- 
ed and earthed up higher; miiny good farmers 
plough three times after planting. At the latter 
end of that month all the superfluous stalks should 
be taken awaj', luid only three stems of corn left 
in each hill. By the middle of June, it will cover 
the alley. It grows much like bulrushes, the 
lower leaves being like broad flags, three or four 
inches wide, and as many feet in length ; the 
Stems shooting upwards, from seven to ton feet in 
height, with many joints, casting ofl" flag-leaves at 
every joint. Under these leaves and close to the 
stem grows the corn, covered over by many coats 
of sedgy leaves, and so closed in by them to the 
stem, that it does not show itself easily till there 
bursts out at the end of the ear a number of 
strings that look like tufts of horse-hair, at first 
of a beautiful green, and afterwards red or yellow, 
the stem ending in a flower. The corn will ripen 
in October or early November; but the sun at 
that season not having strength enough to dry it, 
it must be laid upon racks or thin open floors in 
dry rooms, and frequently turned, to avo'id mould- 
ing; the grains are about as big as peas, and 
adhere in regular rows round a white pithy sub- 
stance, which forms the ear. An ear contains 
from two to four hundred grains, and is from six 
to ten inches in length. They are of various 
colors, blue, red, white and yellow. The manner 
of gathering them is by cutting down the stems 
and breaking ofi' the ears. The stems are as big 
as a man's wrist, and look like bamboo cane; the 
pith is full of a juice that tastes as sweet as sugar, 
and the joints are about a foot and a half distant. 
The increase is upwards of five hundred fold. 
Upon a large scale the seed may be drilled in 
alleys like peas, and to save digging, the ground 
may be ploughed and harrowed, which will answer 
very well. It will grow upon all kinds of land. 
The ears which grow upon dry sandy land are 
smaller, but harder and riper. The grain is taken 
from the husk by hand, and when ground upon 
stones, makes an excellent flour, of which it 
yields much more, with much less bran, than 
wheat does, and exceeds it in crust, pancakes, 
puddings, and all other uses except bread ; but a 
sweetness peculiar to it, which in all other cases 
makes it agreeable, is here less so. It is excellent 
for feeding horses, poultry and hogs, and fattens 
them much better and sooner than peas or barley. 
The stems make better hedges for kitchen garden 
than reeds do. It clears the ground from weeds, 
and makes a good season for any other kind of 
grain. It was the only bread-grain known in 
America when first discovered by the Spaniards, 
and is there called maize. 

Sorghum. 
This, also called Chinese sugar-eaue, is now 



attracting attention, especially in the West. It 
nwy be cultivated almost precif>ely like m »i'ie, and 
is more profitable. It is cut otl 'when it is ripa 
and beginning to fade islightly, or sometimes ear- 
lier than this. It may then be ground like sugar- 
cane. This is often done in a mill like a cider- 
press. The syrup is then boiled at once, in largo 
shallow kettles. It is said that soighum shuuld 
be grown on a sandy soil, not too rich; if the 
earth is rich, it grows too strong and fibrous, with 
less sugar in the stem. 

Diseases of Wliea.t. 
Wheat is subject to more diseases than other 
grains, and, in some seasons, especially in wet 
ones, heavier losses are su^tained from those dis- 
eases than are felt in the culture of any other cui 
miferous crop with which we are acquainted. 
Wheat may sutt'er from the attack of insects at 
the root; from blight, which primarily afl'eetg 
the leaf or straw, and ultimately deprives the 
grain of sufficient nourishment; from mildew on 
the oar, which operates thereon with the force of 
an apoplectic stroke; and from gum ot difl'orent 
shades, which lodges on the chafl' or cups in which 
the grain is deposited. 

Blight. 
Blight originates from moist or foggy weather, 
and from hoar-frost, the ett'ects of which, when ex- 
pelled by a hot sun, are first discernible on the 
straw, and afterwards on the ear, in a greater or 
less degree, according to local circumstances. Let 
a field be examined in a day or two alter such 
weather, and a careful observer will soon be satis- 
fied that the fibres and leaves of plants are con- 
tracted and enfeebled, in consequence of what 
may be called a stoppage of perspiration. This 
disorder may take place either earlier or later, 
but is most fatal when it appears at the time the 
grain is forming in the ear. It may a|)pear at an 
earlier stage; and though the productive powers 
of the plant will thereby be lessened, yet, if cir- 
cumstances are afterwards favorable, the quality 
of the grain produced may not be much impaired; 
or it may appear after the grain is fully formed, 
and then very little damage will be sustained, 
except by the straw. 

Mildew. 
Mildew may be ranked as a disease which af- 
fects the ear, and is brought on by causes some- 
what similar to those which occasion blight, 
though at a more advanced period of the season. 
If this disorder comes on immediately after the 
first appearance of the ear the straw will also be 
affected, but if the grain is nearly or fully formed 
then injury on the .straw is not much discernible. 
We have seen a crop that carried wheat that was 
mildewed where the straw was perfectly fresh, 
though, indeed, this rarely happens. A severe 
mildew, however, effectually prevents both grain 
and straw from making any further progress, the 
whole plant apparently going backward every 
day till existence in a manner ceases altogether. 
Something akin to mildew is the gum which, in 
all warm moist seasons, attaches itself to the ear, 
and often occasions considerable damage. All 
these ditfereut disorders are generally accompa- 
nied by insects, and by minute parasitic vege- 
table growths, considered by many to be the 
authors of the mischief that follow*. Their ap- 
pearance, however, may justly be attributed to 
the diseased state of the plant; for wherever 
putrefaction takes place, either in animal or vege- 
table substances, the presence of these parasites 
will never be wanting. 



80 



AGRICULTURE. 



Rtiat. 

Another disorder which affects wheat and is 
by sever'il peiit)le dcndiiiinated the real rust, is 
brought ot/ liy excessive heat, which occasions the 
plants to yuft'er from a privation of nourishment, 
and become sickly and feeble. In this atropliic 
state a kind of dust gathers on the stalks and 
leaves, which increases with the disease, till the 
plant is in a great measure worn out and ex- 
hausted. The only remedy in this case, atrd it is 
one that cannot easily be administered by the 
hand of man, is a plentiful supply of moisture, by 
which, if it is received before consumption is too 
far advanced, the crop is benefited in a degree 
proportional to the extent of nourishment re- 
ceived, and the stage at which the disease has 
arrived. 

Jnipropriety of Sowinc/ Mil denied Wheat. 
Some peo])le have recommended the sowing of 
blighted and mildewed wheat, because it will 
vegetate; though certainly the recommendation, 
if carried into practice, would be attended with 
imminent danger to those who attempted it. 
That light or defective wheat will vegetate and 
produce a plant we are not disposed to contra- 
dict, but that it will vegetate as briskly, or put 
out a stem of equal strength, and capable of with- 
standing the severe winter blasts as those pro- 
duced from sound seed we must be excuseci for 
not believing. Let it only be considered that a 
plant of young wheat, unless when very early 
sown, lives three or four months, in a great 
measure, upon the nourishment which it derives 
from the parent seed ; and that such nourishment 
can, in no view of the subject, be so great when 
the parent is lean and emaciated as when sound, 
healthy and vigorous. Let it also be retnem- 
bered that a plant produced from the best and 
weightiest seed must, in every case, under a 
parity of other circumstances, have a stronger con- 
stitution at the outset, which necessarily qualifies 
it to push on with greater energy when the sea- 
son of growth arrives. Indeed, the economy of na- 
ture would be overturned should any other result 
follow. A breeder of cattle or sheep would not 
act more foolishly, who trusted that a deformed 
diminutive bull or ram would produce him good 
stock, than the corn farmer does who uses unsound 
or imperfect seed. 

To remove the. Mildew on Wheat. 
A solution of common salt in water, in the pro- 
portion of a pound to a gallon, is an excellent 
remedy for the mildew on grain. After sprinkling 
three or four days, the mildew will disappear, 
leaving only a discoloration on the straw where it 
was destroyed. The best and most expeditious 
way of applying the mixture is with a flat brush, 
such as is used by whitewashers. The operator 
having a pail of the mixture in one hand, with 
the other he dips the brush into it, and makes 
his regular casts as when sowing grain broadcast; 
in this way he will readily get over ten acres in 
the day, and with an assistant a great deal more. 
About two hogsheads of the mixture will suffice 
for an acre. Wherever the mixture touches the 
mildew immediately dies. 

To j)revent Mildew in Wheat. 
Dissolve three ounces and two drachms of sul- 
phate of copper, copperas, or blue vitriol, in three 
gallons and three quarts, wine measure, of cold 
water, for every three bushels of grain that is to 
be prepared. Into another vessel capable of con- 
taining from fifty-three to seventy-nine wine 
gallons, throw from three to four bushels of 



wheat, into which the prepared liquid is poured, 
until it rises five or six inches above the grain. 
Stir it thoroughly; and carefully remove all that 
swims on the surface. After it has remained half 
an hour in the preparation, throw the wheat into 
a basket that will allow the water to escape, but 
not the grain. It ought then to be immediately 
washed in rain, or pure water, which will prevent 
any risk of its injuring the germ, and afterwards 
the seed ought to be dried before it is sown. It 
may be preserved in this shape for months. Ano- 
ther method, which has been tried in Russia, is 
to expose the seed for one or two weeks to a drf 
heat of about 80"^ or 90°. 

To prevent the Smut in Wheat. 

Liming the seed by immersion is recommended 
by a French writer, as the only preventive war- 
ranted by science and sanctioned by experience, 
and the following is given as the method in which 
the process is best performed : 

To destroy the germs of the blight in four and 
a half bushels or 256 pounds of grain, about six 
or seven gallons of water must be used, as grain 
may be more or less dry, and from thirty-five to 
forty-two ounces avoirdupois of quick-lime, ac- 
cording as it may be more or less caustic, and 
according as the seed may have more or less of 
the blight. Boil ]r,irt of the water, black the 
lime with it, and Ihen add the rest. When joined 
the heat of the water should be such that the 
hand can with difficulty bear it. Pour the lime 
water upon the corn placed in a tub, stirring it 
incessantly, first with a stick, and afterwards with 
a shovel. The lifjuid should, at first, cover the 
wheat, three or four fingers' breadth ; it will soon 
be absorbed by the grain. In this state let it 
remain covered over for twenty-four hours, Imt 
turn it over five or six times during the day. 
Such parts of the liquor as will drain off may 
then be separated, when the corn, after standing 
a few hours, in order that it may run freely out 
of the hand, may be sown. If not intended to be 
used immediately, the limed wheat should be put 
in a heap, and moved once or twice a day till dry. 
Experience has proved that limed grain germi- 
nates sooner than unlimed; and, as it carries with 
it moisture sufficient to develop the embryo, the 
seed will not suffer for want of rain ; insects will 
not attack it, the acrid taste of the lime being 
offensive to them ; and, as every grain germinates, 
a less quantity is requisite. In fact, the grain 
being swelled, the sower filling his hand as usual, 
will, when he has sown sixty-five handsful of 
limed corn, have in reality only used fifty-two. 
As blighted grains preserve for a long time the 
power of germinating, the careful farmer, whose 
grain has been touched, should carefully sweep 
out the crevices in the walls and cracks in the 
floors of his barn, and take great pains to clean 
them thoroughly. Dry heat, as above spoken of, 
may be worth trying. 

Another Method. 

A tub is used that has a hole at bottom for • 
spigot and faucet, fixed in a wisp of straw, to 
prevent any small pieces of lime passing (as in 
brewing). To seventy gallons of water add a 
bushel of unslaked lime, stir it well till the 
whole is mixed, let it stand thirty hours, run it 
off into another tub (as practised in beer) ; add 
forty-two pounds of salt, which, with stirring, 
will soon dissolve; this is a proper pickle for 
brining and liming seed wheat without any ob- 
stacle, and greatly facilitates the drilling. 

Steep the wheat in a broad-bottomed basket, 
twenty-four inches in diameter and twenty iuche* 



BARLEY. 



31 



deep, running in the grain gradually in small 
quantities, from ten to twelve gallons; stirring 
the same. What floats skim otf, and do not sow ; 
then draw up the basket, to drain the jiickle for a 
few luiiiutcs; this may 1)6 perfornieil in half an 
hour, and when sufiBeiently pickled proceed as 
before. The wheat will be tit for sowing in 
twenty-four hours, if required; but for drilling 
two hours pickled will be best, and prepared four 
or five daj's before. 

Mr. Htiidcrson's Method of preventing Smut in 
Wheal. 

Take of best soft green soap, made from fish- 
oil, one pound, and of scalding water four gallons. 
Put the soap into a glazed vessel with a small 
porti<in of the water; continue stirring it, and 
add the water a^ it dissolves, till the whole is a 
perfect lye. It should be used at about ninety de- 
grees of Fahrenheit's thermometer or new-milk 
warm. Put the wheat into a tub, and pour on it 
a quantity of the liquor sulticient to cover it com- 
pletely, and throw a blanket over it to preserve 
the heat. Stir it every ten minutes, and take off 
the scum. When it has remained in this manner 
for an hour, drain the liquor from the wheat 
through a sieve, or let the tub be furnished with 
a drain-bottom like a brewing vat. Let the 
liquor which was drawn off stand a few minutes 
to subside, and then pour it off the sediment. 
Repeat the operation till the whole quantity is 
steeped, only observe to add each time as much 
hot lye as was observed l»y the former steeping. 
Dry the wheat with quick-lime, and sow as soon 
as convenient. It will keep ten da3's after steep- 
ing; but should be spread thin on a dry floor. 

If a tub with a drain-bottom is used, such as 
a hogshead with a spigot to draw off the lyo, 
four ounces of soap and one gallon of wator, 
scalding hot, will preserve a stock of warm lye 
Bufficiont f'jr any quantity of wheat. The cpe- 
tation should be performed in a clean place, 
at a diglance from barns and granaries, the 
Toofs of which may be observed hanging full of 
smut. The refuse of smutted wheat should be 
buried deep in the earth, and not thrown to the 
dunghill, from which it would be conveyed to 
the field. 

Advantages of Heaping Grain before being Per- 
fectly Ripe. 

M. Cadet de Vaux has recommended, as an im- 
portant and useful innovation, the reaping of 
grain before it is perfectly ripe. This practice 
originated with M. Salles, of the Agricultural 
Society of Beziers : grain thus reaped (say eight 
days before it is ripe) is fuller, larger, and finer, 
and is never attacked by the weevil. This was 
proved by reaping one half of a field as recom- 
mended, and leaving the other till the usual 
time. The early-reaped portion gave a hecto- 
litre (about three bushels) of grain more for an 
acre of land than the later-reaped. An equal 
quantity of flour from each was maile into bread ; 
that made from the grain reaped green gave seven 
pounds of bread more than the other in two 
bushels. The weevil attacked the ripe grain but 
not the green. The proper time for reaping is 
when the grain, pressed between the fingers, has 
a doughy appearance, like bread just hot from 
the oven when pressed in the same way. 
To Manage the Wheal Harvent. 

It is alvantageous to cut wheat before it is fully 
ripe; but, in ascertaining the proper state, it is 
necessary to discriminate between the ripeness of 
tbe straw and the ripeness of the grain ; f<ir, in 
lome seasons, the straw diea upwards, under whict 



oircnmstance a field, to the eye, may appear to be 
completely fit for the sickle, when, in reality, the 
grain is imperfectly consolidated, and perhaps not 
uiuch removed from a milky state. Though it is 
obvious that under such circumstances no further 
benefit can be conveyed from the root, and that 
nourishment is withheld tbe moment that the roots 
die, yet it does not follow that grain so circum- 
stanced sh<mld be immediately cut, because, after 
that operation is performed it is in a_ great mea« 
sure necessarily deprived of every benelit from tha 
sun and air, both of which have greater influenca 
in bringing it to maturity so long as >t remains on 
foot than when cut down, whether laid on th« 
ground or bound up in sheaves. The state of 
weather at the time also deserves noti(!e, for as it) 
moist or even variable weather every kind of 
grain, when cut prematurely, is more exposed to 
damage than when completely ripeneil. All thesa 
things will be studied by the skilful husbandman, 
who will also take into consideration the danger! 
\"hich may follow were he to permit his wheat 
crop to remain uncut till completely ripened. Th« 
danger from wind will not be lost sight of, espe. 
cially if the season of the equinox approaches; 
even the quantity dropped in the field and in th« 
stack-yard, when wheat is over ripe, is an objecl 
of consideration. Taking all these things into 
view, it seems prudent to have wheat cut before ii 
is fully ripe, as less damage will be sustained from 
acting in this way than by adopting a contrary 
practice. 

If the weather be dry and the straw clean, 
wheat may be carted to the stack-yard in a few 
d:;ys; indeed, if quite ripe it may be stacked im- 
mediately from the sickle, especially when not 
meant for early threshing. So long, however, as 
any moisture remains in the straw, the field will 
be found to bo the best stack-yard; and whera 
grass or weeds of any kind are mixed with the 
crop, patience must be exerted till they are de- 
cayed and dried, lest heating be occasioned. 

Barley. 

Next to wheat the most valuable grain is bar- 
ley, especially on light and sharp soils. 

It is a tender grain and easily hun* in any of 
the stages of its growth, particularlj' at seeij 
time; a heavy shower of rain will then almost 
ruin a crop on the best prepared land; and in all 
the after processes greater pains and attention are 
required to insure success than in the case of other 
grains. The harvest process is difficult, and often 
attended with danger; even the threshing of it is 
not easily executed with machines, because tha 
awn generally adheres to the grain, and renders 
separation from the straw a troublesome task. 
Barley, in fact, is raised at greater expense than 
wheat, and generally speaking is a more hazard- 
ous crop. Except upon rich and genial soils, 
where climate will allow wheat to be perfectly 
reared, it ought not to be cultivated. 

Varieties of Barley. 

Barley may be divided into two sorts, fall and 
spring; to which may be added a bastard variety, 
called bear or bigg, which affords similar nutri- 
ment or substance, though of inferior quality. 
The spring is cultivated like oats ; the fall, lik« 
fall wheat. Early barley, under various names, 
was formerly sown in Britain upon lands that had 
been previously summer-fallowed, or were in high 
condition. 

The most proper seed season for spring barley 
is any time in March or April, though we ha7t 
seen good crops produced, the seed of which WOM 
sown at a much later period. 



32 



AGKICULTURE. 



To prepare the Ground. 
Barley is chiefly taken after turnips, sometimes 
after peas and beans, but rarely by good farmers 
either alter wheat or oats, unless under special 
circumstances. When sown after turnips it is 
generally taken with one furrow, which is given 
as fast as the turnips are consumed, the ground 
thus receivinir much benefit from the spring frosts. 
But often two or more furrows are necessary for 
the fields last consumed, because when a spring 
drought sets in the surface from being poached by 
the removal or consumption of the crop, gets so 
hardened as to render a greater quantity of 
ploughing, harrowing and rolling necessary than 
would otherwise be called for. AVhen sown after 
beans and peas, one winter and one spring plough- 
ing are usually bestowed; but wiien after wheat 
or oats, three ploughings are necessary, so that 
the ground may be put in proper condition. 
These operations are very ticklish in a wet and 
backward season, and rarely in that case is the 
grower paid for the expense of his labor. Where 
land is in such a situation as to require three 
ploughings before it can be seeded with barley, it 
is better to summer-fallow it at once than to run 
the risks which seldom fail to accompanj' a quan- 
tity of spring labor. If the weather be dry, mois- 
ture is lost during the different processes, and an 
imperfect braird necessarily follows ; if it be wet, 
the benefit of ploughing is lost, and all the evils 
of a wet seed time are sustained by the future 
erop. 

Quantity of Seed, 

The quantity sown is different in different cases, 
according to the quality of the soil and other cir- 
cumstances. Upon very rich lands eight pecks 
per acre are sometimes sown ; twelve is very com- 
mon, and upon poor land more is sometimes 
given. 

By good judges a quantity of seed is sown suf- 
ficient to insure a full crop, without depending on 
its sending out offsets; indeed, where that is done 
few offsets are produced, the crop grows and ripens 
equally, and the grain is uniformly good. 

M'Cartney'a Invention for HummelUng Barley. 

This invention is extremely simple, and the 
eost small. It is a bit of notched stick or bar, 
lined on one side with a thin plate of iron, and 
just the length of the rollers, fixed by a screw- 
bolt at each end to the inside of the cover of the 
drum, about the mid<lle of it, so that the edge of the 
said notched stick is about one-eighth of an inch 
from the arms of the drum as it goes round. Two 
minutes are sufiicient to put it on, when its opera- 
tion is wanted, which is when putting through 
the second time, and it is easily taken off. It 
rubs off the awns or spikes to admiration, and 
by putting the grain another time through the 
mill, it will rub the husk off the ends of the 
pickle so entirely, that it is unnecessary to sow it 
afterwards. 

To harvest Barley. 

More care is required in the harvesting of barley 
than of any of the other white crops, even in the 
best of seasons ; and in bad years it is often found 
Tery difficult to save it. Owing to the brittleness 
of the straw after it has reached a certain period, 
it must be cut down, as when it is suffered to stand 
longer much loss is sustained by the breaking of 
the heads. On that account it is cut at a time 
when the grain is soft, and the straw retains a 
great proportion of its natural juices, consequently 
requires a long time in the field before either the 
grain is hardened or the straw suflScicntly dry. 
When put into the stack too soon it is apt to heat, 



and much loss is frequently sustained. It U a 
custom with many farmers to have an opening in 
the middle of their barley stacks, from top to bot- 
tom. This opening is generally made by jtlacing 
a large bundle of straw in the centre of the stack 
when the building commences, and in proportion 
as it rises, the straw is drawn upwards, leaving a 
hollow behind, which, if one or two openings! are- 
left in the side of the stack near the bottom, in- 
sures so complete a circulation of air as not only 
to prevent heating, but to preserve the grain from 
becoming musty. 

Varieties of Oats, 
Of this grain the varieties are more numerous 
than of any other of the culmiferous tribe. These 
varieties consij-f of what is called the common oat, 
the Angus oat, which is considered as an improved 
variety of the other, the Poland oat, the Friesland 
oat, the red oat, the dun oat, the Tartar or Sibe- 
rian oat, and the potato oat. The Poland and 
potato varieties are best adapted to rich soils ; 
the red oat for late climates; and the other va- 
rieties for the generality of soils of which the 
British isles are composed. The Tartar or Sibe- 
rian kind, though very hardy and prolific, is much * 
out of use, being of a coarse substance, and un- 
productive of meal. The dun oat has never been 
much cultivated, and the use of Poland and 
Friesland is now much circumscribed, since 
potato oats were introduced; the latter being 
considered, by the most discerning agriculturists, 
as of superior value in every respect where the 
soil is rich and properly cultivated. 

To prepare the Ground, 

Oats are chiefly sown after grass; sometimes 
upon land not rich enough for wheat, that has 
been previously summer-fallowed, or has carried 
turnips; often after barley, and rarely after wheat, 
unless cross-cropping, from particular circnm- 
stances, becomes a necessary epil. One ploughing 
is generally given to the grass lands, usually in 
the month of January, so that the benefit of 
frost may be gained, and the land sufficiently 
mellowed for receiving the harrow. In some 
cases a spring furrow is given, when oats succeed 
wheat or barley, especially when grass seeds are 
to accompany the crop. The best oats, both in 
quantity and quality, are always those which 
succeed grass; indeed, no kind of grain seems 
better qualified by nature for foraging upon grass 
land than oats; as a full crop is usually obtained 
in the first instance, and the land left in good 
order for succeeding crops. 

Quantity of Seed. 

From twelve to eighteen pecks of seed are 
generally allowed to the acre of ground, accord- 
ing to the richness of the soil and the variety 
that is cultivated. Here it may be remarked that 
land sown with potato oats requires much less 
seed, in point of measure, than when any of the 
other sorts are used ; because potato oats both 
tiller well, much better than Poland, and have 
not an awn or tail like the ordinary varieties. 
On that account, a measure contains many ojore 
seeds of them than of any other kind. If land 
is equally well cultivated, there is little doubt but 
that the like quantity of seed given when barley 
is cultivated, may be safely trusted to when po- 
tato oats are to be raised. 

To harvest Oats, 

Oats are a hardy grain, and rarely get much 

damage when under the harvest process, except 

from high winds or from shedding, when open«»d 

out after being thoroughly wetted. Tho early 



OATS, RYE. 



33 



varieties are much more liable to these losses than 
the late ones, because the grain parts more easily 
from the straw, an evil to which the best of grain 
(6 at all times subject. Early oats, however, may 
be cut a little quick, which, to a certain extent 
lessens the danger to which they are exposed from 
high winds; and if the sheaves be made small the 
danger from shedding after rains is considerably 
lessened, because they are thus sooner ready for 
the stack. Under every management, however, a 
greater quantity of early oats will be lost during 
the harvest process than of late ones ; because 
the latter adhere firmly to the straw, and conse- 
quently do not drop.so easily as the former. 

To cultivate Rye. 
Rye ought never to be sown upon wet soils, nor 
even upon sandy soils where the subsoil is of a 
retentive nature. Upon downs, links, and all soft 
lands which have received manure, this grain 
thrives in perfection, and, if once covered in, will 
Stand a drought afterwards that would consume 
any other of the culmiferous tribe. The several 
processes may be regarded as nearly the same with 
those recommended for wheat, with the single ex- 
ception of pickling, which rye does not require. 
Rye may be sown either in winter or spring, 
though the winter-seeded fields are generally 
bulkiest and most productive. It may succeed 
either summer fallow, clover or turnips : even 
after oats good crops have been raised, and where 
such crops are raised the land will always be 
found in good condition. 

To cultivate Beans. 
Beans naturally succeed a culmiferous crop, and 
WB believe it is not of much importance which of 
the varieties is followed, provided the ground be 
In decent order, and not worn out by the previous 
crop. The furrow ought to be given early in 
winter, and as deep as possible, that the earth 
may be suiEciently loosened, and room afiforded 
for the roots of the plant to search for the requi- 
site nourishment. The first furrow is usually 
given across the field, which is the best method 
when only one spring furrow is intended; but as 
it is now ascertained that two spring furrows are 
highly advantageous, the one in winter ought to 
be given in length, which lays the ground ia a 
better situation for resisting the rains, and ren- 
ders it sooner dry in spring than can be the case 
■when ploughed across. On the supposition that 
three furrows are to be given, one in winter and 
two in spring, the following is the most eligible 
preparation : 

Approved Modes of Drilling. 
The land being ploughed in length as early in 
winter as is practicable, and the gaw and head- 
land furrows sufficiently digged out, take the 
second furrow across the first as soon as the 
ground is dry enough in spring to undergo the 
operation ; water-furrow it immediately, and dig 
again the gaw and headland furrows, otherwise 
the benefit of the second furrow may be lost. 
This being done, leave the field for some days, 
till it is sufiiciently dry, when a cast of the har- 
rows becomes necessary, so that the surface may 
be levelled. Then enter with the ploughs and 
form the drills, which are generally made up with 
an interval of twenty-seven inches. In the hollow 
of this interval deposit the seed by a drill-barrow, 
and reverse or slit out the drills to cover the seed, 
which finishes the process for the time. In ten 
or twelve days afterwards, according to the state 
of the weather, cross-harrow the drills, thereby 
levelling the field for the hoeing process. Water- 
furrow the whole in a neat manner, and spade 



and shovel the gaw and the headland furrows, 
which concludes the whole process. 

This is the most approved way of drilling beans. 
The next best is to give only one spring furrow, 
and to run the drill-barrow after every third 
plough, in which way the intervals are nearly of 
the same extent as already mentioned. Harrowing 
is afterwards required before the young plants 
reach the surface, and water-furrowing, etc., as 
above described. 

Dung is often given to beans, especially when 
they succeed wheat which has not received ma- 
nure. The best way is to apply the dung on the 
stubble before the winter furrow is given, which 
greatly facilitates the after process. Used in this 
way, a fore stock must be in hand ; but where the 
farmer is not so well provided spring dunging be- 
comes necessary, though evidently of less advan- 
tage. At that season it may either be put into the 
drills before the seed is sown or spread upon the 
surface and ploughed down, according to the na- 
ture of the drilling process which is meant to bo 
adopted. Land dunged to beans, if duly hoed, is 
always in high order for carrying a crop of wheat 
in succession. Perhaps better wheat, both in re- 
spect to quantity and quality, may be cultivated 
in this way than in any other mode of sowing. 

Drilling Machines, 
Different machines have been invented for drill- 
ing beans, but the most common and handy is one 
of the narrow form. This hand drill is pushed 
forward by a man or woman, and will, according 
as the brush or director is lowered or heightened, 
sow thicker or thinner, as may be expedient and 
necessary. Another machine, drawn by a horse, 
and sowing three drills at a time, has been con- 
structed, and upon flat lands will certainly dis- 
tribute the seed with the most minute exactness. 
Upon unequal fields, and even on those laid out in 
high ridges, the use of this machine is attended 
with a degree of inconvenience sufficient to bal- 
ance its advantages. The hand-drill, thepeforo, 
in all probability, will be retained for general use, 
though the other is capable of performing th« 
work with minuter regularity. 

Quantity of Seed. 
Less than four bushels ought not to be hazarded 
if a full crop is expected. We seldom have seen 
thin beans turn out well, unless the soil is par- 
ticularly rich ; nay, unless the rows close, weeds 
will get away after the cleaning process is fin- 
ished, thereby disappointing the object of drill- 
ing and rendering the system of little avail to- 
wards keeping the ground in good condition. 

Hoeing Process. 

Beans are cleaned in various ways : 1st. By th« 
hand-hoe. 2d. By the scraper, or Dutch hoe. 
3d. By a plough of small dimensions, but con- 
structed upon the principles of the approved swing 
plough. Ploughs with double mould-boards are 
likewise used to earth them up, and with all good 
managers the weeds in the drills which cannot be 
touched by the hoe are pulled out by the hand; 
otherwise no field can be considered as duly 
cleaned. 

In treating of the cleaning process we shall 
confine ourselves to the one most suited to the 
generality of bean soils. About ten or twelve 
days after the young plants have appeared abort 
the surface, enter with the scraper, and loosen 
any weeds that may have vegetated. At this tima 
the wings or cutters of the implement ought to 
be particularly sharp, so that the scraper may not 
run too deep and throw tho earth upon the plants^ 



34 



AGRICULTURE. 



In about ten days after the ground is scraped, ac- 
cording to the state of the weather, and other cir- 
cumstances, use the small swing plough to lay the 
earth away from the sides of the rows, and in 
doing so go as near to the plants as possible, 
taking care at the same time not to loosen their 
roots. If any weeds stand in the rows pull them 
out with the hand, afterwards earth-up the plants 
with the small swing plough, or run the scraper 
in the intervals, as may seem expedient. 

To manage the Harvest. 

Before beans are cut the grain ought to be tol- 
erably well ripened, otherwise the quality is im- 
paired, whilst a long time is required to put the 
straw in such a condition as to be preserved in the 
stack. In an early harvest, or where the crop is 
not weighty, it is an easy matter to get beans 
sufiBciently ripened : but, in a late harvest, and in 
every one where the crop takes on a second 
growth, it is scarcely practicable to get them thor- 
oughly ripened for the sickle. Under these circum- 
stances it is unnecessary to let beans stand uncut 
after the end of September or the first of October, 
because any benefit that can be gained afterwards 
is not to be compared with the disadvantages that 
accompany a late wheat seed time. Beans are 
usually cut with the sickle and tied in sheaves, 
either with straw ropes or with ropes made from 
peas sown along with them. It is proper to let the 
sheaves lie untied several days, so that the wind- 
ing process may be hastened, and, when tied, to 
set them up on end, in order that full benefit from 
air may be obtained and the grain kept off the 
ground. In building bean stacks it is a useful 
measure for preserving both grain and straw from 
injury, to keep an opening in the centre, and to 
convey air from the extremity by a hole or funnel. 
Beans, on the whole, are a troublesome crop to the 
farmer, though of great utility in other respects. 
Without them heavy soils can scarcely be man- 
aged with advantage, unless summer fallow is re- 
sorted to once in four years, but by the aid de- 
rived from drilled beans summer fallow may be 
avoided for eight years, whilst the ground at that 
period will be found in equal, if not superior 
condition. 

To cultivate Peas. 

Peas are partially sown with beans to great ad- 
vantage, and when cultivated in this way the same 
system of preparation, etc., described under the 
head of beans is to be adopted. Indeed, upon 
many soils not deep enough for beans, a mixture 
of peas to the extent of one-third of the seed 
sown proves highly advantageous. The beans 
serve as props to the peas, and the latter being 
thus kept off the ground and furnished with air 
and other atmospheric nutriment, blossom and 
pod with much greater effect than when sown ac- 
cording to the broadcast system. 

Peas agree well with lime and other analogous 
stimulants, and can hardly be reaped in perfection 
where these are wanting. The varieties cultiva- 
ted are numerous, but those adapted to field cul- 
ture may be divided into two kinds, namely, early 
and late, though these branch out again into sev- 
eral varieties. We have white peas both early 
and late, and likewise gray peas, possessed of 
similar properties. The nomenclature is entirely 
arbitrary, and therefore not to be illustnited. As 
a general rule the best seed time for late peas is 
in the early spring, though early ones, such as the 
Extra Early and Blue Imperial pea, may be sown 
■uccessruUy later in the season. 

Peas ought to be sown tolerably thick, so that 
tho ground may be covered as early as possible. 



To cvltivate Taret. 

The tare is a plant of a hardy growth, and when 
sown upon rich land will return a large supply of 
green fodder for the consumption of horses or for 
fattening cattle. When intended for this use, the 
seed ought to be sown tolerably thick, perhaps 
to the extent of four bushels per acre, though 
when intended to stand for seed a less quantity is 
required, because otherwise the thickness of the 
crop will prevent the plants from blossoming and 
podding in a suflScient way. When meant for 
seed early sowing ought to be studied, otherwise 
the return will be imperfect; but when for green 
food any time betwixt the first of April and the 
latter end of May will answpr well, provided 
crops in succession from the first to the last men- 
tioned period be regularly cultivated. Instances 
are not wanting of a full crop being obtained 
even when the seed was sown so late as the mid- 
dle of June, though sowing so late is a practice 
not to be recommended. After the seed is sown 
and the land carefully harrowed, a light roller 
ought to be drawn across, so that the surface may 
be smoothed, and the scythe permitted to work 
without interruption. It is proper also to guard 
the field for several days against the depredations 
of pigeons, who are remarkably fond of tares, and 
will pick up a great part of the seed unless con- 
stantly watched. 

Horses thrive very well upon tares, even better 
than they do upon clover and rye-grass ; and the 
same remark is applicable to fattening cattle, who 
feed faster upon this article of green fodder than 
upon any kind of grass or esculent with which 
we are acquainted. Danger often arises from 
their eating too many, especially when podded; 
as colics and other stomach disorders are apt to 
be produced by the excessive loads which they 
devour. 

Potatoes. 

Potatoes, as an article of human food, are, next 
to wheat, of the greatest importance in the eye of 
a political economist. From no other crop that 
can be cultivated will the public derive so much 
food as from this valuable esculent; and it ad- 
mits of dem(mstration that an acre of potatoes 
will feed double the number of people that can be 
fed from an acre of wheat. Very good varieties 
are the Gleason, Calico, and Early Goodrich. 

To prepare the Ground. 
To reduce the ground till it is completely free 
from root-weeds, may be considered as a desi- 
deratum in potato husbandry; though in many 
seasons these operations cannot be perfectly exe- 
cuted, without losing the proper time for planting, 
which never ought to be beyond the first of May, 
if circumstances do not absolutely interdict it. 
Three ploughings, with frequent harrowings and 
rollings, are necessary in most cases before the 
land is in suitable condition. When this is accom- 
plished form the drills as if they were for turnips ; 
cart the manure, which ought not to be sparingly 
applied, plant the seed above the manure, reverse 
the drills for covering it and the seed, then harrow 
the drills in length, which completes the prepa- 
ration and seed process. 

Quantity/ of Seed. 
It is not advantageous to cut the seed into 
small slips, for the strength of the stem at the 
outset depends in direct proportion upon the 
vigor and power of the seed-plant. The seed- 
plant, therefore, ought to be large, rarely smaller 
than the fourth-part of the potato; and if the 
seed is of small size, one-half of the potato may 
be profitably used. At all events, rather err in 



POTATOES. 



35 



giving over large seed than in making it too 
emiiU- because, by the first error, no great loss 
can fever be sustained ; whereas, by the other, a 
fcrible and late crop may be the consequence. 
When the seed is properly cut, it requires from 
ten to twelve hundredweight of potatoes to plant 
an acre of ground, where the rows are twenty- 
seven inches apart; but this quantity depends 
greatly upon the size of the potatoes used ; if 
they are large, a greater weight may be required, 
but the extra quantity will be abundantly repaid 
by the superiority of crop which large seed 
usually produces. 

Advantageous Method of raising them. 

The earth should be dug twelve inches deep, if 
the soil will allow it; after this, a hole should be 
opened about six inches deep, and horse-dung or 
long litter should be put therein, about three 
inches thick ; this hole should not be more than 
twelve inches in diameter. Upon this dung or lit- 
ter a potato should be planted whole, upon which a 
little more dung should be shaken, and then the 
earth should be put thereon. In like manner the 
whole plot of ground must be planted, taking care 
that the potatoes be at least si.vteen inches apart. 
When the young shoots make their appearance 
they should have fresh mould drawn around them 
with a hoe; and if the tender shoots are covered, 
it will prevent the frost from injuring them; they 
should again be earthed when the shoots make a 
second appearance, but not covered, as in all pro- 
bability the season will be less severe. 

A plentiful supply of mould should be given 
them, and the person who performs this business 
should never tread upon the plant, or the hillock 
that is raised round it, as the lighter the earth is, 
the more room the potato will have to expand. 

A gentleman obtained from a single root, thus 
plante<l, very neiirly forty pounds weight of large 
potatoes; and from almost every other root upon 
the same plot of ground from fifteen to twenty 
pounds weight; and, except the soil be stony or 
gravelly, ten pounds or half a peck of potatoes 
may generally be obtained from each root by pur- 
suing the foregoing method. 

But note — cuttings or small sets will not do for 
this purpose. 

3fode of Taking up and Storing the Crop. 
Potatoes are generally dug up with a three- 
prong grape or fork, but at other times, when the 
weather is dry, the plough is used, which is the 
most expeditious implement. After gathering 
the interval, the furrow taken by the plough is 
broken and separated, in which way the crop may 
be more completely gathered than when taken up 
by the grape. The potatoes are then stored up for 
winter and spring use; and as it is of importance 
to keep them as long through summer as possible, 
every endeavor ought to be made to preserve 
them from frost, and from sprouting in the spring 
months. The former is accomplished by covering 
them well with straw when lodged in a house, 
and by a thick coat of earth when deposited in a 
pit, and the latter, by picking them carefully at 
different times, when they begin to sprout, drying 
them suflBciently by exposure to the sun, or by a 
gentle toast of a kiln. 

Method of Cultivating Potatoes in Ireland. 
The drill system, in the cultivation of pota- 
toes in Ireland, is particularly recommended by 
Lord Farnham, in a letter to Sir John Sinclair. 
The small farmers and laborers plant them in 
lazj -beds, eight feet wide. This mode is prac- 
tised on account of the want of necessary imple- 



ments for practising the drill system, together 
with a want of horses for the same purpose. 

They are cut into sets, three from a large potato ; 
and each set to contain at least one eye. The sets 
are planted at the distunce of seven inches asunder, 
six and a quarter cwt. are consiilered sufficient 
seed for an English acre. Lord Farnham recom- 
mends rotten dung in preference to any fresh- 
dung. If not to be procured, horse-dung, hot 
from the dunghill. In any soil he would recom» 
mend the dung below the seed. 

When the potatoes are vegetated ten inches 
above the surface, the scuffler must be introduced, 
and ^cast the mould from the potato. If any 
weeds are found in the drills they must be hand- 
hoed ; in three days afterwards they must be 
moulded up by the double-breasted plough, as 
high as the neck of the potato. This mode must 
be practised twice, or in some cases three times, 
particularly if the land is foul. I do not (says 
Lord Farnham) consider any mode so good as the 
drill system. 

General Observations. 

To prepare for the drill system either oat or 
wheat stubble, it should be ploughed in October 
or the beginning of November; to be ploughed 
deep and laid up for winter dry. In March let it 
be harrowed, and give it three clean earths. Be 
very particular to eradicate the couch grass. The 
drills to be three feot asunder; drill deep the first 
time that there is room in the bottom of the fur- 
row to contain the dung. The best time to begin 
planting the potatoes is about the latter end of 
April by this system. It is as good a preparation 
for wheat as the best fallows. 

Three feet and a half for drills are preferable to 
four feet. Mr. Curwen prefers four feot and a 
half. He says the produce is immense. Pota- 
toes ought to be cut at least from two to three 
weeks before being planted; and if planted very 
early whole potatoes are preferable to cut ones, 
and dung under and over. Some agriculturists 
lately pay much attention to raising seedling 
potatoes, with the hope of renewing the vigor of 
the plant. 

To produce early Potatoes in great Quantity. 

Early potatoes may be produced in great quan- 
tity by resetting the plants, after taking oflF the 
ripe and large ones. A gentleman at Dumfries 
has replanted them six different times in one sea- 
son, without any additional manure; and, instead 
of falling off in quantity, he gets a larger crop of 
ripe ones at every raising than the former ones. 
His plants have .<till on them three distinct crops, 
and he supposes they may still continue to vege- 
tate and germinate until they are stopped by the 
frost. By this means he has a new crop every 
eight days, and has had so for a length of time. 

To grow Potatoes constantly on the same piece of 
Ground. 

Let the cuttings be made from the finest pota- 
toes instead of the smallest and worst, usually 
employed for the purpose; and it will be found, 
contrary to what is supposed by fanners, that 
they will not degenerate. The same will happen 
with respect to the seeds of the watery squash, 
early peas, and several other kinds of vegetables. 
To preserve Potatoes from Frost. 

This is best done by filling completely the place 
where they are deposited, whether it be a house 
or a pit, and allowing the place to remain shut 
during the winter. But this cannot be done 
easily with a potato-house, as it cannot be com- 
pletely packed or filled like a pit Besides, some 
potatoes are generally wanted daily, and thus air 



* 



86 



AGRICULTURE. 



is admitted and a greater vacuity constantly 
making, both which are very likely to bo the 
means of proving injurious or destructive to what 
potatoes may be in the house when a severe frost 
sets in. There is no such thing in nature as a va- 
cuum ; therefore, if a place is not filled with some 
substance or other, it will be filled with air. For 
this reason, pits are better for preserving potatoes 
from frost than a house, because a pit can be 
more effectually filled : and, by opening a pit 
when potatoes are wanted, and removing the 
whole into some part of a house, and still keep- 
ing over them a covering of straw or turf, the 
potatoes are kept close. A potato-house, how- 
ever, is very useful, and what every farmer ought 
to have, as in this house he may still keep a 
small quantity of his crop for daily use by emp- 
tying a pit occasionally, and keeping them always 
well covered with straw, as has been already 
mentioned. 

The potato-house ought to be well plastered 
with clay, and perfectly dry before using it. 

Potato-pits should be made upon ground that 
has a southern exposure, a deep soil, and de- 
elining to a considerable distance from the pit. 
In a deep soil the pits can be made suflBciently 
deep before reaching any cold bottom, and the 
declivity carries away water. When the pits 
have been fully finished and covered, a sod should 
be cut out all the way round the potatoes, and 
the cut continued a little way as the descent 
points out. A pit of about ten feet deep, six 
wide and ten long, will hold from four to six cart 
loads of potatoes. The covering should consist 
of straw, fern, rushes, etc. next the potato, then 
the whole of the earth dug out should be thrown 
upon the heap ; and, last of all, a covering of 
earth, if done in the best way. This covering 
will be about two feet thick. 

Another Method. 
The best and easiest way of preserving potatoes 
IB for the farmer to drive all his potatoes home, 
and to lay them upon dry ground without break- 
ing the surface, and as near the stables as pos- 
sible, putting them in heaps of about three or 
four carts, then covering them with straw, and 
above that with turf, where it can be commanded, 
or with a neat thatching of straw. Then let a 
quantity of stable dung, of the roughest kind 
and the newest, be laid upon each heap, to remain 
during the winter, but which must be removed in 
the spring. As the weather appears severe, the 
quantity of dung may be increased at pleasure. 
If this practice were adopted few or no potatoes 
would be penetrated by the frost, as none would 
he in hazard except one pit, or part of it, when 
it was removing or placed in the potato-house 
during the winter season. 

To remove Frost from Potatoes. 

The weather which soonest injures and destroys 
potatoes, is when the atmosphere is depressed 
with cold to such a degree that it congeals water; 
then potatoes, unless covered, will be frosted ; and 
the cover proper to preserve them ought to be 
proportioned to the intenseness of the weather. 

Potatoes, when slightly frosted, so as to have 
acquired a slight sweet taste only, are often 
found quite wet. When they are in this state, in 
order to recover them, and bring them to a proper 
taste, the whole quantity infected should be 
turned over, and a quantity of mill-seeds thrown 
among them as they are turned over; this both 
extracts and absorbs the injured moisture from 
the body of the potatoes infected. But there is 
still a more powerful remedy than simply mixing 



them with mill-seeds, and that is a small quantity 
of slaked lime, perfectly dry, mixed among the 
seeds to be used, which has a very wonderful 
efieet in recovering potatoes that have been con- 
siderably injured by frost. 

When frosted potatoes are to be used, either at 
the table, or given to horses, black cattle or swine, 
plunging them in cold water, about half a day 
before using them, is of great advantage ; and if 
put into running water so much the better, as it 
has been proved to be more powerful in extracting 
the frost, on account of its alterative quality and 
superior purity. 

Another Method. 
Another way of removing frost from potatoes, 
when they are to be prepared for the table, is to 
strip them of their skins, and, if large, to cut 
them into two or more pieces ; then to plunge 
them into cold water for a considerable time, with 
a handful of salt in the water; and, when put on 
to be boiled, put as much salt into the water as 
possible, not to make them too salt when boiled. 

This is a powerful way of making the potato 
throw off the bad taste and spoiled quality lodged 
in its substance. 

When prepared for horses, black cattle, and 
swine : — Salt put among the potatoes and boiled 
together, will destroy any injurious quality which 
frost has lodged or brought on. Chaff or oats 
bruised in a mill, boiled with the frosted potatoes, 
when designed for horses or cattle, tend to destroy 
the bad effects of the frost. 

Uses to which Frosted Potatoes may he henefieially 
applied. 
When potatoes have acquired a disagreeable 
taste by means of frost, they will make good and 
wholesome bread by boiling them, as has been 
mentioned, with salt, mashing or bruising them 
small, then kneading them together with oatmeal. 
Not less than two-thirds should consist of meal, 
which will destroy the sweet taste, and the dry 
and generous quality of the meal will effectually 
correct and destroy anything noxious in the in- 
jured roots. 

Horses, swine, dogs, etc., may all be fed with 
potatoes, though frosted, by boiling them and 
mixing them with oats coarsely ground, or with 
oat-meal, always adding a good quantity of salt 
in the mixture. Poultry also may be fed with 
potatoes very much frosted, if mixed with oat- 
meal in about equal proportions, without salt, as 
this species of animal cannot admit of it. 
Further uses of Frosted Potatoes. 
Potatoes frosted, when three times distilled, 
produce a spirit from hydrometer proof to ten per 
cent, over proof; therefore a principal purpose 
and use to which they may be turned, is the mak- 
ing of alcohol, more particularly as that article 
is useful for many purposes where strength is its 
principal recommendation. The ordinary strength 
that spirits are run preparatory to converting 
them into alcohol, is from forty to fifty per cent, 
over proof, which, re- distilled from calcined car- 
bonate of potash, will produce alcohol at 825, 
water being 1000. 

When potatoes are frosted to such a degree as 
to be useless for food from their sweet taste, they 
are very useful to weavers in dressing their yarn, 
and particularly cotton. They are prepared for 
this purpose by boiling them well, then mash or 
beat them small; then put them into a vessel, 
adding a little barm, drippings of ale or porter 
barrels, allowing them to stand two or three 
months to ferment. 

Shoemakers may use it also; only as their pasto 
requires more solidity and greater strength, floor 



TURNIPS. 



8T 



Is generally mixed along with the fermented pota- 
toes in about equal proportions. 

Bookbinders also may use this paste, alum being 
mixed to assist the strength of the composition. 
And it may be beneficially used by paper stainers 
and upholsterers, when made up with a mixture 
of flour and alum. 

When potatoes are so penetrated with frost that 
they have become quite soft, they are useless for 
man or beast, but make excellent manure for light, 
sharp soils, and for this purpose are worth about 
one-fifth or sixth of their original value. In 
places where it is a great object to get straw 
turned into dung, the value of the frosted potato 
is still greater, as it assists the farmer in that 
operation. 

To make Starch from Frosted Potatoes. 
Potatoes much frosted will make very good 
starch, though it is a shade darker in color. All 
coarse clothes requiring to be stiffened, where 
whiteness is no object, may be done with starch 
made from potatoes greatly penetrated with frost. 
The best method of making potatoes into starch 
is to grate them down into water, then to take 
out all the refuse with the h;ind, and next to strain 
the whole of the water in which the potatoes have 
been grated through a thin cloth, rather coarse, 
or fine sieve, and afterwards frequently putting on 
and pouring off water until it comes clear from 
the starch, which is always allowed to settle or 
fall to the bottom of the vessel in which the ope- 
ration is performed. An experiment was tried 
with a few potatoes that were put out to frost. 
They were grated down and made into starch 
powder. The produce of the fresh potato weighed 
•876 grains, while that of the frosted was only 412, 
being less than half the quantity. 

The refuse of the potato, when taken from the 
sieve, possesses the property of cleansing woollen 
cloths without hurting their colors, and the water 
decanted from the starch powder is excellent for 
cleansing silks without the smallest injury to their 
color. In making hair-powder it has long been 
used, and is therefore well known. 
Turnijjs. 
The benefits derived from turnip husbandry are 
of great magnitude ; light soils are cultivated wHh 
profit and facility; abundance of food is provided 
for man and beast; the earth is turned to the uses 
for which it is physically calculated, and by being 
suitably clciined with this preparatory crop, a bed 
is provided for grass seeds, wherein they flourish 
and prosper with greater vigor than after any 
other preparation. 

To prepare the Ground. 
The first ploughing is given immediately after 
harvest, or as soon as. the wheat seed is finished, 
either in length or across the field, as circum- 
stances may seem to require. In this state the 
ground remains till the oat seed is finished, when 
a second ploughing is given to it, usually in a 
contrary direction to the first. It is then repeat- 
edly harrowed, often rolled between the harrow- 
ings, and every particle of root-weeds carefully 
picked off with the hand; a third ploughing is 
then bestowed, and the other operations are re- 
peated. In this stage, if the ground has not been 
very foul, the seed process generally commences, 
but often a fourth ploughing, sometimes a fifth is 
necessary before the ground is sufiiciently clean. 
Less labor, however, is necessary now than in 
former times, when a more regular mode of crop- 
ping was commonly followed. 

To amo the Seed. 
The next part of the process is the sowing of the 



seed ; this may be performed by drilling machines 
of diflFerent sizes and constructions, though all act- 
ing on the s.Tme principle. A machine drawn by a 
horse in a pair of shafts, sows two drills at a tim« 
and answers extremely well, where the ground is 
flat, and the drills properly made up. The weight 
of the machine insures a regularity of sowing 
hardly to be gained by those of a different size 
and construction. From two to three pounds of 
seed are sown upon the acre, though the smallest 
of these quantities will give many more plants in 
ordinary seasons than are necessary; but as the 
seed is not an expensive article the greater part 
of farmers incline to sow thick, which both pro- 
vides against the danger of part of the seed per- 
ishing, and gives the young plants an advantage 
at the outset. 

Turnips are sown from the beginning to the end 
of June; but the second and third weeks of the 
month are, by judicious farmers, accounted the 
most proper time. Some people have sown as 
early as May, and with advantage ; but these 
early fields are apt to run to seed before winter, 
especially if the autumn be favorable to vegeta- 
tion. As a general rule it may be laid down that 
the earliest sowings should be on the latest soils; 
plants on such soils are often long before they 
make any great progress, and, in the end, maybe 
far behind those in other situations, which were 
much later sown. The turnip plant, indeed, does 
not thrive rapidly till its roots reach the dung, 
and the previous nourishment afl'orded them is 
often so scanty as to stunt them altogether before 
they get so far. 

Cleaning Process. 
The first thing to be done in this process is to 
run a horse-hoe, called a scraper, along the 
intervals, keeping at such a distance from the 
young plants that they shall not be injured; 
this operation destroys all the annual weeds 
which have sprung up, and leaves the plants 
standing in regular stripes or rows. The hand- 
hoeing then commences, by which the tur- 
nips are all singled out, at a distance of from 
eight to twelve inches, and the redundant ones 
drawn into the spaces between the rows. The 
singling out of the young plants is an operation 
of great importance, for an error committed in 
this process can hardly be afterwards rectified. 
Boys and girls are always employed as hoers; 
but a steady and trusty man-servant is usually 
set over them to see that the work is properly 
executed. 

In eight or ten days, or such a length of time 
as circumstances may require, a horse-hoe of a 
different construction from the scraper is used. 
This, in fact, is generally a small plough, of the 
same kind with that commonly wrought, but of 
smaller dimensions. By this implement, the earth 
is pared away from the sides of the drills, and a 
sort of new ridge formed in the middle of the for- 
mer interval. The hand hoers are again set to 
work, and every weed and superfluous turnip is 
cut up; afterwards the horse-hoe is employed to 
separate the earth, which it formerly threw into 
the furrows, and lay it back to the sides of the 
drills. On dry lands this is done by the scraper, 
but where the least tendency to moisture prevails, 
the small plough is used, in order that the furrows 
may be perfectly cleaned out. This latter mode, 
indeed, is very generally practised. 

To cultivate the Yellow Turnip. 
This variety, as now cultivated in the field, is 
quite different from the yellow garden turnip, be- 
ing larger in size, containing more juice, or nu. 
tritive substance, much 'easier cultivated, and pre- 



88 



AGRICULTURE. 



serving its power till the middle of May, when 
the grass-season may be expected. Upon ordi- 
nary soils it is superior to ruta baga, because it 
will grow to a considerable weight, where the 
other would be stunted or starved-; and it stands 
the frost equally well. No farmer who keeps 
Stock to any extent should be without it. The 
mode of culture required is in every respect simi- 
lar to what is stated concerning common turnips, 
with these exceptions, that earlier sowing is 
necessary, and that the plants need not be set out 
BO wide as they do not swell to such a size. 

Hula Saga or Swedish Turnip. 

The process of management is precisely the 
same with that of turnips, with this addition, that 
more dung is required, and that seed-time ought 
to be three or four weeks earlier. Rich soil, how- 
ever, is required for this article; for it will not 
grow to any size worthwhile, on soils of middling 
quality, whatever quality of dung may be required. 

Ruta baga is of great advantage in the feeding 
of horses, either when given raw or boiled, or 
with broken corn. If a suflficient quality were 
cultivated a great deal of grain might be saved, 
while the health and condition of the working 
stock would be greatly invigorated and aug- 
mented. An evening feed of this nutritious arti- 
cle would be of incalculable benefit; most horses 
are fond even of the common turnip in a raw 
state; and it is a subject well worthy of every 
farmer's attention, whether it would not be for 
his interest to raise these esculents in such a 
quantity as to serve them during the long period 
when grass cannot be obtained. That the health 
of the animals would thereby be benefited is un- 
questionable ; and the saving of grain would 
greatly exceed the trouble occasioned by furnish- 
ing a daily supply of these roots. 

To destroy the Fly on Turnips. 

Lime sown by the hand, or distributed by a 
machine, is an infallible protection to turnips 
against the ravages of the fly. It should be ap- 
plied as soon as the turnips come up, and in the 
same daily rotation in which they were sown. 
The lime should be slaked immediately before it 
is used ; if the air be not suflSciently moist to 
render that operation unnecessary. 

Another Method. — Let the farmer carefully 
watch his turnips as they come up, and whenever 
the fly makes its appearance, take a certain quan- 
tity of brimstone, about two and a half or three 
pounds to an acre; put this into a kettle, and 
melt it in the turnip-field, in a situation the most 
eligible for the wind to carry the fume over the 
ground; then take any combustible matter calcu- 
lated to make a considerable smoke, which, being 
dipped in the liquid brimstone, must be strewn 
all over the field in a state of ignition, and so 
close together that the fumes of the burning mat- 
ter may completely cover every part of the ground. 
The decoction of the bitter almond is more fatal 
to the lives of insects and worms than almost any 
Other vegetable or mineral poison. It is made by 
infusing the bitter almond powder (the ground 
cakes that remain after expressing the oil) in 
warm water for twenty-four hours; twenty-eight 
pounds will make forty gallons, a sufiScient quan- 
tity for a large garden. 

Remedy against the Bite of the Turnip Fly. 
It is upon the principle of creating an offensive 
amell that turnip seed is recommended to be 
steeped in train oil before it is sown. This has 
been found to be a perfect security against the 
bite of the turnip fly. 



To prevent the Fly in Turnips, 
Sow good and fresh seed in well-manured and 
well-prepared ground. 

To prevent th« increase of Pismires in Grass Landt 
newly laid down. 
Make a strong decoction of walnut-tree leaves, 
and after opening several of the pismire's sandy 
habitations, pour upon them a quantity of the 
liquor, just sufficient to fill the hollow of each 
heap; after the middle has been scoope<l, throw 
in the contents from the sides, and press ilown 
the whole mass with the foot, till it becomes level 
with the rest of the field. This, if not found 
effectual at first, must be repeated a second or a 
third time, when they will infalliblj' be destroyed. 

To preserve Groicing Crops from the Devastation of 
Vermin. 
The good effects of elder in preserving plants 
from insects and flies are experienced in the fol 
lowing cases:— 

1. For preventing cabbages and cauliflowoi 
plants from being devoured and damaged by 
caterpillars. 

2. For preventing blights, and their effects on 
fruit trees. 

3. For preserving corn from yellow flies and 
other insects. 

4. For securing turnips from the ravages of 
flies. 

The dwarf elder appears to exhale a much more 
fetid smell than the common elder, and therefore 
should be preferred. 

To Check the Ravages of the Turnip Fly. 
Suppose that the farmer had no objection to 
bestow five pounds of seed per acre, in order to 
secure his crop of turnips. If he sows broad cast, 
let him medicate one half of the seed, in the man- 
ner to be afterwards explained, leaving the other 
half unprepared. The latter may be sown one 
day, and the medicated a day or two after, so as 
to give a start to the other. The medicated will, 
in that case, escape from the attacks of the fly or 
beetle. If the slug, however, does appear, rolling 
in the night is necessary. If the farmer drills his 
turnips after the land is prepared for the drill, 
two and a half pounds of the unraedicated seed 
should be sown broadcast, and a day or two after- 
wards the medicated seed sown in the drills. In 
this way a crop may be obtained, at least by the 
industrious farmer who does not grudge a little 
trouble to secure a good one. He will find that 
the plants sown broadcast will give full employ- 
ment to the fly, till the less savory plants in the 
drill pass the moment of danger. As to preparing 
or medicating the seed, sulphur is so obnoxious to 
the whole insect tribe, and at the same time so 
favorable to vegetation, that it seems entitled to 
a preference. The turnip seed may be a little 
damped, and then mixed with the flour of sulphur, 
at the rate of two ounces of sulphur to one pound 
of seed; or let the seed be steeped in a liquor 
formed by boiling three parts of lime to one of 
sulphur, and 100 parts of water. This steep is 
much approved of for all such purposes. It ia 
not improbable that the same liquid in which 
wheat is commonly pickled would prove a pre- 
servative against the fly. It may be proper to 
add, that when the season is very dry, it has been 
found a most useful practice to moisten the dung 
well before it is inserted into the drill, to spread 
the dung very rapidly in the rows, and instantly 
to sow, at the rate of four pounds of turnip seed 
per acre, upon the dung. The ground should then 
be gathered up into bouts tw^enty-seven inches 
wide, by the going and returning of the plough* 



TO DESTROY WEEDS AND INSECTS. 



39 



The seeds are thus put in contact with the wet 
dung. Many perish, but a sufficient number es- 
cape to produce a good crop. In this case, the 
•owing any unmedicated seed broadcast may be 
dispensed with. 

To cultivute San-/oin. 
Chalky loams and gravelly soils on a calcareous 
bottom, are most proper for this grnss. It is more 
adapted to hay than pasture, and much heavier 
crops of this grass are obtained from thin lands 
than when clover is sown. San-foin is a hardy 
kind of grass, well worth the attention of cultiva- 
tors in upland districts where the soil is obdurate 
and shallow, and where clover and ryegrass can 
with ditficulty be raised to such a height as to 
stand the scythe. When sown, fresh seed ought 
constantly to be used, as the vegetation of old seed 
cannot be depended upon. Four bushels may be 
used for an acre, and great care ought to be taken 
to cover the seed well, and to put it deeper into 
the ground than the seeds of other grasses. 

To preserve Grain from Vermin. 
To preserve rye and secure it from insects and 
rats, nothing more is necessary than not to winnow 
it after it is threshed, and to stow it in the grana- 
ries mixed with the chaff. In this state it has 
been kept for more than three years, without ex- 
periencing the smallest alteration, and even with- 
out the necessity of being turned to preserve it 
from humidity and fermentation. R;its and mice 
may be prevented from entering the barn by put- 
ting some wild vine or hedge plants upon the 
heaps ; the smell of this wood is so offensive to 
these animals that they will not approach it. 

To prevent ike Destruction of Corn hy Insects. 

In laying the floors of a granary let Italian 
poplars be made use of for the timber. Many ex- 
periments show that granaries, after laying down 
this flooring, will no longer be infested with wee- 
vils, etc. 

To destroy Slugs upon Wheat. 

Collect a number of lean ducks, keep them all 
day without food, and turn them into the fields 
towards evening; each duck would devour the 
slugs much faster than a man could collect them, 
and they would soon get very fat for market. 

To prevent the Ravages of Mice in Corn Slacks. 

The following simple remedy against the depre- 
dations of mice in corn stacks, has lately been re- 
commended for its undoubted efficacy. Sprinkle 
from four to six bushels of dry white sand upon 
the root of the stack before the thatch is put on. 
The sand is no detriment to the corn, and stacks 
thus dressed have remained without injury. So 
very effective is the remedy, that nests of dead 
young mice have been found where the sand has 
been used, but not a live mouse could be seen. 

To clear Barns and Out-houses from Mites and 
Weevils. 

The following method is practised in Germany, 
for granaries infested with mites and weevils. Let 
the walls and rafters, above and below, of such 
granaries be covered completely with quick-lime 
■laked in water, in which trefoil, wormwood, and 
hyssop havedeen boiled. This composition should 
be applied as hot as possible. A farmer who had 
the granaiies empty in June last, collected quanti- 
ties of the largest sized ants in sacks, and scatter- 
ed them about the y)laces infested with weevils. 
The ants immediately fell upon and devoured 
them all. 

Tc destroy Slugs on Land. 

Procure some fresh lime, and after thrcwing as 



much water upon it as will reduce it to a powder, 
sow the lime in a hot state upon the land that is 
overrun with the vermin, at the rate of about 
twelve bushels to the acre. The lime should be 
sown towards the wind, and falling upon them im 
a fermented state, it will instantly kill them. 

Usefulness of the Hedgehog. 
This little animal, the object of persecution, not 
only to little boys but to the fanner and game- 
keeper, on account of its supposed mischievous 
propensities, is in fact one which the agriculturist 
should endeavor to preserve, as it is the most 
effectual destroyer of snails, worms, and insects, 
on which it almost entirely subsists. A garden 
in which a hedgehog is kept, will, in the course 
of two or three nights, be entirely freed from 
slugs; and that enecuy to fruit, the millepede, is a 
favorite food to him. The London gardeners are 
so aware of this, as often to purchase hedgehogs 
to put in their grounds. If it ever has been found 
eating poultry or game, as has by some been as- 
serted, they must previously have been killed by 
rats, weasels, or some more ferocious animal than 
the hedgehog, whose habits are those of gentle- 
ness and timidity, who is not formed for attack, 
and whose sole mode of defense is rolling itself 
up in a ball and opposing its strong prickles to 
the enemy. This statement is given in the hope 
of rescuing a harmless and useful creature from 
the general abhorrence in which it is held, and 
the unmerciful treatment it meets with. 

Birds, 
Farmers should be friendly to birds, as they 
are of the greatest service in destroying worms 
and insects, and thus preserving the crops and 
fruits. The small amount of vegetable food they 
consume is thus much more than compensated for. 
Sparrows are especially useful in this way. 

To destroy Weeds. 

To clear the ground of weeds is an operation no 
less necessary in husbandry than the disposing it 
to produce vegetables of any kind in plenty. 

Annual tceeds, or such as spring from seed and 
die the same j^ear, are most easily destroyed. For 
this purpose, it will be sufficient to let them spring 
up till near the time of ripening their seed, and 
then plough them down before it comes to matu- 
rity. It is also of service to destroy such weeds 
as grow in borders or neglected corners, and fre- 
quently scatter their seeds to a great distance ; 
such as the thistle, dandelion, rag-weed, etc.; for 
these propagate their species through a deal of 
ground, as their seeds are carried about with the 
wind to very considerable distances. A farmer 
ought also to take care that the small seeds of 
weeds, separated from corn in winnowing, be not 
sown again upon the ground ; for this certainly 
happens when they are thrown upon a dunghill, 
because, being the natural offspring of the earth, 
they are not easily destroyed. The best method 
of preventing any mischief from this cause is to 
burn them. 

Perennial weeds are such as are propagated by 
the roots, and last for a number of years. They 
cannot be effectually destroyed but by removing 
the roots from the ground, which is often a matter 
of some difficulty. The only method that can be 
depended upon in this case is frequent ploughing 
to render the ground as tender as possible, and 
harrowing with a particular kind of harrow, in 
order to collect these pernicious roots. When 
collected, they ought to be dried and burnt, as 
the only effectual method of insuring their doing 
no farther mischief. 



40 



AGRICULTUBE. 



To destroy Broom, Furze and Thorns. 

Besides those kinds of weeds which are of an 
herbaceous nature, there are others which are 
woody, iind grow to a very considerable size; such 
as broom, furze and thorns. The first may be 
destroyed by frequent ploughing and harrowing, 
in the same manner as other perennial weeds are. 
Another method of destroying broom is by pas- 
turing the field where it grows with sheep. 

The best method of e.xtirpnting furze is to set 
fire to it in frosty weather, for frost has the effect 
of withering and making them burn readily. The 
stumps must then be cut over with a hutchet, and 
when the ground is well softened by rain it may 
be ploughed up, and the roots taken out by a 
harrow adapted to that purpose. If the field is 
6oon laid down to grass they will again spring 
up ; in this case, pasturing with sheep is an 
effectual remedy. The thorn, or bramble, can 
only be extirpated by ploughing up the ground 
and collecting the roots. 

Usefulueas of Moieiiig Weeds. 

In the month of June weeds are in their most 
succulent state, and in this condition, after they 
have lain a few hours to wither, hungry cattle 
will eat greedily almost every species. There is 
scarcely a hedge, border, or a nook, but what at 
that season is valuable; and it certainly must be 
good management to embrace the transient oppor- 
tunity, for in a few weeks they will become nui- 
sances. 

To banish Crows from a Field. 

Machinery of various kinds, such as wind-mills 
in miniature, horse-rattles, etc., to be put in mo- 
tion by the wind, are often employed to frighten 
crows; but with all of these they soon become 
familiar, when they cease to be of any use what- 
ever. 

The most effectual method of banishing them 
from a field, as far as experience goes, is to com- 
bine with one or other of the scarecrows in vogue 
the frequent use of the musket. Nothing strikes 
such terror into these sagacious animals as the 
sight of a fowling-piece aud the explosion of gun- 
powder, which they have known so often to be 
fatal to their race. Such is their dread of a fowl- 
ing-piece, that if one is placed upon a dyke or 
other eminence, it will for a long time prevent 
them from alighting on the adjacent grounds. 
Many persons now, however, believe that crows, 
like most other birds, do more good by destroying 
insects and worms, etc., than harm by eating grain. 

To cidtivate Carrots. 
To command crops of this root, manure the 
land with twenty-five or thirty loads of dung per 
acre, pretty rotten, plough it in, and then cover 
the seed by harrowing. The dung neither injures 
the taste of the carrot, makes them grow de- 
formed, nor causes the canker. A farmer's object 
is to produce as great a quantity as possible from 
every acre, which must undoubtedly be accom- 
plished by manure. In confirmation of this 
opinion the following statement is given : 
Unmanured Carrots, sown March 31. 
Ton. lbs. 

Boots . . . 9 . . 1918 per acre. 

Tops . . . 4 . . . 336 do. 
Manured after Potatoes, sown April 7. 
Ton. His. 

Boots . . . 12 . . 1682 per acre. 
Tops . . . 5 . . . 994 do. 

The soil in both was exactly the same, and the 
dung half rotten. The preceding crop had in 
both instances been potatoes, and the quality of 
ibe carrots was similar in both cases. An exteu- 



I sive collection of such well authenticated experi- 
ments is better calculated to extend the boun- 
daries of agricultural knowledge than all the 
theories and mere reasonings upon them yet 
published. 

Mode of Cultivating Parsnips in Guernsey. 

Although this root is cultivated in almost all 
the soils of that island, that is esteemed the best 
which consists of a good light loam, the deeper 
the better. If the loamy soil is not deep, the 
under soil at least should be opened, to allow of 
the free penetration of the roots. 

If the land is not perfectly clear from couch 
grass and other weeds, it is pared with the paring- 
plough in October, and harrowed to remove the 
weeds. About the middle of February the land 
is prepared for sowing by means of two ploughs. 
A small plough precedes and opens the furrow to 
the depth of four inches, and is followed by a 
large plough drawn by four or six oxen and as 
many horses, which deepens the furrow to ten or 
fourteen inches. As soon as the clods are capable 
of being broken the harrowing commences, and 
is repeated till the soil is pulverized, and reduced 
nearly to the state of garden mould. All of the 
processes are intended to loosen the soil to as 
great a depth as possible. 

The seed should not be more than a year old, aa 
it is uncertain when of a greater age. It is sown 
broadcast, and on a day just so windy as to insure 
its regular spreading over the surface. The seed 
is then covered by the harrow. The quantity 
sown is from two to four quarts. 

As soon as tho plants are sufficiently strong, 
they are hand-weeded and thinned, and this ope- 
ration must be repeated at least three times during 
the summer. The distance between the plants is 
ultitnately about nine inches; and to save a por- 
tion of the labor a harrowing is sometimes given 
between the first and second weedings. 

The first weeding is performed about the middle 
of May, and repeated when necessary till the be- 
ginning of July. 

The roots are dug up about the middle of Au- 
gust, when they are thought to be most nutritious, 
and to fatten animals better than after the leaves 
are decayed. The quantity dug up at this season 
is not more than is required for two or three days' 
consumption. It is only in October that the root 
is fully ripe, when it may be dug up with forks 
and preserved dry in sheds during the winter; but 
it is usually left in the ground in Guernsej', where 
frost is rare, and taken up as it is wanted. 

The parsnip is considered by the Guernsey far- 
mers to be the most nutritious root known, supe- 
rior even to the carrot and the potato. When 
small it is given to the animals whole, but when 
large it is sliced longitudinally. Hogs prefer this 
root to all others, and it makes excellent pork. 
Horses are equally fond of the parsnip, although 
from eating it with too much avidity it sometimes" 
sticks in the throat. But this may easily be pre- 
vented by cutting the roots into pieces before they 
are given. 

To cidtivate Hemp. 
The Soil. 

The soils most suited to the culture of this 
plant are those of the deep, black, putrid vegeta- 
ble kind, that are low, and rather inclined to 
moisture, and those of the deep mellow, loamy, 
or sandy descriptions. The quantity of produce 
is generally much greater on the former than on 
the latter; but it is said to be greatly inferior in 
quality. It may, however, be grown with success 
on lands of a less rich and fertile kind, by proper 
care and attention in their culture aud preparation. 



HEMP AND FLAX. 



41 



To prepare the Ground. 
In order to render the grounds proper for the 
recept'on of the crop, they should be reduced into 
B fine mellow state of mould, and be perfectly 
cleared from weeds, by repeated ploughings. 
When it succeeds grain crops, the wrrk is mostly 
accomplished by three ploughings, and as many 
harrowings: the first being given immediately 
aftc- the preceding crop is removed, the second 
early in the spring, and the last, or seed earth, 
just before the seed is to be put in. In the last 
ploughing, well rotted manure, in the proportion 
of fifteen or twenty, or good compost, in the quan- 
tity of twenty-five or thirty-three horse-cart loads, 
should be turned into the land; as without this it 
is seldom that good crops can be produced. The 
Surface of the ground being left perfectly flat, and 
as free from furrows as possible ; as by these 
means the moisture is more effectually retained, 
and the growth of the plants more fully pro- 
moted. 

Quantity of Seed, etc. 

It is of much importance in the cultivation of 
hemp crops that the seed be new, and of a good 
quality, which ma}' in some measure be known by 
its feeling heavy in the hand, and being of a 
bright shining color. 

The proportion of seed that is most commonly 
employed, is from two to three bushels, according 
to the quality of the land; but, as the crops are 
greatly injured by the plants standing too closely 
together, two bushels, or two bushels and a half 
may be a more advantageous quantity. 

As the hemp plant is extremely tender in its 
early growth, care should be taken not to put the 
peed into the ground at so early a period, as that 
it may be liable to be injured by the effects of 
frost; nor to protract the sowing to so late a sea- 
son, as that the quality of the produce may be 
affected. The best season, on the drier sorts of 
land, in the southern districts, is as soon as pos- 
sible after the frosts are over in April, and, on 
the same descriptions of soil, in the more north- 
ern ones, towards the close of the same month, or 
early in the ensuing one. 

Method of Sowing. 

The most general method of putting crops of 
this sort into the soil is the broadcast, the seed 
being dispersed over the surface of the land in as 
even a manner as possible, and afterwards covered 
in by means of a very light harrowing. In many 
cases, however, especially when the crops are to 
gtmd for seed, the drill method in rows, at small 
distances, might be had recourse to with advan- 
tage; as, in this way, the early growth of the 
plants would be more effectually promoted, and 
the land be kept in a more clean and perfect state 
of mould, which are circumstances of importance 
in such crops. In whatever method the seed is 
put in. care must constantly be taken to keep the 
birds from it for some time afterwards. 

This sort of crop is frequently cultivated on 
the same piece of ground for a great number of 
years, without any other kind intervening; but, in 
such cases, manure must be applied with almost 
every crop, in pretty large proportions, to prevent 
the exhaustion that must otherwise take place. 
It may be sown after most sorts of grain crops, 
especially where the land possesses suflBcient fer- 
tility, and is in a proper state of tillage. 

After Culture. 

As hemp, from its tall growth and thick foliage, 

goon covers the surface of the land, and prevents 

the rising of weeds, little attention is necessary 

after the seed has been put iiito the ground, espe- 



cially where the broadcast method of sowing is 
practised; but, when put in by the drill machine, 
a hoeing or two may be had recourse to with ad- 
vantage in the early growth of the crop. 

In the culture of this plant, it is particularly 
necessary that the same piece of land growi 
both male and female, or what is sometimes de- 
nominated simple hemp. The latter kind con- 
tains the seed. 

When the grain is ripe (which is known by its 
becoming of a whitish-yellow color, and a few of 
the leaves beginning to drop from the stems) ; this 
happens commonly about thirteen or fourteen 
weeks from the period of its being sown, according 
as the season may be dry or wet (the first sort 
being mostly ripe some weeks before the latter), 
the next operation is that of taking it from the 
ground ; which is effected by pulling it up by the 
roots, in small parcels at a time, by the hand, 
taking care to shake off the mould well from them 
before the handsful are laid down. In some dis- 
tricts, the whole crop is pulled together, without 
any distinction being made between the different 
kinds of hemp; while, in others, it is the prac- 
tice to separate and pull them at different times, 
according to their ripeness. The latter is ob- 
viously the better practice; as by pulling a large 
proportion of the crop before it is in a proper state 
of maturity, the quantity of produce must not only 
be considerably lessened, but its quality greatly 
injured by being rendered less durable. 

After being thus pulled, it is tied up in small 
parcels, or what are sometimes termed baits. 

Where crops of this kind are intended for seed- 
ing, they should be suffered to stand till the seed 
becomes in a perfect state of maturity, which is 
easily known by the appearance of it on inspec- 
tion. The stems are then pulled and bound up, 
as in the other case, the bundles being set up in 
the same manner as grain, until the seed becomes 
so dry and firm as to shed freely. It is then 
either immediately threshed out upon large cloths 
for the purpose in the field, or taken home to have 
the operation afterwards performed. 

Process of Grassing Hemp. 

The hemp, as soon as pulled, is tied up in small 
bundles, frequently at both ends. 

It is then conveyed to pits, or ponds of stagnant 
water, about six or eight feet in depth, such as 
have a clayey soil being in general preferred, and 
deposited in beds, according to their size, and 
depth; the small bundles being laid both in a 
straight direction and crosswise of each other, so 
as to bind perfectly together; the whole, being 
loaded with timber, or other materials, so as to 
keep the beds of hemp just below the surface of 
the water. 

It is not usual to water more than four or five 
times in the same pit, till it has been filled with 
water. AVhere the ponds are not sufficiently large 
to contain the whole of the produce at once, it is 
the practice to pull the hemp only as it can be 
admitted into them, it being thought disadvanta- 
geous to leave the hemp upon the ground after 
being pulled. It is left in these pits four, five, or 
six daj'S, or even more, according to the warmth 
of the season and the judgment of the operator, 
on his examining whether the hempy material 
readily separates from the reed or stem ; and then 
taken up and conveyed to a pasture field which is 
clean and even, the bundles being loosened and 
spread out thinly, stem by stem, turning it every 
second or third day, especially in damp weather, 
to prevent its being injured by worms or other 
insects. It should remain in this situation for 
two, three, four, or more weeks, according to ci»« 



42 



AGRICULTURE. 



cumatances, and be then collected together when 
in a perfectly dry state, tied up into large bundles, 
and placed in some secure building until an oppor- 
tunity is afforded for breaking it, in order to sepa- 
rate the hemp. By this means the process of 
grassing is not only shortened, but the more ex- 
pensive ones of breaking, scutching, and bleach- 
ing the yarn, rendered less violent and trouble- 
■ome. 

After the hemp has been removed from the field 
it is in a state to be broken and swingled, opera- 
titins that are mostly performed by common la- 
borers, by means of miichinery for the purpose, 
the produce being tied up in stones. The refuse 
collected in the latter process is denominated 
sheaves, and is in some districts employed for the 
purposes of fuel. After having undergone these 
different operations, it is ready for the purposes 
of the manufacturer. 

To cultivate Flax. 
The soils most suitable for flax, besides the al- 
luvial kind, are deep friable loams, and such as 
contain a large proportion of vegetable matter in 
their composition. Strong clays do not answer 
well, nor soils of a gravelly or dry sandy nature. 
But whatever be the kind of soil, it ought neither 
to be in too poor nor too rich a condition, because 
in the latter case the flax is apt to grow too luxu- 
riant and produce a coarse sort, and in the former 
case, the plant, from growing weakly, affords only 
a small produce. 

To prepare the Ground. 
When grass land is intended for flax, it ought 
to be broken up as early in the season as possible, 
so that the soil may be duly mellowed by the winter 
frosts, and in good order for being reduced by the 
harrows, when the seed process is attempted. If 
flax is to succeed a corn crop, the like care is re- 
quired to procure the aid of frost, without which 
the surface cannot be rendered fine enough for re- 
ceiving the seed. Less frost, however, will do in 
the lust than in the first case, therefore the grass 
landought alwnys to be earliest ploughed. At seed 
time, harrow the land well before the seed is dis- 
tributed, then cover the seed to a sufiicient depth, 
by giving a close double time of the harrows. 
Water-furrow the land, and remove any stones 
and roots that may remain on the surface, which 
finishes the seed process. 

Quantity of Seed. 
When a crop of seed is intended to be taken, 
thin sowing is preferable, in order that the plants 
may have room to fork or spread out their leaves, 
and to obtain air for the blossoming and filling 
seasons. But it is a mistake to sow thin when flax 
is intended to be taken, for the crop then becomes 
coarse, and often unproductive. From eight to 
ten pecks per acre is a proper quantity in the last 
case ; but when seed is the object, six pecks will 
do very well. 

To save the Flax and Seed, 
Flax should be pulled when the lower part of the 
plant begins to turn yellow, and when, on opening 
the pods, the most forward of the seeds are found 
in a soft state, and the middle of the seeds is green ; 
while the seed is quite soft, the flax should be 
sproad oh the ground in bundles of about as much 
as a woman can grasp with both hands, and it 
should remain so till the upper part is dry ; in fine 
weather it will be dry in twenty-four or forty-eight 
hours ; the bundles should be then made up, with 
the dry part inside, and set up in stocks of ten 
bundles each, to stand on the ground till the 
whole is dry, pods and all ; the seed will then be 



ripe and the flax in the best state, and may b« 
stacked, housed, or worked; great care should 1)« 
taken to keep the root ends even. 

Method of Watering. 
When flax is pulled it ought to be immediately 
put into the water, so that it may part with the 
rind and be fit for the manufacturer. Stand- 
ing pools, for many reasons, are most proper 
for the purpose, occasioning the flax to have a 
better color, to be sooner ready for the grass, and 
even to be of superior quality in every respect. 
When put into the water it is tied up in heet,<, or 
small sheaves, the smaller the better, because it is 
then most equally watered. These sheaves ought 
to be built in the pool, in a reclining upright pos- 
ture, so thiit the weight placed above may keep 
the whole firmly down. In warm weather, ten days 
of the watering process are sufiicient ; but it is pro- 
-per to examine the pools regularly after the seventh 
day, lest the flax should putrefy or rot, which some- 
times happens in very warm weather. Twelve 
days will answer in any sort of weather; 'hough 
it may be remarked, that it is better to give rather 
too little of the water than too much, as any de- 
ficiency may be easily made up by suiTering it to 
lie longer on the grass, whereas an excess of water 
admits of no remedy. After lying on the grasa 
for a due time, till any defect of the watering pro- 
cess is rectified, the flax is taken up, tied when 
dry in large sheaves, and carried to the mill to be 
switched and prepared for the hackle. 

.Dreaeiuff Flax. — Instructions for Using the Ma- 
chinery. 
The process is divided into two parts : the first 
part is intended for the farmer, or flax-grower, to 
bring the flax into a fit state for general or common 
purposes. This is performed by three machines: 
one for threshing out the seed, one for breaking 
and separating the wood from the fibre, .and one 
for further separating the broken wood and matter 
from the fibre. In some cases the farmers will 
perhaps thrash out the seed in their own mill, and 
therefore, in such cases, the first machine will be, 
of course, unnecessary. 

The second part of the process is intended for 
the manufacturer to bring the flax into a state for 
the very finest purposes, such as lace, cambric, 
damask, and very fine linen. This second part is 
performed by the refining machine only. 

The Threshing Machine. 
Take the flax in small bundles, as it comes from 
the field or stack, and holding it in the left hand, 
put the seed end between the threshing machine 
and the bed or block against which the machine 
is to strike; then take the handle of the machine 
in the right hand, and move the machine back- 
ward and forward, to strike on the flax, until the 
seed is all threshed out. 

The Breaking Machine. 
Take the flax in small handsful in the left hand, 
spread it flat between the third and little finger, 
with the seed end downwards, and the root-end 
above, as near the hand as possible; then put it 
between the beater of the breaking machine, and 
beat it gently till the three or four inches, which 
have been under the operation of the machine, ap- 
pear to be soft; then remove the flax a little 
higher in the hand, so as to let the soft part of 
the flax rest upon the little finger, and continue 
to beat it till all is soft, and the wool is separated 
from the fibre, keeping the left hand close to the 
block and the flax as flat upon the block a? pos- 
sible. The other end of the flax is then to b* 
turned, and the end which has been beaten is to 



HOPS. 



43 



b* wrapped round the little finger, the root end 
flat, and beaten in the machine till the wood is 
•eparated, exactly in the same way as the other 
•nd was beaten. 

Tlie Cleansing Machine. 

It \c to be used in the same way, in all respects, 
M the breaking machine, first cleansing one end 
of the flax, and then turning the other, keeping 
the flax all the while flat in the hand. 
To Hockle. 

A common hackle will be found useful in this 
stage for opening the ends, and may be placed for 
greater convenience at the side of the breaking 
and cleansing machine. 

This concludes the first process of the machi- 
nery intended for the farmer or flax-grower. The 
eecund, or manufacturer's process, requires 

The Rejining Machiue, 
Take a small piece of flax as it comes from the 
breaking or cleansing machine, pass the seed end 
through the fluted rollers of the refining machine, 
and bring it round, laying it flat on the root-end 
of the flax, forming it into a skein. A few fibres 
of the end brought round, and looped in the flax 
on which it is laid, will keep the skein together. 
It must be kept flat and even on the machine, 
which may continue to go round and work the 
flax till it is brought to any degree of fineness 
that may be required, and this will not require 
more than from two to six minutes. 
Washing or Whitenivg. 
The flax, when prepared by these machines, 
without having been water-steeped, or dew-rotted, 
may be washed in small quantities a t a time, either 
in water only or with soap and water, without any 
other mixture, and brought by these simple means 
to the purest white. It is to be wrung several 
times in water till the water becomes no longer 
colored from the matter, and care is to be taken 
that the flax is laid flat like tape, and then spread 
opon the grass, but it is recommended that the 
flax should be spun in the yellow state, and then 
washed in warm water and soap, or boiled with 
care in water and soap from ten to fifteen uiinutes, 
so that, when dried, it will be perfectly white. If 
the weather should be favorable it would be well 
to have it dried on the grass. 

As to the labor required, the machines are easily 
wrought by women or girls, and without any as- 
aistance from men. 

The Produce. 
As to the produce of different degrees of fine- 
ness from a given weight of the raw Aiaterial, we 
subjoin the following statement: 

112 lbs. of flax from the stack, after the seed 
was threshed out, produced 30 lbs. in the state 
No. 1 ; refined to No. 3 it produced 20 lbs. of flax 
and 3 lbs. of common tow; 20 lbs. of No. 3 pro- 
duced 14i lbs. of No. 4. The loss in weight is 
caused by the discharge of matter j there is no loss 
of fibre. 

An average crop will produce about two tons to 
the acre after the seed is threshed out. This will 
produce one-fourth fibre, making ten cwt. to the 
acre No. 1. 

To cultivate Hops. — The Soil, dec. 
The hop is planted on various soils, and chiefly 
in valleys. Hops are generally of the best quality 
from strong clay land. The crop, however, is 
there very precarious. Those on peat are much 
more productive, but are liable to be affected by 
the mould in some seasons, which reduces their 
value considerably. The best plantations are on 
a deep, iDamy soil, where the produce of the latter 
and the quality of the former are sometimes ob- 



tained. Those which are grown on sandy and 
gravelly lands are seldom remarkable for either 
great produce or superior quality. 

The plant is extremely liable to disa.«ters from 
its first putting up in the spring until the time of 
picking the crop, which is in September. Snails 
or slugs, ants and flies, are formidable enemies in 
the first instance. Frosts are inimical to its 
growth, and the vines are frequent'y blighted even 
after they have reached the ti p of the poles. 
Small green flies and other injects which make 
their aiipearance in the months of May and June, 
when the wind is about northeast, often greatly 
injure them, and they are subject to take damage 
by high winds from the soulhwest. The best 
situation for a plantation, therefore, is a southern 
aspect, well shaded on three sides either by liilla 
or planting, which is supposed to be the chief pro- 
tection that can be given them. 

To plant Hops. 

In the winter time provide the soil and manure 
for the hop-ground against the following spring. 
If the dung be rotten, mix it with two or three 
parts of common earth, and let it incurporate to- 
gether till there is occasion to make use of it in 
making the hop-hills ; but if it be new dung, then 
let it be mixed as before till the spring in the next 
year, for new dung is very injurious to hops. 
Hops require to be planted in a situation so open 
that the air may freely pass round and between 
them to dry up and dissipate the moisture, which 
often destroys the middle of large plantations, 
while the outsides remain unhurt. 

The hills should be eight or nine feet asunder. 
If the ground be intended to be ploughed with 
horses between the hills, it will be best to plant 
them in squares, chequerwise; but if the ground 
is so small that it may be done with the breast- 
plough, or spade, the holes should be ranged in a 
quincunx form. Which way soever is made use 
of, a stake should be stuck down at each of the 
places where the hills are to be made. 

To choose Hops. 

Be very particular in the choice of the plants as 
to kind, for if the hop-garden be planted with a 
mixture of several sorts of hops that ripen at 
several times, it will cause much trouble and 
great detriment. 

The two best sorts are the white and the gray 
bind ; the latter is a large, square hop, more hardy, 
bears more abundantly, but ripens later than the 
former. There is another sort of the white bind, 
which ripens a week or ten days before the com- 
mon ; but this-is a tenderer and a less plentiful 
bearer, though it has this advantage, that it comes 
first to market. If there be a sort of hop you 
value, and would wish to increase, the superfluous 
binds may be laid down when the hops are tied, 
cutting off the tops and burying them in the hill, 
or when the hops are dressed all the cuttings may 
be saved, for almost every part will grow and be- 
come a good set the next spring. 

Seasons of Planting. 
English planters approve the months of Octo- 
ber and March. The most usual time of pro- 
curing the cuttings is in March, when the hops 
are cut and dressed. As to the manner of plant- 
ing the sets, there should be five good sets planted 
in every hill, one in the middle, and the rest 
round about, sloping. Let them be pressed close 
with the hand and covered with fine earth; a 
stick should be placed on each side of the bill to 
secure it. 

To form a New Plantation. 

The best method is to have cuttings from ap- 



u 



AQRICULTURE. 



proved stock, planted out the year before they are 
wanted, in the hop-ground ; as the use of plants in- 
stead of cuttings not only gains a year, but the for- 
mer are more certain to flourish. A small piece of 
moist land is sufficient to raise plants for many acres, 
and at little expense. If the ground be in grass, 
pare and dig in the pods; work the land with a 
spade, and set it out into ridges of three and a 
half yards wide, and two yards between each ; 
having a strip of gniss (called a pillar) next every 
ridge, and an open drain between every two pil- 
lars, the depth of which must vary according to 
the soil, some being less than one foot, and others 
nearly four feet in depth. Three rows of plants, 
or, as they are termed, hills, are made upon each 
ridge, which should intersect each other; they 
are generally two yards distant in the rows, so 
that iibout 1300 is the usual number of hills in a 
statute acre. Small sticks are proper to tie the 
binds up to the first year, then small poles for a 
year or two; the size of which should be gradu- 
ally increased. Some set two poles to every hill, 
■which is proper for ground producing luxuriant 
binds ; but on clay land three poles are set in a 
triangular form to the hills on the two outside 
rows of each ridge, and only two in the middle 
row. Many additional poles, longer than the 
rest, called catch- poles, are also set to take the 
binds as they run beyond the lesser poles. 
Where the bind is weak, three heads are com- 
monly trained up each pole ; though two are bet- 
ter, if strong. If the ground intended for a new 
plantation is not clean from couch-grass, a com- 
plete fallow is essential, whether it be grass or 
stubble; and a crop of turnips may be taken to 
advantage, if the land is proper for their growth, 
and can be made clean, as hops are planted in 
Murch. 

To take up Hop-Ground. 
The following are termed the annual orders : — 
Digging the ground completely over; hoeing the 
earth fi-om the hills, and cutting off the stock a 
little above the root, which are called pickling and 
cutting ; poling, which is carrying the poles from 
the stacks, and setting them down to the hills 
with a round implement, shod with iron, and called 
a poy, having a crutch at the top, and a peg 
through the middle to tread upon ; tying the binds 
round the poles with rushes, and pulling up the 
superfluous binds ; hoeing the ground all over 
■with a hoe of large dimensions; wheeling and 
laying manure upon every hill ; covering the ma- 
nure with the soil, which is done by scraping the 
ground over with a hoe, and is called hilling; and 
stacking, which is carrying and setting up the 
poles into heaps or stacks, after the crop has been 
taken. 

Extra-works. 
As the preceding are termed the ordinary, so 
the following are called the extra-works, as not 
being included in the yearly bargain with the men 
by tbe generality of planters, and some of them 
are done only by the very best managers. On 
clayey ground, either the earth ought to be bared 
off the hills, and a covering of good manure ap- 
pliod to them previous to digging, which will re- 
quire from twelve to fifteen tons per acre; or from 
twenty to twenty -five tons of manure, or a greater 
quantity of fresh earth (when the ground wants 
condition) should be wheeled and spread all over 
the ridges. It is not improper, in some cases, to 
puriue these methods alternately; but on b^ggy 
and very rich ground the earth only can be ap- 
plied with advantage. The drains should be 
scoured out yearly on very wet ground ; and what 
Is thrown out is always intermixed with the soil 



in digging; on drier soils this is done every second 
or third year, and on very dry land it is scarcely 
necessary to do it at all. Recruiting the stock by 
planting, where any hills have failed, is done at 
little cost in well-managed plantations, as there 
are seldom many at once in those. If there i:; any 
couch-grass, it should be dug out with three- 
pronged forks in March, and carried off tha 
ground. The renewal of poles requires from one 
to two hundred per acre every year. If, when the 
binds first appear, they are beaten by slugs, a 
handful of malt culm or saw-dust is sometimes 
laid round each hill, which they cannot travel 
over; and should flies or ants attack them, soot 
is the best preventive. The carrying in and set- 
ting catch-poles varies much as to number, as 
some set fewer than one hundred, and others five 
or six hundred per acre. Moving the drains and 
pillars is generally done once, but twice moving is 
better (whether the grass be made into fodder, or 
is suffered to fall into the drains for manure), as 
then no seeds scatter on the ground. E.xtra-hoo 
once before the hilling, and once after. After 
high winds many poles are broken down, whicb 
should be set up again soon 

Manure proper /or Hop- Culture. 
As to the manure most proper for the hop-cul- 
ture, good stable dung is much used, and is pre- 
ferred to the manure made by beasts at pasture, 
as the latter encourages ants on strong ground. 
Woollen rags are the best for forcing a luxuriant 
bind, and if used with judgment, are excellent 
for clayey ground ; but they are apt to make the 
hops small, if too many are used. Malt culm 
and dove manure are excellent, and one complete 
dressing with lime is very serviceable foi strong 
ground. 

To pick Hops. 
When the crop is ripe, a proper number of 
pickers is procured, for whom are provided light 
wooden frames, called binges; they are clothed 
with hop-bagging, into which the hops are picked 
off the poles by women and children, having them 
brought by men, who take them up by cutting the 
binds about a foot above the ground, and drawing 
up the poles by an instrument called a dragon. 
Each binge has from four to six pickers, and a 
man attends to one or two binges, according to 
the crop ; he strips the binds from the poles as 
they are picked, and lays them in heaps ready for 
stocking ; he also carries the hops to the kilns, if 
near; or to a cart, as they are measured from the 
binge. The number of binges emploj-ed vary 
with the crop and kiln-room; about one to an 
acre is usual. The hops are taken out of the 
binge with a basket which holds six pecks. 

Another Method. 

The most convenient way of picking them is 
into a long square frame of wood, with a cloth 
hanging on tenter-hooks within it, to receive the 
hops as they are picked. 

They must be picked very clean, free from 
leaves and st.alks; and as there shall be occasion, 
two or three times in a day, the frame must be 
emptied into a hop-bag made of coarse lines 
cloth, and carried immediately to the oast or kiln, 
in order to be dried : for if they should be too 
long in the bag they will be apt to heat and be 
discolored. If the weather be hot, there should 
no more poles be drawn than can be picked in ai^ 
hour, and they should be gathered in lair weather, 
if it can be, and when the hops are dry; this will 
save some expense in firing, and preserve their 
color better when they are dried. 



HOPS, MADDER. 



45 



To dry Hops. 

The best method of drying hops i? with char- 
coal on an oast or kiln, covered with hair-cloth of 
the same form and fashion that is used for drying 
malt. The kiln ought to be square, and may be 
ten, twelve, fourteen, or sixteen feet across at the 
to|j| where the hops are laid, as the plantation re- 
quires and the room will allow. There ou^ht to 
be a due proportion between the height jind breadth 
of the kiln, and the sfeddle where the fire is kept, 
vii., if the kiln be twelve feet square on the top, 
it ought to be nine feet high from the fire, and 
the steddle ought to be six feet and a half square, 
aud so proportionable in other dimensions. 

The hops must be spread even upon the oast, a 
foot thick or more, if the depth of the curb will 
allow it; but care is to be taken not to overload 
the oast if the hops are green or wet. The oast 
ought to be first warmed with a fire before the hops 
are laid on, and then an even steady fire must be 
kept under them, it must not bo too fierce at first 
lest it scorch them, nor must it be suffered to sink 
or slacken, but rather be increased, till the hops 
are nearly dried, lest the moisture or sweat which 
the fire has raised, fall back or discolor them. 

When they have lain about nine hours they must 
be turned, and in two or three hours more they 
may be taken oflF. It may be known when they 
are well dried, by the brittleness of the stalks and 
the easy falling off of the hop-leaves. 

To hag Hops. 
As soon as the hops are taken off" the kiln, lay 
them in a room for three weeks or a month to cool, 
give, and toughen ; for if they are bagged immedi- 
ately they will powder, but if they lie awhile (and 
the longer they lie the better, provided they are 
covered close with blankets to secure them from 
the air), they may be bagged with more safety, 
as not being liable to be broken to powder in 
treading ; and this will make them bear treading 
the better, and the harder they are trodden the 
better they will keep. 

To dress Hops. 
When the ground is dug in January or February, 
the earth about the hills and very near them, 
should be taken away with the spade. About the 
end of February, if the hops were planted the 
spring before, or if the ground be weak, they 
ought to be dressed in dry weather ; but if the 
ground be strong and in perfection, the middle of 
March will be a good time; and if it is apt to pro- 
duce over-rank binds, the beginning of April may 
be soon enough. Then having with an iron picker 
cleared away all the earth out of the hill, so as to 
clean the stock to the principal roots, with a sharp 
knife cut off all the shoots which grew with the 
binds the last year; and also all the young suck- 
ers, that none may be left to run in the alley and 
weaken the hill. It will be proper to cut one part 
of the stock lower than the other, and also to cut 
that part low that was left highest the preceding 
year. In dressing those hops that have been 
planted the year before, cut off both the dead tops 
and the young suckers which have sprung up 
from the sets, and also cover the stocks with fine 
earth, a finger's length in thickness. 

To pole Hops. 
About the middle of April the hops are to be 
poled ; when the shoots begin to sprout up, the 
poles must be set to the hills deep in the ground, 
with a square iron picker or crow, that they may 
the better endure the wind; three poles are suffi- 
cient for one hill. These should be placed as near 
the hill as possible, with their bending tops turned 



outwards from the hill, to prevent the binds from 
entangling; and a space between two pi)le3 ought 
to be left open to the south, to admit the sun- 
beams. 

To tie Hops. 

The buds that do not clasp of themselves to the 
nearest pole when they are grown to three or four 
feet high, must be guided to it by the hand, turn- 
ing them to the sun, whose course they will always 
follow. They must be bound with withered rushes, 
but not so close as to hinder them from climbing 
up the pole. This continue to do till all the poles 
are furnished with binds, of which two or three 
are enough for a pole ; and all the sprouts and 
binds that there are no occasion for, are to be 
plucked up ; but if the ground is young, theu ni)ne 
of these useless binds should be plucked up, but 
should be wrapped up together in the middle of 
the hill. 

To gather Hops. 

About the beginning of July hops begin to blow, 
and will be ready for gathering the last of Au- 
gust. A judgment may be made of their riiie- 
ness by their strong scent, their hardness, and 
the brownish color (f their seed. When by these 
tokens they appear to be ripe they must be picked 
with all the expedition possible, for if at this time 
a storm of wind should come, it would do them 
great damage, by breaking the branches and bruis- 
ing and discoloring the hops ; and it is very well 
known that hops, being picked green and bright, 
will sell for a third more than those which are 
discolored. 

To cultivate the Madder Plant. 

The ground is ploughed deep in autumn, and 
again in March, and then laid up in ridges eighteen 
inches asunder, and about a foot high. About 
the beginning of April the ground is opened where 
the old roots are planted, and the side shoots taken 
off, which are transplanted immediately upon the 
new ridges, at about a foot distance, where they re- 
main two seasons ; at Michaelmas, when the tops 
of the plants are decayed, the roots are taken up. 
This method of planting in ridges is only neces- 
sary in wet land. If all the horizontal roots are 
destroyed from time to time, it will cause the large 
downright roots to be much bigger, in which the 
goodness of this plant chiefly consists. After the 
roots, the only parts of the madder used by 
dyers, are taken up, they are kiln-dried, and then 
reduced to powder by a mill. Previously to the 
grinding they are carefully assorted. 

The fine quality of madder is distinguished by 
its being of a bright, lively, light color, well 
ground, without any coarse parts proceeding from 
the peelings. Fresh is always more valuable than 
old madder. It should be kept close to prevent 
the access of air, as its virtue evaporates when 
exposed. 

Madder is principally cultivated in Holland, 
CJermany, and France, especially the former place, 
where it grows in greater abundance than in any 
other part of the world. The turkey madder root 
is principally cultivated about Smyrna. This plant 
may be propagated either by offsets or seeds. On 
a light thin soil the culture cannot be carried on to 
any profit; that soil in which the plant delights is 
a rich sandy loam, three feet or more in depth. 

The ground being first made smooth, is divided 
into beds four feet wide, with alternate alleys half 
as broad again as the beds. In each alley is a shal- 
low channel for irrigating the whole field, etc., that 
that part of the alley that is not otherwise engaged 
may be sown with legumes. The madder seed ia 
sown broadcast in the proportion of from twenty- 



46 



AGRICULTURE. 



five to thirty pounds per acre about the end of 
April. In a fortnight or three weeks the young 
plants begin to appear, and from this time to the 
month of September care must be tiiken to keep 
the ground well watered and free from weeds. If 
the plants are examined in autumn they will be 
found to be surrounded with small yellow offsets 
Bt the depth of two inches, and early in Septem- 
ber the earth from the alleys is to be dug out and 
laid over the plants of madder to the height of 
two or three feet. With this the first year's ope- 
ration finishes. 

The second year's work begins in May with 
giving the beds a thorough weeding; and care 
must be taken to supply them with plenty of water 
during summer. In September the first crop of 
seed will be ripe, at which time the stems of the 
plants may be mown down, and the roots covered 
a few inches with earth taken as before out of the 
alleys. 

The weeding should take place as early as pos- 
sible in the spring of the third year; and the 
crop, instead of being left for seeds, may be cut 
three times during summer for green fodder, all 
kinds of cattle being remarkably fond of it. In 
October the roots are taken up, the offsets are 
carefully separated, and immediately used to form 
a new plantation ; and the roots, after being dried, 
are suld either without further preparation or 
ground to a coarse powder and sprinkled with an 
alkaline lye. The roots lose four-fifths of their 
weight in drying, and the produce of an acre is 
about 2000 pounds of dry salable madder. 

Use of Madder, 
The principal use of madder is in dyeing. It 
gives out its color both to water and rectified 
spirits ; the watery tincture is of a dark dull red, 
the spirituous of a deep bright one. It imparts 
to woollen cloth, prepared with alum and tartar, 
a very durable, though not a very beautiful red 
dye. As it is the cheapest of all red drugs that 
give a durable color, it is the principal one com- 
monly made use of for ordinary stuffs. Some- 
times its dye is heightened by the addition of 
Brazil-wood, and sometimes it is employed in 
conjunction with the dearer reds, as cochineal, for 
demi-scarlets and demi-crimsons. Madder-root 
is sometimes employed in medicine as an emme- 
nagogue. When the madder is given to animals 
with their food it produces a curious phenomenon, 
namely, tinging their bones with red. The bones 
of young pigeons will be thus ttnged of a rose- 
color in twenty-four hours, and of a deep scarlet 
in three days; but the bones of adult animals 
will be a fortnight in acquiring a rose-color. 

Best Method of Hay-making. 
Instead of allowing the hay to lie, as usual in 
most places, for some days in the swath after it 
is cut, never cut hay but when the grass is quite 
dry, and then make the gatherers follow close 
upon the cutters ; put it up immediately into small 
cocks about three feet high each, and of as small 
a diameter as they can be made to stand with ; 
always giving each of them a slight kind of 
thatching, by drawing a few handsful of the hay 
from the bottom of the cock all round and laying 
it lightly upon the top, with one of the ends 
hanging downwards. This is done with the utmost 
ease and expedition ; and when once in that state 
the bay is, in a great measure, out of danger ; for 
unless a violent wind should arise immediately 
after the cocks are put up, nothing else can hurt 
the hay; as no rain, however violent, can pene- 
trate into these cocks but for a very little way; 
and if they are dry put up they never sit together 



so closely as to heat, although they acquire, in % 
day or two, such a degree of firmness as to be in 
no danger of being overturned by wind after that 
time, unless it blows a hurricane. 

In these cocks allow the hay to remain until, 
upon inspection, the farmer judges it will keep in 
pretty large tramp-cocks (which is usually in a 
week or two, according as the weather is more or 
less favorable), when two men, each with a long- 
pronged pitchfork, lift up one of these small cocks 
between them with the greatest ease, and carry 
them one after another to the place where the 
tramp-cock is to be built; and in this manner 
proceed over the field till the whole is finished. 

Mode of H(ty-malcing in England. 
The clover is cut, and after it has lain four or 
five days in the swath, till it is suflSciently dry, 
the hay-maker, with a rake, rolls up a sufficient 
quantity to form a ripple, which is set up in the 
form of a cone. Taking a few of the longest 
straws he twists them round the top, which forms 
the point of the cone, keeps the ripple compact, 
and shoots ofi" the rain. In taking up the clover 
from the swath and forming the ripple, it is 
necessary to keep the upper or dry part inwards: 
by that means it is much sooner dry, and in a fit 
state for the stack. It is generally necessary for 
clover to remain five or six days in the ripple 
before it is put into the stack ; but that depends 
on the state of the weather. There is no occasion 
to untie the ripples. The method of rippling is 
not so expensive as cocking; it is much superior 
both in wet and dry seasons — not so liable to ba 
injured by the wet — much sooner dry, and of 
course of a better quality and more nourishing 
for cattle. Each ripple will weigh, when dry, 
about four or five pounds. They should not be 
made too large. Except where meadow grass is 
very long it would not be practicable to ripple it. 
The practice of rippling is simple, attend'jd with 
little trouble or expense, and whenever t;ied will 
recommend itself. 

To manage Cut Grass for Hay. 
Grass, when cut for hay, ought to be quickly 
raked, in order that its powers may neither be 
exhausted by the sun nor dissipated by the air. 
In the first stage small cocks are preferable, and 
on after days these may be gathered into largo 
ones or hand-ricks, by which method the hay is 
equally made and properly sweetened. After 
standing eight or ten days in these ricks, accord- 
ing to the nature of the weather, hay may be 
carted home and built in stacks of sufficient size 
for standing through the winter months. 

Buckwheat, 
This thrives among mountains better than on 
lowlands. Sow in July. It grows ripe with frost j 
the seeds grow black after a frost. 

Importance of Straw in Husbandry. 

This is a subject that has not always been so 
much attended to as its importance deserves. 

Though many useful observations on straw are 
occasionally introduced in agricultural writings, 
and though its value, as the basis of future crops, 
is fully admitted by every intelligent farmer, yet 
the subject has seldom been professedly treated 
of at any length ; we shall endeavor, therefore, to 
compress the most important particulars con- 
nected with it under the following heads : 

1. The weight of straw produced on an average 
of the different crops of grain and pulse per 
statute acre. 

2. The value of the different kinds of straw, and 



STRAW. 



47 



3. The various uses to which each kind of straw 
Ib applicable. 
Weujht of Strata produced by the different Crops. 

The quantity of straw per acre differs according 
to a variety of circumstances ; as, 1. The species 
of grain, whether wheat, barley, oats, etc. 2. 
The different kinds of the same grain. 3. The 
season, for in dry seasons the quantity is less 
than in moist. 4. The soil, for in fertile soils 
the straw is more abundant than in poor ones. 
5. The season when the seed is sown, for spring- 
sown wheat has less straw than the winter-sown. 
And, 6. The manner in which the straw is cut, 
for an inch or two at the root-end of the straw 
makes a great addition to the dunghill. 

From a statement by Mr. Young it would ap- 
pear that the average produce in straw of all the 
different crops, stubble included, may be calculated 
at 1 ton, 7 cwt. per acre, but that is rejecting the 
weaker soils. 

It is calculated by Mr. Brown, of Markle, that 
jn an average of years, the produce of straw in 
good land and under tolerable management, will 
be nearly in the following proportion per acre : 

lbs. 

Wheat, 2240 

Beans and peas, 1820 

Oats, ....... 1820 

Barley, 1400 



Total, 7280 

Or, at an average of these crops, 130 stone per 
acre, 22 lbs. avoirdupois per stone ; in all 2860 
lbs., or 1 ton, 5 cwt., 2 quarters and 4 lbs. 

It may be safely estimated that on an average 
of years well cultivated and fertile soils, when 
the crop is carefully cut down, will annually pro- 
duce, on the average of the crops above mentioned, 
1 ton, 5 cwt. per acre. 

Voliie of the different kinds of Straw. 

The intrinsic value of straw must vary materi- 
ally, according to its leading properties, the quan- 
tity of manure into which it may be converted by 
littering, or its fitness to be employed as thatch, 
these being the chief uses to which it is applicable ; 
but in general its price depends on its vicinity to 
large towns. It is only in situations where foreign 
manure can be procured easily and at a cheaper 
rate than by converting the straw raised upon the 
farm into dung that the sale of straw is ever per- 
mitted. Two loads of wheat-straw per acre are 
reckoned a tolerable crop. 

As straw is rarely permitted to he sold, being 
usually employed in maintaining winter stock, the 
real value of the article to the farmer is but in- 
considerable, depending upon the quantity and 
quality of the dung it produces. So little is it 
thought necessary accurately to ascertain the value 
of straw, that in several cases it has been given by 
the outgoing to the incoming tenant as an equiva- 
lent for the expense of harvesting, threshing and 
marketing the last crop. It is often thought in- 
sufficient to cover even that expense, and a fur- 
ther abatement is allowed on the price of the 
grain. 

Various pttrposes to which Strato is applicable. 

The subject of feeding with straw will be better 
understood by considering the specific properties 
of the different kinds of straw employed in feed- 
ing stock, and the rules that ought to be observed 
when stock are fed with that material. 

Wheat Strato. 
This kind of straw, from its strength, is con- 
eide;-ed to be peculiarly calculated both for litter 
and threshing, and indeed wherever the practice 



of cutting straw into chaff for mixing with grain 
for horses prevails, wheat straw is preferred. 
When given to cattle or horses, it is sometimes cut 
into chaff, and either given raw in that state, or 
what is greatly preferred, steamed with other food, 
in particular with potatoes. 

In order to improve wheat straw as fodder, it is 
the practice in some parts of England to cut the 
grain rather green, which preserves more of the 
natural juices, and consequently makes the fodder 
better. Some of the best farmers are accustomed 
to cut wheat much earlier than common in their 
respective districts. One of these was a miller in 
Norfolk, who occupied a large farm, where ho 
always cut his wheat several days before any one 
else thought of beginning, well knowing the good 
consequences in the value of the grain. It must 
then be less apt to be injured by shaking or 
harvesting. 

Oat Strato. 

Among the culmiferous grains, the straw of tlio 
oat is considered to be the best fodder, when given 
uncut. It is well known, indeed, that oat str.vw, 
during the winter season, is almost universally 
given instead of hay, in all the best cultivated 
counties of Scotland during the winter months, 
though that of peas and beans is certainly pre- 
ferred where both are grown. 

In some districts farmers cut oats in the straw 
into a species of fodder, which is called "cut 
meat." This is given not onl3' to horses, but to 
cattle, especially fattening cattle. It is thought 
to give not only fatness but a fineness of skin to 
all sorts of stock. 

Sean Strata. 

If well harvested this straw forms a very hearty 
and nutritious kind of food for cattle in the win- 
ter season. Both oxen and horses, when duly 
supplied with oats in proportion to the work they 
have to execute, thrive well on it, and the reduced 
parts, or what is termed in England the coving- 
chaff, is found valuable as a manger food for the 
laboring teams; when blended with other sub- 
stances it is probable that, in particular cases, the 
stems might be cut into chaff with advantage, but 
when made use of in these methods it should be 
used as fresh as possible after being threshed. A 
mixture of bean straw (which by itself is rather 
dry), and of peas-haum, which is sweet and nour* 
ishing, makes excellent fodder. 

But though this straw, more especially when 
mixed with peas-haum, is of great value as fodder 
to the working stock of the farm, it does not suit 
well with riding-horses, as it is apt to hurt their 
wind. In some horses iDoth bean-straw and peas- 
haum are apt to occasion colic pains, or the dis- 
ease which is called botts, probably occasioned by 
flatulency. For this disease, about half an ounce 
or a tablespoonful of laudanum is found to be a 
good remedy. 

Pea Strata. 

In Scotland the haum of peas is used as fodder 
for working-horses instead of hay, and when well 
harvested forms a very excellent provender, inso- 
much that it is considered to be of almost equal 
value to the grain itself. 

Tare-strato or Hay. 

This is an article strongly recommended by some 
farmers; for when the land has been dunged and 
the seed good, the produce is considerable. The 
crop should be cut as soon as the blossoms begin 
to fall off or the pod to form, and the whole, con- 
verted into hay-tares, require a great deal of sun 
to cure, and rain is very injurious to them. It 
would be a good plan to mix them with dry straw, 
which would improve both. 



48 



AGRICULTURE. 



Rule* regarding the consumption of Straw in feed- 
ing Cattle. 

Straw is much used in the feeding of cattle in 
Scotland, and there can be no doubt that oxen 
will feed well on straw and turnips, if the straw 
be good. It is recommended in all cases that for 
a month or six weeks after a bullock is put to tur- 
nips, straw only should be given with them. But 
in the more advanced stages of fattening, hay is 
80 much superior, that it should if possible be 
supplied. It is certain, at the same time, that hay 
is a very expensive food for stock, and ought to 
be saved as much as possible where it can pru- 
dently be done. It is well known that a full 
allowance of turnips and straw, during the winter 
months, will fatten better than a small allowance 
of hay in place of the straw. In the spring, hay, 
which retains its nutritive juices longer than 
straw, is much more valuable, both for fattening 
stock and feeding horses, and it is therefore the 
practice to reserve hay for about three months' 
consumption of these kinds of stock, and for no 
others. 

Hides for Feeding Horses with Straw. 

In regard to horses, hay may very often be 
more or less scarce or dear ; but with straw and 
the oats, which must always be given them whe- 
ther they get straw or hay, they not only plough 
three-fourths of an acre per day, or work from 
seven to eight hours at other labor, but are actu- 
ally full of flesh and vigor when sowing com- 
mences. They must, however, have hay instead 
of straw, when the severe labor of spring takes 
place. 

When, therefore, farmers' hors€s are so much 
reduced in condition as to be unable to go through 
the severe labor of spring, it is owing to their not 
having got a sufiScient quantity of oats or corn. 
Pea and bean-straw certainly make the best fodder, 
when not injured by rain ; but if that kind of straw 
,is damaged in harvest, white straw is to be pre- 
ferred. 

Hides for Feeding Sheep with Siraro. 

'There is no food of which sheep are fonder than 
pea-straw. The soil of pastoral districts being 
rarely of a kind calculated for peas, any extensive 
cultivation of that grain is impracticable; but 
where circumstances are favorable to that crop, 
peas ought to be cultivated, were it merely for 
the straw, as it would enable the store-farmers to 
carry on their system of sheep-farming with 
much more advantage. Indeed, the same plan 
might be advisable in other districts. It might 
be proper to add, that for ewes at yeaning time, 
lentil-hay is better than tare-hay or even pea- 
haum. 

Miscellaneous Rides and Observations regarding 
the Consumption of Straxo. 

On turnip farms it is the usual practice to feed 
horses till March, where the labor is not severe, 
and cows through the winter, with oat-straw, 
whilst the fattening and straw-yard cattle get 
the straw of wheat and barley. If any peas 
or beans be cultivated on the farm, that straw 
being given to the horses, a part of the oat-straw 
may be left for the fattening and straw-yard cat- 
tle. Upon turnip farms, it is not thought profit- 
able to cut the greater part of the clovers for hay. 
These are usually eaten by sheep, and no more 
hay saved than what may serve the horses, cows, 
and fattening stock for eight or ten weeks, imme- 
diately before grass, with a small quantity occa- 
sionally given to the, sheep fed on turnips. 

The expense of feeding even the horses alone, 
for eight months, on hay, would be more than a 



farmer can well afford ; at the same time it is a 
rule with the best farmers to give hay to their 
horses in the early part of winter; then peas or 
bean-straw till seed-time commences in the spring; 
and afterwards hay. 

Straw keeps much better unthreshed, in a large 
stack, than in a barn. Straw in general, more es- 
pecially white straw, is found to lose its value as 
fodder, in whatever way it may be kept, after 
the sharp dry breezes of the spring months have 
set in. 

It is a general rule that straw, when intended 
to be used as food for stock, should be given as 
speedily as possible after it is threshed. The 
threshing separates and exposes it so much, that 
if kept long it is, comparatively speaking, of little 
value as fodder. Lisle, an intelligent writer on 
agriculture, and a practical farmer, states, that he 
found cows did not eat straw so well on a Monday 
morning as they did the rest of the week, because 
the straw was not fresh from the flail. Straw, 
therefore, should be constantly made use of, as 
soon after it is threshed as possible: for by keep- 
ing it becomes either musty or too'dry, and cattle 
do not eat it, or thrive on it so well. It cannot 
be doubted that air has a very injurious effect 
upon all kinds of fodder, and the more it can be 
kept from the influence of the sun and the atmo- 
sphere, the better. It is seldom given as fodder, 
unless to straw-yard cattle, after the month of 
March. 

When clover is sown with grain crops, the clo- 
ver has often arrived at such a length as to mix 
with the straw in cutting the crop. This certainly 
improves the straw in good harvests; but as little 
clover as possible should be cut with the straw, as 
it makes it very diflBcult to secure the crop, unless 
it be left upon the ground for several days. 

Straw as applicable to Litter. 

Straw, when mixed with the dung and the urine 
of cattle, horses, etc. etc., is a rich and excellent 
manure; but even alone, when ploughed in, or de- 
composed by pure simple water, it is of use. All 
the various sorts of straw answer the purposes of 
litter. Some farmers contend that rye-straw is 
the best litter; others prefer the straw of wheat, 
which absorbs, it is said, so much urine and moist- 
ure, that a cart of wheat-straw is supposed equal 
in valu.e to three carts of well-made dung. In 
England the straw of peas and beans is extremely 
valuable, forming, it is said, when well broken by 
threshing, a desirable litter for worliing-horses, 
hogs, and other stock; but in Scotland it is never 
used as litter, unless it has been spoilt by bad 
management or a most unseasonable season in 
harvest, as its feeding properties there are so well 
known. Littering is of use, not only for convert- 
ing straw into manure, but for keeping the ani- 
mals warm and dry. In fact cattle cannot bo 
soiled on clover, or fed on turnips, without abun- 
dance of litter. 

There are four modes of converting straw into 
dung by littering stock: — 1. In stalls or stables; 
2. Inhammels; 3. In fold-yards; and 4. In open 
folds, where sheep are littered with straw. 

The quantity of dung produced from a given 
quantity of straw depends a good deal upon the 
kind of straw that is used (as some kinds absorb 
much more moisture than others), and upon the 
degree of care employed in preparing the dung. 
Speaking generally, the original weight of straw 
may be tripled, if the manufacturing process be 
properly conducted, and the dung applied to the 
ground before its powers are lessened or ex- 
hausted. The quantity of dung which may be 
made from an acre, especially if the dung arising 



DEAINAGE. 



49 



from clover, turnips, and hay, consumed on a. 
farm, is included in the general stock, will be 
Boinething more than four tons; consequently, 
any farm of decent soil may be manured at the 
rate of twelve tons per acre, every third year, from 
its own produce, provided the corn crops are cut 
with accuracy and the straw manufactured into 
dung in a husbandman-like manner. 

Straw at applicable to Thatching. 

For many ages straw was the common material 
for roofing farm-buildings and cottages, and was 
formerly made use of even in towns. The expense 
of a thatched roof is not great, in so far as respects 
labor; and the value of the straw is, to the grower, 
either the price he could obtain for it, or that of 
the dung that could be made from it, as the kind 
used for thatch is seldom used as fodder. Where 
economy must be attended to in the building of 
cottages, straw is taken as the least costly mate- 
rial ; but in these days, when manure is so ex- 
tremely valuable, as little straw as possible should 
be spared for other purposes. 

The durability of a thatched roof is likewise 
maintained. A good coat of thatch will need very 
little repair during an ordinary lease. But care 
must be taken that the straw is very clean 
threshed. If it is not, the grain left will soon 
spring, and introduce putrefaction and encourage 
vermin. The threshing-mill renders straw less fit 
for thatch than when it is threshed by the flail. 

In Great Britain, wheat is seldom threshed with 
the straw, but the ears are cut off", and the straw, 
bound in sheaves, and tied very light, is used for 
tliatching. 

Miscellaneotia Uses of Stratc, 

It is well known that various articles are manu- 
factured from straw, such a^ bonnets, and other 
. ornaments for the ladies. Even in remote coun- 
ties in England, the straw manufacture is car- 
ried on. The straw is prepared in London, and 
the plait is returned to that market. Straw-plait- 
ing is the principal manufacture in Bedfordshire. 
The quantity thus used is very considerable, and 
it furnishes employment for numbers of persons 
who might otherwise with difficulty find the means 
of subsistence. 

In some districts straw mixed with clay is used 
for building the walls of houses or gardens, and 
with the same mixture for the roofs of houses, 
instead of the common mode of thatching. 

In districts on the sea-shore, it is common for 
experienced farmers to keep in reserve a consid- 
erable proportion of their vneat or barley straw, 
and to make it into a dunghill, alternately with 
the sea-ware, stratum upon stratum, till both are 
exhausted. This is an excellent plan where the 
»ea-weed cannot be immediately applied, but it is 
the best system to plough it in, when obtained. 

In some places great quantities of beiin-haum, 
as well as c(jmmon straw, are bought up at potash 
manufactories, and burnt for the ashes. 

Straw is alsj used for stuffing beds. For this 
purpose the chaff of oats is found to be a material 
not much inferior to ordinary feathers; and being 
•o much cheaper, chaff beds are almost univer- 
■ally used by the lower orders in Scotland. 

Another purpose to which straw is applied, is 
that of packing ; and it is proper to observe that 
the quantity used in packing china and stone- 
ware, in the districts where these manufactories 
prevail, is found to be a serious injury to the 
farmer. 

Rev. James Hall has ascertained that every 
bean-stalk, according to its size, contains from 
twenty to thirty-five filaments, which are of a 



nature among the strongest and most durable 
hitherto discovered. He calculates that on an 
average there are about 200 lbs. weight of such 
filaments on an acre, capable of beinj; applied ta 
various useful purposes, where durability and 
strength, rather than fineness and delicacy, are re- 
quired. A tolerable paper is now made of straw. 

To wider-drain Clay Lands. 

This operation is always best performed in 
spring or summer, when the ground is dry. 
Main drains ought to be made in every part of the 
field where a cross-cut or open drain was formerly 
wanted ; they ought to be cut four feet deep, upon 
an average. This completely secures them from 
the possibility of being damaged by the treading 
of horses or cattle, afld being so far below the 
small drains, clears the water finely out of them. 
In every situation, pipeturfs for the main drains, 
if they can be had, are preferable. If good stiff 
clay, a single row of pipe-turf; if sandy, a double 
row. When pipe-turf cannot be got conveniently, 
a good wedge drain may answer well, when the 
subsoil is a strong, stiff clay; but if the subsoil 
be only moderately so, a thorn drain, with couples 
below, will do still better; and if the subsoil is 
very sandy, except pipes can be had, it is in vain 
to attempt under-draining the field by any other 
method. It may be necessary to mention here 
that the size of the main drains ought to be regu- 
lated according to the length and declivity of the 
run, and the quantity of water to be carried off by 
them. It is always safe, however, to have the 
main drains large, andplenty of them; for economy 
here seldom turns out well. 

Having finished the main drains, proceed next 
to make a small drain in every furrow of the field, 
if the ridges formerly have not been less than fif- 
teen feet wide. But if that should be the case, first 
level the ridges, and make the drains in the best 
direction, and at such a distance from each other 
as may be thought necessary. If the water rises 
well in the bottom of the drains, they ought to be 
cut three feet deep ; and in this case would dry 
the field sufficiently well, although they were from 
twenty-five to thirty feet asunder; but if the water 
does not draw well to the bottom of the drains, 
two feet will be a sufficient deepness for the pipe- 
drain, and two and a half feet for the wedgo-drain. 
In no case ought they to be shallower where the 
field has been previously levelled. In this in- 
stance, however, as the surface water is carried off 
chiefly by the water sinking immediately into the 
top of the drains, it will be necessary to have the 
drains much nearer each other — say from fifteen 
to twenty feet. If the ridges are more than fif- 
teen feet wide, however broad and irregular 
they may be, follow invariably the line of the 
old furrows, as the best direction for the drains; 
and, where they are high-gathered ridges, from 
twenty to twenty-four inches will be a sufficient 
depth for the pipe-drain, and from twenty-four to 
thirty inches for the wedge-drain. Particular 
care should be taken in connecting the small and 
main drains together, so that the water may have 
a gentle declivity, with free access into the main 
drains. 

When the drains are finished, the ridges are 
cleaved down upon the drains by the plough; and 
where they had been very high formerly, a second 
clearing may be given ; but it is better not to l«vel 
the ridges too much, for by allowing them to re- 
tain a little of their former shape,, the ground 
being lowest immediately where the drains are, 
the surface water collects upon the top of the 
drains; and, by shrinking into them, gets freely 
away. After the field is thus finished, run th^ 



50 



AGRICULTURE. 



new ridges across the small drains, ranking them 
about, nine or ten feet broad, and continue after- 
wards to plough the field in the same manner as 
dry hind. 

It is evident from the above method of drain- 
ing that the expense will vary very much, nccord- 
ing to the quantity of main drains necessary for 
the field, the distance of the small drains from 
each other, and the distance the turf is to be 
carried. 

The advantage resulting from under-draining, 
is very great; for besides a considerable saving 
annually of water furrowing, cross cutting, etc., 
the land can often be ploughed and_ sown to ad- 
Tantage, both in the spring and in the fall of the 
year, when otherwise it would be found quite im- 
practicable ; every species of drilled crops, such as 
beans, potatoes, turnips, etc., can be cultivated 
successfully ; and every species, both of green and 
white crops, is less apt to fail in wet and unto- 
ward seasons. 

To drain Lands. 

Wherever a burst of water appears in any par- 
ticular spot, the sure and certain way of getting 
quit of such an evil is to dig hollow drains to 
such a depth below the surface as is required by 
the fall or level that can be gained, and by the 
quantity of water expected to proceed from the 
burst or spring. Having ascertained the extent 
of water to be carried oflT, taken the necessary 
levels, and cleared a mouth or leading passage 
for the water, begin the drain at the extremity 
next to that leader, and go on with the work till 
the top of the spring is touched, which probably 
will accomplish the intended object. But if it 
should not be completely accomplished, run off 
from the main drain with such a number of 
branches as may be required to intercept the 
water, and in this way disappointment will hardly 
be experienced. Drains, to be substantially use- 
ful, should seldom be less than three feet in depth, 
twenty or twenty-four inches thereof to be close 
packed with stones or wood, according to circum- 
stances. The former are the best materials, but 
in many places are not to be got in sufficient 
quantities; recourse, therefore, must often "be 
made to the latter, though not so effectual or 
durable. 

It is of vast importance to fill up drains as fast 
as they are dug out ; because, if left open for any 
length of time, the earth is not only apt to fall in, 
but the sides get into a broken, irregular state, 
which cannot afterwards be completely rectified. 
It also deserves attention, that a proper covering 
of straw or sod should be put upon the top of the 
materials, to keep the surface earth from mixing 
with them ; and where wood is the material used 
for filling up, a double degree of attention is ne- 
cessary, otherwise the proposed improvement may 
be effectually frustrated. 

I'it Draining. 

The pit method of draining is a very effectual 
one, if executed with judgment. When it is sufii- 
ciently ascertained where the bed of water is de- 
posited, which can easily be done by boring with 
an auger, sink a pit into the place of a size which 
will allow a man freely to work within its bounds. 
Dig this pit of such a depth as to reach the bed 
of the water meant to be carried off; and when 
this depth is attained, which is easily discerned 
by the rising of the water, fill up the pit with 
great land-stones and carry off the water by a 
Blout drain to some adjoining ditch or mouth, 
whence it may proceed to the nearest river. 
Mr. Ihiyley's directiotis /or Draiiiitig Land. 

First make the main drains down the slope or 



fall of the field. When the land is very wet, or 
has not much fall, there should in general be two 
of these to a statute acre ; for the shorter the 
narrow drains are, the less liable they are to acci- 
dents. The width of the trench for the miiin 
drains should be thirty inches at top, but the width 
at the bottom must be regulated by the nature and 
sizf> of the materials to be used. If the drain is 
to be made of bricks ten inches long, three inchei 
thick, and four inches in breadth, then the bottom 
of the drain must be twelve inches : but if the 
common sale bricks are used, then the bottom 
must be proportionably contracted. In both casea 
there must be an interstice of one inch between 
the bottom bricks and the sides of the trench, and 
the vacuity must be filled up with straw, rushes, 
or loose mould. For the purpose of making these 
drains the bricks should be moulded ten inches 
long, four broad and three thick, which dimen- 
sions always make the best drain. 

To construct Main Drains, 

When the ground is soft and spongy the bottom 
of the drain is laid with bricks placed across. On 
these, on each side, two bricks are laid flat, one 
upo|i the other, forming a drain six inches high 
and four broad, which is covered with bricks laid 
flat. When stones are used instead of bricks, the 
bottom of the drain should be about eight inches 
in width; and in all cases the bottom of main 
drains ought to be sunk four inches below the 
level of the narrow ones, whose contents they 
receive, even at the point where the latter fall into 
them. 

The main drains should be kept open or unco- 
vered till the narrow ones are begun from them, 
after which they may be finished ; but before the 
earth is returned upon the stones or bricks, it is 
advisable to throw in straw, rushes or brushwood, 
to increase the freedom of the drain. The small 
narrow drains should be cut at the distance of six- 
teen or eighteen feet from each other, and should 
fall into the main drain at very acute angles, to 
prevent any stoppage. At the point where they 
fall in, and eight or ten inches above it, they 
should be made firm with brick or stone. These 
drains should be eighteen inches wide at the top 
and sixteen at bottom. 

To fill Drains. 

The completest method yet known is to cut the 
strongest willows, or other aquatic brushwood, 
into lengths of about twenty inches, and place 
them alternately in the drain, with one end against 
one side of the bottom and the other leaning 
against the opposite side. Having placed the 
strong wood in this manner, till up the space be- 
tween them, on the upper side, with the small 
brushwood, upon which a few rushes or straw 
being laid, as before mentioned, the work is done. 
Willow, alder, asp or beach boughs, are exceed- 
ingly durable if put into the drain green, or before 
the sap is dried ; but if they are suflered to become 
dry, and then laid under ground, a rapid decay ia 
the consequence. 

As in some situations it is an object of great 
importance to save the expense of materials com- 
monly used in filling drains, a variety of devices 
have, with that view, been adopted. One of these 
is of the following nature : — A drain is first dug 
to the necessary depth, narrow at bottom. Into 
the trench is laid a smooth tree or cylindrical 
piece of wood, twelve feet long, six inches in dia- 
meter at the one end and five at the other, having 
a ring fastened into the thickest end After 
strewing a little sand upon the upper side of the 
tree, the clay, or toughest part of the contents of 
the trench, is first thrown in upon it, and after 



THORN HEDGES. 



61 



that the remainder of the earth is fully trodden 
dnwn. By means of the ring, the tree is then 
drawn out to within a foot or two of the smaller 
or hinder end; and the same operation is re- 
peated till the whole dniin is conifilete. Such 
a drain is said to have conducted a small run of 
water a considerable way under ground for more 
than twenty years without any sign of failure. 

To zcater Meadows. 

The water should be set on in the month of Oc- 
tober, and also as early in that month as possible. 
The effects of this watering are very important in 
strengthening the roots and stalks of the plants, 
and preparing them for shooting up strong and 
vigorous next spring; and the hlades thfit now 
rise form a rough coat against winter, protecting 
the vital powers of the plants from the severity 
of that season. It sometimes happens, also, that 
by delaying the watering process too long, early 
frosts supervene, and very much impede or pre- 
vent the operation. The floods of autumn are 
very enriching to meadows; but this benefit is 
lost sight of to a certain degree when the process 
of watering is delayed too long. Indeed, the 
latter pasturage of meadows may^ generally be 
consumed early in October; and what may then 
remain is of no imjiortance compared with the 
fidvantages to be derived from early watering. 
Besides, if the meadow must be watered in sepii- 
rate divisions, and at difl'erent periods, it must 
happen, that by delaying the operation till No- 
vember, s(>me parts of the meadow may receive 
no water sooner than December or January ; and 
if these months are very severe, it may be wholly 
impracticable to complete the process at that 
season. 

If the land is fine and rich, it will generally be 
found that three weeks may be sufiicient for the 
first turn ; if sour and coarse, four weeks may be 
necessary. The verdure will then be fine, and the 
soil rich and yielding. If scum appear on the 
grass, the water must be instantly removed. 

Should the water not overflow properly, stops 
must be placed in the small feeders. These are 
either of stones or stakes, which are firm and dur- 
able. Sods rise and float away, and boards are 
seldom firm enough, though at times they may 
answer well. If the water, after all, does not flow 
properly over, notches must be cut, in order to 
make passages for it. 

Separate divisions of meadow occupy the water 
in succession throughout winter; during which 
they ought all to receive one turn of the water, as 
above recommended, if not given in later than 
autumn. 

In severe frosts, it is not very safe to remove 
the water, as it operates so far to protect the 
grass ; and if exposed wet to frost, it might be 
greatly injured. If it be necessary to alter the 
water in such weather, let it be done in the morn- 
ing of a dry day. 

In spring every division of the meadow requires 
to be again watered ; and the fine rich verdure 
that appears, with the soft unctuous tread of the 
Boil, are indications of advantage being obtained; 
but the appearance of a white scum warns the 
flusdter instantly to remove the water. 

To form Incloanrei. 
Inclosures, with some trifling exceptions, are 
formed in Gieat Britain by building stone walls, 
or planting thorn hedges. In this country rail 
fences are most used, but wire is becoming com- 
mon. According to the first method, the walls are 
either of dry stone, or of stone and lime; and in 
th<i last instance lime is either used only in bed- 



ding the outer part of the wail, or applied to th« 
whole of It, as circumstances may render neoos. 
sary. These walls are either coped witn sod, jr 
have a cope which tapers to the top, closely built 
with stone and lime, or the coping is executed 
with large irregular stones, according to the taste 
and disposition of the persons by whom they are 
erected. A wiill built with stone and lime is un- 
doubtedly the preferable fence; but the expense 
far exceeds the value of the interest a tenant gen- 
erally has ill the premises. Such walls ought,, 
therefore, in every case, to be erected by the pro- 
prietor, who thus increases the value of his prop- 
erty, in a direct proportion with the increased \ alua 
given to the land, Isy the erection of such fences. 
To render a stone wall useful as a fence, its 
height ought never to be less than five feet three 
inches, otherwise it will not keep in many of the 
breeds of sheep which prevail in the country. In 
erecting the fence great care ought to be taken to 
build upon a solid foundation, otherwise the wall 
is apt to incline to a side, and gradually to fall 
down. The coping should be made close, for if 
the water gets down the inside of the wall, it will 
bulge out, and finally go to ruin. 

To 2^1 ant Thorn Hedges. 

When a thorn hedge is to be planted, it is of 
advantaire to fallow the ground a year before- 
h.ind ; and if the s;>il is poor, to dress it with dung, 
so that the young plants may not be oppressed 
with weeds, or stunted for want of food, when weak 
and unable to send forth their fibres in search of 
nourishment. These things being attended to, 
and the hedge planted, an annual cleaning ought 
to be given ; sometimes two cleanings are neces» 
sary before the hedge will thrive. It is also 
necessary to fence it at the back with paling, that 
beasts may be restrained from going over it, and 
to switch it over when two or three years of age, 
in order that it may be kept clofse at the bottom. 

As the hedge grows up, repeated cuttings are 
necessary, so that a wide bottom may be gained, 
without which no hedge can be considered as a 
suitable fence; and some attention is required to 
give a proper shape to the top, which is a matter 
of much importance to the welfare of the hedge- 
When thorns are allowed to grow to unequal 
heights, the strong plants are sure to smother the 
weak ones; and when the hedge becomes broad 
at the top, it retains water and snow to the great 
injury of the plant. All these evils may be 
avoided by proper management: though twelve 
years must elapse before the best- managed hedge 
can be considered as a suflScient fence. 

To protect Young Thorn Hedges. 

The expense of protecting young hedges from 
cattle, by paling and railing, have always ap- 
peared to be too great, and, at the same time, an 
unnecessary consumption of wood and nails. It 
occurred to Mr. Moore, steward to the Marquis 
of Bute, that a more economical protection might 
be eff"ected by forming a small earthern dike upon 
the side of the ditch, opposite the line of thorns, 
sufficiently high to prevent cattle getting into the 
ditch. Accordingly, some years ago, he tried the 
experiment, and found it completely to answer his 
expectation. 

The materials of this sort of a protection being 
always on the ground, it is attended with no ex- 
pense but the workmanship, and the want of the 
use of the land occupied by this small ditch, for 
the time required will be much more than com- 
pensated by the saving of paling, railing, work- 
manship, and nails. Mr. Moore has also practised 
with success, in parts where dead thorus, or brush 



52 



AGRICULTURE, 



for cocking, are scarce, the placing of stones 
across the top of the dike, instead of the usual 
cocking. These stones, after having served their 
purpose, will be useful for drains or dikes where 
improvements are carrying on. 

To form a Plantation. 

When a plantation of timber is to be formed, 
the first step necessary is to fence the ground that 
is to be planted, so that cattle of all kinds may be 
kept fnira making inroads. The ground to be 
planted ought to be completely fallowed the pre- 
ceding year, and, if in a rough or waste state, 
two years fallowing will be useful. If wet or 
bo^gy, open drains are to be dug through all the 
hollow places, so that superfluous moisture may be 
removed. These operations being performed, the 
planting may proceed, in executing which great 
care should be taken to make the pits of a proper 
size; and, in filling them up, that thebest earth 
be returned nearest the roots. A mixture of tim- 
ber, in the same plantation, is always advanta- 
geous, and thick planting is eligible for the pur- 
pose of affording shelter. As the plantation gets 
forward, attention must be paid to thinning and 
pruning the trees, removing always those first 
that are either sickly or debilitated ; and, in this 
way, and by exercising constant attention in the 
management, timber trees will advance with much 
more rapidity, than when neglected and over- 
looked. 

Much expense is often incurred in planting 
trees, which is afterwards lost by neglecting to 
train them up. Trees inde/id are, in most cases, 
pat into the earth, and then left to themselves to 
grow or die; whereas with them, as with all other 
plants, the fostering hand of man is indispen- 
sably called for in every stage of growth, other- 
wise they will rarely arrive at perfection, or make 
that return to the owner which may be reasonably 
expected when the several processes of planting, 
pruning, and thinning are duly exercised. 

Planting trees in hedge-rows is not only preju- 
dicial to fences, but of great detriment to grain 
crops cultivated in fields surrounded by these 
hedge-rows, especially if the fields are of a small 
size. If shelter is wanted for a field, the best 
way of procuring it is to form belts, or strips of 
planting, from fifty to sixty feet wide; for timber 
trees thrive much better than when planted in 
rows, or narrow strips. All cold or moorish soils 
are greatly benefited by being inclosed in this 
way; though it may be remarked that small in- 
closures ought to be avoided, because they occa- 
sion a great waste of ground without affording a 
benefit in other respects proportioned to the heavy 
expense entailed upon the proprietor or tenant, 
for supporting such a number of unnecessary 
fences. 

The best method of raising Oaks. 

The Dutchess of Rutland received the gold 
medal of the Society for the Encouragement of 
Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, for experi- 
ments in raising oaks. After five several experi- 
ments, her grace is of opinion that the best 
method is "to sow the acorns where they are to 
remain, and, after hoeing the rows two years, to 
plant potatoes, one row only between each row of 
oaks, for three years. The benefit to the oaks 
from planting potatoes is incalculable; for, from 
the said experiments and from others made at the 
same time, and with the same seedling oaks, 
planted with a mixture of larch, spruce, beech, 
birch, and other forest trees, and also with oaks 
only — in all cases she has found that potatoes 
between the rows are so superior to all other 
methoda that the oaks will actually grow as much 



the first four years with them as in six without 
them. "It appears," she observes, "that the 
great secret in raising plantations of oaks is to 
get them to advance rapidly the first eight years 
from seed, or the first five years from planting, 
so that the heads of the trees are completely united, 
and become a smothering crop; after this is ef- 
fected the trees will appear to strive to outgrow 
each other, and will advance in height rapidly; 
they will be clean straight trees, to any given 
height : experiments have proved the fact, which 
may be verified by viewing Belvoir." 

Sugar- Cane. 

The best climate for the sugar-cane is that of 
tropical or sub-tropical regions. Although some- 
times grown in South Carolina, Tennessee, and 
Kentucky, it cannot be depended upon as a crop 
farther north than Louisiana. The principal va- 
rieties of the plant are the Creole, called also 
Malabar, the Otaheite, and the Batavian. 

The plants are, in our Southern States, put in 
between January and March; October is the sea- 
son for gathering the crop. At that time the slips 
or cuttings are selected for setting out, as the cane 
is never grown from seed. On general principles 
we venture to suggest that final deterioration is 
probable in any plant which is never renewed from 
seed. 

For planting, after breaking up the land, fur- 
rows are run four, six or eight feet apart; in these 
the slips, each having several joints, are laid, from 
two to five feet apart, and covered not very deeply. 
The spaces between the rows are ploughed or hoed 
well. In Louisiana three crops will successively 
follow from a single planting; in the West Indies 
one laying will last from ten to twenty years. 
The yield of sugar to the acre is from 500 to 5000 
or more lbs. to the acre ; never more than 2000 in 
this country. 

When ripe the canes are cut down close to the 
ground and stripped of the leaves, which are left 
to shelter the roots through the winter. This 
trash is now and then burned or ploughed under. 
The lowest part of the cane is richest in sugar. 
All parts of the plant make good fodder. 

As soon as cut the canes should be taken to the 
mill, before fermentation sets in. There are many 
kinds of mills in use, from the simplest to the 
most powerful steam apparatus. In them all the 
canes are crushed repeatedly, so that the juioe 
runs out below; but a great deal of sugar yet re- 
mains in the bagasse. The crude syrup contains 
various impurities, and should be at once strained 
through copper or iron wire into the clarifying 
vessels. Then it is boiled for concentration, lime 
being added in just sufficient quantity to neutral- 
ize the free acid, which is known by its no longer 
reddening litmus paper. The heat used should 
not be more than is necessary for boiling. In 
about twenty-four hours crystalization begins. 
The molasses is then drained out from hogshe»>ds 
bored at the bottom. This process requires fri>m 
three to six weeks before it is fit for shipping, lut 
it continues to deposit or drip molasses for some 
time afterwards. Refining or whitening the sugar 
is performed in various ways, the most useful 
agent for the purpose being animal charcoal »r 
bone-black. 

Maple Sugar. 

This is obtained by tapping the sugar-maple 
tree in the spring, while the sap is ascending vig- 
orously. The trees grow in groves or orchards in 
New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Michi- 
gan, and Canada, as well as farther south. In 
February and March persons go to the maplo 
groves and bore the trees with augers, two holes 



SUGAR, TOBACCO, COTTON". 



53 



in each tree, near each other, two feet above the 
ground and only half an inch beyond the bark 
into the white wood. Tubes of split elder are 
then intriiduced, and the sap allowed to flow into 
troughs prepared for it. The sap is poured into 
kettles and boiled briskly, the scum being removed 
as it f(jrms. When it becomes a thick syrup it is 
cooled and filtered thnjugh woollen cloth. After 
a second boiling it is left tor granulation in moulds 
made of birch bark. Maple sugar may be refined 
BO as to bo perfectly white, but is generally eaten 
in the crude state. A good deal of it is sold in 
small cakes iu the northern cities. 

Beet- Root Sugar. 

In France and Belgium this is quite largely 
manufactured. The fresh root of the sugar beet 
contains from five to twelve per cent, of sugar. 
The juice is obtained by pressure, after a kind of 
tearing or grating process has broken up the 
fibres and cells. The liquor is then boiled with 
lime, filtered, concentrated by evaporation, and 
granulated much as cane-sugar. 

Tobacco. 

The tobacco plant will flourish as far north as 
Southern Ohio and Pennsylvania, Even in Con- 
necticut large quantities of it are now raised for 
market. The most suitable soil for it is a light, 
rich, sandy soil ; thefinestqualities grow on newly 
cleared land. Tobacco consumes the strength of 
the soil more than most crops. The best fertilizer 
for it is Peruvian guano. 

Having selected a lot of newly cleared land, in 
the early part of March lay a large quantity of 
brush, leaves, etc., over the ground, and burn it 
thoroughly, then plough and pulverize the earth 
well, raking in as much ashes as possible. When 
the bed has been made smooth and firm, sow your 
seed about the middle of March, and then tramp 
it in, being careful to tramp the surface equally. 

A few days before the plants are ready for 
transplanting, the ground should be thrown into 
ridges with the plough, by throwing two furrows 
together about two feet apart, and then raking 
down to from two to three inches above the gen- 
eral level of the surface. A time of wet weather 
is the best for transplanting. Set the plants about 
eighteen inches or two feet apart in the rows. 
This work is generally done from the middle of 
May to the middle of June. 

Cultivate the plants as you would a corn crop, 
being careful to keep the ground well stoned a,nd 
clean from weeds. The greatest enemy to con- 
tend with is the tobacco worm, which must be 
often and well looked for and destroyed. These 
worms will sometimes devour a large plant in a 
few hours. Some planters keep large flocks of 
turkeys, and train them to the tobacco field, in 
order that they may devour the worms; this 
answers well, and saves a good deal of manual 
labor. 

When the plant makes buds for seed, they must 
be broken off, or it will make small leaves. 

After the plant seems fully grown and assumes 
a yellowish cast, it is then ripe and fit for housing, 
whfob must be done by cutting it off at the ground 
and piercing with split sticks about four feet 
long, putting as many plants on each stick as it 
will hold without pressing them too closely to- 
gether. If a free circulation of air be prevented 
the plants will mould. When thus done, hang 
them up in an airy house, made for the purpose, 
to dry. It is better to wilt the plants in the sun 
before housing, if it can be done. 

When housed it requires nothing further until 
it has become seasoned. Then, in damp weather. 



while the leaves are pliable, strip them off, noting 
the different qualities as you proceed. Tobacco is 
getierally, at this stage, divided into four qualities 
— the ground leaves, the bright red, the dull red, 
and the tail eiide, or top leaves. When there are 
large quantities to handle, it is best to have a 
stripper for each quality, the first taking off the 
ground leaves, then passing the plant to the next 
to take off the bright red, and so on until the 
leaves are all taken off. The stripper should hold 
them in his hand till he has as many as he can 
well carry ; then he takes a leaf and ties around 
the stock ends of the bunch, and ties them fast. 
The bunches of leaves are then to be well packed 
in heaps, and to remain so until they begin to 
heat. Then they must be shaken out and again 
hung on the sticks and put up in the house as be- 
fore. When the bunches are packed in bulk to 
heat, the pack must be examined every twelve 
hours, lest it get too hot and spoil. 

After the bunches have undergone the ferment- 
ing process they are to be tightly packed by hand 
in hogsheads and powerfully pressed, putting from 
800 to 1000 pounds in a hogshead. It is then 
ready for market. 

Cotton. 

The most suitable soil for the cotton plant is a 
rich loam. It cannot be too rich, and it is a poor 
crop on poor land. Cotton has been raised with 
success in Delaware, and even in Pennsylvania, 
but the finest long-staple cannot be produced so 
far north. 

The seed are plantejl in hills, the rows three or 
three and a half feet asunder, and the plants 
about two feet apart in the row. After springing 
it should be thinned to one plant in a hill. The 
season for planting is as early in the spring as 
the ground can be prepared. The soil should be 
well cultivated and kept clean from weeds. 

In the fall^when the pods open, it must be 
gathered every day and stowed away until there 
is a sufBciency to run through the cotton gin, 
which cleans it of seed. It is then packed in 
bales, when it is ready for market. The yield of 
cotton per acre is from 600 to 1000 pounds, ac- 
cording to soil, cultivation, season, etc. 



DIRECTIONS FOR THE REARING OF SILK 
WORMS. 
Procure eggs in February and March, and 
choose those of a pale slate or clay color; avoid 
all which are yellow, as they are imperfect. Keep 
them in a cold, dry place (where water will, how- 
ever, not freeze,) until the leaf buds of the mul- 
berry begin to swell. If the eggs be soiled, dip 
the paper or cloth to which they adhere in water 
once or twice, to wash off the coat with which 
they are covered, and which will impede the hatch- 
ing of the worms. It is not necessary to scrape 
off the eggs from the paper or cloth on which they 
have been deposited. Dry them quickly in a 
draught of air, and put them in one or more shal- 
low boxes lined with paper, which place, if pos- 
sible, in a small room of the temperature of 64", 
and keep it up to that degree for the first two dayt 
by means of a fire in the chimney, or, still better, 
in a brick, tile, or porcelain stove, or for want of 
these in a iron stove, and use tanners' waste-brok 
turf, or charcoal for fuel, to promote and keep up 
a regular heat day and night. The third day in- 
crease the heat to 66°, the fourth to 6S°, the fifth 
to 71°, the sixth to 73°, the seventh to 7o°, the 
eighth to 77°, the ninth to 80°, the tenth, eleventh 
and twelfth to 82°. It is impossible to expect re- 
gularity in hatching, if reliance be placed upon 
our variable weather, and it is the regularity of 



54 



AGRICULTUEE. 



the worms coming forth which will ensure their 
uniform growth, save much trouble in feeding and 
attending those of v<arious ages, and cause tlie 
whole, or the greater part, to fonii their cocoons 
at the same time, provided proper care be given 
during their progress. 

When the eggs assume a whitish hue the worm 
is formed ; cover the eggs with white paper (never 
use a newspaper,) pierced full of holes the size of 
a large knitting needle; the worms when hatched 
will creep through them ; turn up the edges of the 
paper to prevent their crawling off. Lay twigs of 
the mulberry, having two or three dry and young 
leaves on the paper, to collect the worms, and 
more as they continue to mount. For want of 
mulberry leaves feed for a short time upon lettuce 
leaves, perfectly dry ; if large they should be cut 
in strips and the mid rib thrown away, or, still 
better, feed with the twigs of the white mulberry 
tree cut up fine. The worms first hatched are the 
strongest, nevertheless, if only a few come out on 
the first day, give them away to save trouble, and 
depend upon those which appear on the second 
and third days. Give away also the produce of 
the fourth day, and then the whole stock will go 
on regularly. If it be wished to rear all that are 
hatched, endeavor to keep the produce of each 
da^ separate, by numbering the boxes and shelves. 
When the leaves on the twigs are loaded with 
worms, they are to be gently placed on clean, stout, 
white paper laid on frames with crossed rattans, 
giving them plenty of room. The shelves over 
which these frames should slide may be four feet 
square and fixed to upright posts ; they may be 
multiplied as required. Whether a distinct build- 
ing or apartment in a dwelling-house be devoted 
to a large parcel, it is absolutely necessary to se- 
cure the command of. a gentle circulation of air 
by having ventilators in the windows, floors, and 
doors. 

One or more tin circular ventilators in place of 
panes of glass would always ensure a regular cir- 
culation in the apartment; they may be stopped 
when their motion is not required. Red ants are 
deadly enemies to silk worms; to prevent their 
attacks the posts containing fixed shelves must not 
touch the ceiling, nor must the shelves reach the 
walls ; the lower part of the posts should be 
smeared with thick molasses. If the worms are 
fed on tables or movable frames, their legs may 
also be smeared wiih molasses or put in a dish of 
water; guard also against cockroaches, mice, and 
other vermin. 

The worms being all hatched, whether they are 
to remain in the first apartment or be removed to 
another room or distinct building, the heat must 
be reduced to 75°, for as the worms grow older 
they require less heat. 

It is impossible to insure the regular hatching 
of the worms without the use of a thermometer. 

First Age — that is, wHil the Warmi hnve passed 
their First Moulting Or changed their, First Skin. 

The apartment must be light, but the sun must 
not shine on the worms in any stage. 

Feed the worms with the most tender leaves 
four times a day, allowing six hours between each 
meal ; give the smallest quantity for the first feed- 
ing, and gradually increase it at each meal be- 
tween the moultings. 

In about an hour and a half, the silk-worms de- 
vour their portion of leaves, and then remain more 
or less quiet. Whenever food is given, widen the 
spaces for them ; scattered food may be swept into 
its place. 

Experiments may be made as to the compara- 
tive advantages of using chopped or whole young 



leaves. If chopped, a sharp knife must be used, 
to prevent the leaves from being bruised, and 
thereby causing the exudation of water from them, 
which would prove injurious. On the fourth day 
the skin becomes of a hazel color and looks shin- 
ing, their heads enlarge and assume a silvery 
bright appearance; these are marks of their ap- 
proaching first change. Their food on this day, 
therefore, may be diminished, or when these ap- 
pearances take place, but not before. Enbirge the 
spaces as the worms increase in size. The leaves 
ought to be gathered a few hours before they arc 
used, that they may lose their sharpness: they 
keep very well in a cool cellar three days. The 
leaves ought to be gathered over night for the 
morning's meal, to prevent the danger of collect- 
ing them in rainy weather. The leaves must be 
pulled carefully, and not bruised. On the fourth 
day the appetites of the worms begin to decrease, 
preparatory to their first moulting, and their food 
must be diminished in proportion as the previous 
meal has not been completely eaten. If the pre- 
carious heat of the weather has been depended 
upon, the first change may not appear until the 
sixth or seventh day. 

In the course of the fifth day all the worms be- 
come torpid; during this period, and in the sub- 
sequent moultings, they must on no account be 
disturbed. A few begin to revive at the close of 
the fifth day ; some leaves may be then given. 
After the first moulting the worms are of a dark 
ash color. 

Second Af/e. 

As the worms are fond of the young twigs, some 
of these should be spread over them with the leaves 
attached, upon which the worms will immediately 
fasten, and they may then be removed to a clean 
paper; or lay a strip of chopped leaves near the 
worms, and they will leave the old food. 

The litter is to be taken away; but as some of 
the worms often remain among the old leaves, they 
ought to be examined. To this end the litter 
should be removed to another room, spread out 
on a table, and a few twigs placed over it, on 
which the worms, if any, will mount, when they 
may be added to the others. This rule must be 
attended to after every moulting. Ten per cent. 
is generally allowed for loss of young worms. The 
first two meals of the first day should be less plen- 
tiful than the last two, and must consist of the 
most tender leaves; these must be continued for 
food until after the third moulting. 

If between the moultings any worms should ap- 
pear sick and cease to eat, they must be removed 
to another room, where the air is pure and a little 
warmer than that they have left, put on clean pa- 
per, and some fresh leaves, chopped fine, given to 
them; they will soon recover, and then may be 
added to the others. 

On the third day the appetite of many worms 
will be visibly diminished, and in the course of it 
many will become torpid; the next day all are 
torpid ; on the fifth day they will all have changed 
their skins and will be roused. 

The color of the worms in the second age be- 
comes a light grey, the muzzle is white, and the 
hair hardly to be seen. 

It must never be forgotten, that during the time 
the worms are occupied in moulting the food should 
be greatly diminished, and no more given than will 
satisfy those which have not yet become torpid on 
the first day, or those which have changed their 
skins before the others. 

Third Age. 
During this age the thermometer must range be- 
tween 71° and 73°. The revived worma are easily 



SILK WORMS. 



55 



known by their new aspect. The latest worms 
should be phiced apart, as their next moulting will 
be a day later also, or they may be put iti the hot- 
test part of the room to hasten their growth; This 
rule must be observed in the next moulting — in- 
crease the spaces. 

The second day the first two meals are to be 
the least copious, the last two the greatest, be- 
cause towards the close of the day the worms grow 
very hungry. The third day will require about 
the same quantity as the preceding last meals; 
but on the fourth day, as the appetites of the 
worms sensibly diminish, not more tlian half the 
former feed will be required. The first me.il is to 
be the largest: feed those that will eat at any 
time of the day. The fifth day still less will suf- 
fice, as the greatest part are moulting; the si.\th 
day they begin to rouse. Remove the litter, or 
even before they are moulted, if the worms are 
numerous. 

Fourth Age. 

The thermometer should range between 68° and 
71°. If the weather be warm, and the glass rise 
several degrees higher, open the ventilators, ex- 
clude the sun, and make a slight blaze in the 
chimney, to cause a circulation of the air. Widen 
the spaces for the worms. The leaves must now 
be regularly chopped in a straw-cutting box, or 
with a chopping-knife. The food is to be greatly 
increased on the second, third, and fourth days. 
On the fifth less will be required, as in the course 
of this day many become torpid; the first meal on 
this day should therefore be the largest. On the 
sixth they will want still less, as neiirly the whole 
will be occupied in effecting their last change of 
skin. Renew the air in the apartment by burning 
straw or shavings in the chimney, and open the 
ventilators. If the evenings be cool, after a hot 
day, admit the external air for an hour. None but 
full grown leaves should be hereafter given to the 
worms, and they must be all chopped; avoid the 
fruit, as they would prove injurious, and add 
greatly to the litter, On the seventh day all the 
worms will have roused, and thus finish their 
fourth age. The litter must be again removed. 

fifth Age, or tintil the Worms prepare to Mount. 

The thermometer should be about 68°. The 
constitution of the worms being now formed, they 
begin to elaborate the silk-vessels, and fill them 
with the silky material, which they decompose, 
and form from the mulberry leaves. Give abun- 
dance of room : do not let the worms lie so close 
as to touch one another, for their respiration will 
be thereby impeded. Continue to teed regularly 
and fully, as the appetite of the worms now be- 
comes voracious : give food rather five times a 
day than four; even six meals will not be too 
many. The last meal should be late at night, and 
the first the next day in the morning, at an early 
hour. The worms are not again to be moved, and 
the hurdles or feeding frames must be cleaned. 
, On the seventh day of the fifth age they have at- 
tained their largest size, viz., three inches long, 
and begin to grow shining and yellow. The ap- 
petites of some diminish, but that of others con- 
tinues, and must be supplied, to hasten their ma- 
turity. The litters must be remcjved every two 
days during the fifth age, but not when the worms 
are moulting, unless it can be done without dis- 
turbing them. 

The preservation of the proper temperature of 
the apartment at this stage cannot be too seriously 
impressed upon the cultivator. If sudden and 
great heat in the weather should take place, as 
often happens at this time, serious loss maj' be 
lulfered, without proper precautions. The in- 



creased heat to which the worms are exposed 
causes them to cease eating, to leave their feeding 
shelves, and to wander about the room in order to 
find corners and places to form their cocoons in 
before the silk fluid has been fully elaboiiited or 
matured; thus defeating, in a great ineasiire. all 
the care previously bestowed upon them. In the 
summer of the year 1825 vast numbers of wniins 
were killed by hot weather in Mansfield, Coiinci-- 
ticut. To guard against sudden heat in the wea- 
ther, close the window shutters while the sun is 
beating on them, and keep the ventilators in the 
ceiling or other parts of the room ojieii ; .-nid. if 
possible, tubs of ice should be broui;ht into the 
apartment until the thermometer shows a dimi- 
nution of temperature to the proper degree. The 
windows must also be kept open every evening, 
and until sunrise next morning, and water sprin- 
kled on the floor to promote evaporation, and 
consequently a freshness in the air. If the worms 
should become diseased during the fourth or filth 
ages, oak leaves may be given to them. These 
are stated to have been found very beneficial ; but 
the species of oak is not mentioned. The white 
oak may be tried. 

Of the rearing of Silk Worms in the last period <f 

the Fifth Aye J that is, witil the (iucoon is Per- 
fected, 

The fifth age can only be looked on as termi- 
nated when the cocoon is perfect. 

The cleanliness of the feeding frames in these 
last days of the fifth age requires great attention 
to preserve the health of the silk worms. 

About the tenth day of the fifth age the worms 
attain perfection, which may be ascertained by 
the following indications: 

1st. When on putting some leaves on the wick- 
ers, the insects get upon the leaves without eating 
them, and rear their heads as if in search of some- 
thing else. 

2d. When looking at them horizontally the 
light shines through them, and they appear of a 
whitish yellow transparent color. 

3d. When numbers of the worms which were 
fastened to the inside of the edges of the wickers, 
and straightened, now get upon the edges and 
move slowly along, instinct urging them to seek 
change of place. 

4th. When numbers of worms leave the centre 
of the wickers, and try to reach the edges and 
crawl upon them. 

5th. When their rings draw in and their green- 
ish color changes to a deep golden hue. 

6th. When their skins become wrinkled about 
the neck, and their bodies have more softness to 
the touch than heretofore, and feel like soft dough. 

7th. When in taking a silk worm in the hand, 
and looking throiigh it, the whole body has as- 
sumed the transparency of a ripe yellow plum. 
When these signs appear in any of the insects, 
everything should be prepared for their rising, 
that those worms which are ready to rise may not 
lose their strength and silk in seeking for the 
support they require. Handle the worms at this 
stage with the greatest gentleness, as the slightest 
pressure injures them. When moved, they should 
be left on the twigs or leaves to which they are 
fastened, to prevent their being hurt by tearing 
them off. A blunt hook should be used to take 
up those not adhering to leaves or twigs. 
Preparation of the Hedge. 

A week or ten days before the worms are ready 
to mount, bundles of twigs of chestnut, hickory, 
oak, or of the birch of which stable-brooms are 
made, must be procured, prepared, and arranged 
in bunches, so that the worms may easily climb 



56 



AGRICULTURE. 



up them to work their cocoons. As soon as it is 
observed that the worms want to rise, tlie bundles 
of twigs must be arranged on the fee.iing trays, 
leaving fifteen inches between them. The top 
branches should touch the lower part of the tray 
above that on which they are placed, so as to form 
an arch — and be placed a little aslant, that the 
worms, when climbing, may not fall oft". The 
branches should be spread out like fans, that the 
ftir may penetrate through all parts and the worms 
work with ease. When the worms are too near 
one another they do not work so well, and form 
double cocoons, which are only worth half a single 
round cocoon. Leave openings at the tops of the 
eurves for the worms to form their cocoons in. 

As soon as the worms are prepared to rise, the 
feeding frames should be cleaned thoroughly and 
the apartment well ventilated. Put the worms 
which are ready to rise near the hedges, and give 
a few leaves to those that are still inclined to eat. 
After they have begun to rise, those that are weak 
and lazy do not eat, do not seem to be inclined to 
rise, and rem;iin motionless on the leaves. These 
should be taken awaj^ and put in a clean dry room 
of at least 75° of heat, where there are hurdles 
covered with paper, and the hedge prepared for 
them. The increased heat will cause them to rise 
directly. All the silk worms being off the hurdles, 
they should be immediately cleaned. The tem- 
perature of the room should be between 68° and 
71°. When the worms are forming their cocoons 
the utmost silence must be preserved in the room, 
as they are very sensible to noi.<e, and, if disturbed, 
will for a moment cease to spin; thus the con- 
tinuity of the thread will be interrupted, and the 
value of the cocoon diminished. When the co- 
coons have attained a certain consistency, the 
apartment may be left quite open. 

SiiTlh Age, beginning in the Clin/salis State, and 
ending when the Moths Appear. 
The following are the necessary things to be 
done : 

I. To gather the cocoons. 

II. To choose the cocoons which are to be pre- 
served for the eggs. 

III. Preservation of cocoons until the appear- 
ance of the moth. 

/. Gathering of the Cocoons. 

Strong, healthy, and well m:inaged silk worms 
will complete their cocoons in three days and a 
half at farthest, reckoning from the moment when 
they first begin casting the floss. This period 
will be shorter if the silk worms spin the silk in 
a higher temperature than that which has been 
indicated, and in very dry air. 

It will be better not to take off the cocoon be- 
fore the eighth or ninth day, reckoning from the 
time when the silk-worm first rose. They may 
be taken off on the seventh, if the laboratories 
have been conducted with such regularity that 
the time may be known with certainty, when this 
may be done. 

Begin on the lower tier of hurdles and take the 
cabins down gently, giving them to those who are 
to gather the ccjcoons ; place a basket between two 
of the gatherers to receive the cocoons ; another 
person should receive the stripped bushes, which 
may be laid by for another j'ear. All the cocoons 
that want a certain consistency, and feel soft, 
should be laid aside, that they m;iy not be mixed 
with the better. Empty the baskets upon hurdles 
or trays placed in rows, and spread the cocoons 
about four fingers deep, or nearly to the top of 
the feeding frame. When Ihe cocoons are de- 
tached, the down or floss in which the silk-worms 
have formed the cocoon should be taken off. If 



the cocoons are for sale, weigh them and send 
them to the purchaser. The baskets, the floor and 
all things used, should be clciined. 

When giithering the cocoons, make four assort- 
ments: 1st. Those designed for breed. 2d. The 
dupions, or double ones. 3d. The firmest of those 
which are to be reeled. 4th. Those of a looser 
texture. 

//. Choosing the Cocoons for the Production oj 
Eggs. 

About two ounces of eggs may be saved out of 
one pound and a half of male and female cocoons. 

The small cocoons of a straw color, with hard 
ends, and fine webs, and which are a little de- 
pressed in the middle, as if tightened by a ring or 
circle, are to be preferred. There are no certain 
signs to distinguish the male from the female co- 
coons; the best known are the following: 

The small cocoons sharper at one or both ends, 
and depressed in the middle, generally produce 
the male. The round full cocoons without ring 
or depression in the middle, usually contain the 
female. 

These may be distinguished from the dupiong 
by the extra size, the clumsy shape, rather round 
than oval, of the hitter. As however all marki 
may fail, an extra number may be kept, of the 
best of those which are spun double ; and when 
the moths come out, the males and females being 
easily distinguished, an addition can be made 
from them to the defective side. 

By shaking the cocoon close to the ear, we may 
generally ascertain whether the chrysalis be alive. 
If it be dead, and loosened from the cocoon, it 
yields a sharp sound. When dead it yields a muf- 
fled sound, more confined in the cocoon. 

///, Preservation of Cocoons intended for Seed, or 
until the Appearance of the Moth. 

Experience shows that where the temperature 
of the room is above 73° the transition of the 
chrysalis to the moth state will be too rapid, 
and the coupling will not be productive; if below 
66° the development of the moth is tardy, which 
is also injurious. Damp air will change it into a 
weak and sickly moth; the apartment should, 
therefore, be kept in an even dry temperature, be- 
tween 66° and 73°. When collected spread the 
cocoons on a dry floor, or on tables, and strip 
them clean of down or floss, to prevent the feet 
of the moth from being entangled in it when 
coming out. While cleaning them, all those that 
appear to have any defect should be laid aside; 
this is the time, also, to separate the male and 
female cocoons, as far as we can distinguish them. 

Select an equal number of males and females, 
and keep the cocoons of the sau)e day's mounting 
separate, that the moths may pierce them at the 
same time. If the good cocoons taken from the 
whole parcel, are all first mixed, and the selection 
for those intended for breeding be made from this 
general heap, many will be set aside, which were 
formed by worms that had mounted upon different 
days, and which will be pierced by the moths un- 
equally, and hence there will not be an equal num- 
ber of males and females produced at the s?.m^ 
time; this irregular appearance may cause the 
loss of a great many moths, or of several thou- 
sand eggs. 

When the selection has been made, the sorted 
cocoons must be put on tables, in layers of yb'>ut 
two inches, allowing the air to pass freely through 
them, that it may not be necessary to stir theiu 
frequently; but it is beneficial to stir them round 
once a day, if the air be moist. When the seed 
oocoous are not very numerous, they may bfl 



SILK WORMS. 



57 



ilrung I pon threads, and hung against a wall, or 
suspended from a beam. Just so much of the 
middle of the cocoon is to be pierced with a nee- 
dle as is sufficient to attach it to the thread. The 
middle is chosen, because it cannot be ascertained 
at which end the moth will pierce the cocoon. 
Pliice a male and female cocoon alternately upon 
the thread, that they may be near each other 
when they come out. 

If the heat of the apartment is above 73°, every 
method of diminishing the heat should be tried : 
such as keeping all the apertures to the sunny 
side carefully closed, to cause thorough drafts of 
air to dry the humidity that exhales from the 
chrysalides. Should the temperature rise to 78° 
or 82°, the cocoons must be put in a cooler place, 
as a dry cellar. 

Seventh Age of the Silk Worm. 

The seventh, and the last age of the silk worm, 
comprises the entire life of the moth. 

The formation of the moth, and its disposition 
to issue from the cocoon, may be ascertained when 
one of its extremities is perceived to be wet, 
which is the part occupied by the head of the 
moth. A few hours after, and ^.ometimes in one 
hour after, the moth will pierce the cocoon and 
come out; occasionally the cocoon is so hard, and 
go wound in silk, that the moth in vain strives to 
comes forth, and dies in the cocoon. Sometimes 
the female deposits some eggs in the cocoon be- 
fore she can get out, and often perishes in it; this 
circumstance has induced some to extract the 
chrysalis from the cocoon by cutting it, that the 
moth may have only to pierce its thin envelope; 
but the exjierienced Dandolo disapproves of the 
practice (although he has performed the operation 
with success) because it is tedious; and should the 
moth be put on a plain surface, five in a hundred 
will not be able to get out, but will drag the en- 
velope along, and at last die, not being able to 
disencumber themselves. If the surface be not 
smooth, the moths will issue with greater ease; it 
is very favorable to the moths when they put forth 
their head and first legs, to find some substance to 
which they may fasten, and thus facilitate clear- 
ing out of the cocoon by the support. For this 
reason they should be spread out very thin on ta- 
bles covered with a muslin or linen cloth. The 
life of the moth lasts, in Italy, ten, eleven, or 
twelve days, according to the strength of its con- 
stitution, and the mildness of the atmosphere. 
With Mr. Dusar, of Philadelphia, the moths lived 
from five to eight days; a hot temperature accele- 
rates their operations and the drying which pre- 
cedes their death. 

Hatching of the Moths, and their Preservation. 

Cocoons kept in a temperature of 66° begin to 
be hatched after fifteen days ; those kept in a heat 
between 71° and 73°, begin to come forth after 
eleven or twelve days. The room in. which the 
moths are produced should be dark, or at least 
there should be only sufficient light to distinguish 
objects. This is an important rule, and must be 
carefully attended to. The moths do not come 
forth in great numbers the first or the second day, 
but arc chiefly hatched on the fourth, fifth, sixth, 
and seventh days, according to the degree of heat 
in which the cocoons have been kept. The hours 
when the moths burst the cocoons in the greatest 
numbers, are the three and four hours after sun- 
rise, if the temperature is from 64° to 66°. The 
male moths, the very moment they come out, go 
eagerly in quest of the female; when they are 
united, they must be placed on frames covered 
Kith linen, and made in such a manner as to 



allow the linen to be changed when soiled. 
Much care must be taken in raising the united 
moths; they must be held by the wings in order 
not to separate them. When one small table is 
filled with moths in a state of union, they are to 
be carried into a small room, sufficiently airy and 
fresh, and which can be made very dark. Hav- 
ing employed the first hours of the day in select- 
ing and carrying the united moths, the males and 
females which are found separate on the tables 
are to be brought into contact, put on frames and 
carried into the dark room. It is easy to ascer- 
tain if there are more females than males. The 
body of the female is nearly double the size of 
that of the male; besides, the male which is sin- 
gle, beats about its wings at the l«ast approach 
of light; the hour must be noted .it which the 
tables containing the united moths are placed in 
the dark room. 

If, after this operation is over, there still reinaiu 
some moths of each sex, they are to be placed iE 
a small box with a perforated cover, until the mo- 
ment favorable for their union arrives. From 
time to time they must be looked at, to see if they 
separate, in order that they may be brought anew 
into contact. 

When any thing is to be done in the dark cham- 
ber, as little light as possible must be admitted, 
only sufficient to distinguish objects. The more 
light there is the more the moths are disturbed 
and troubled in their operations, as light is too 
stimulating for them. The boxes are very con- 
venient to keep quiet the males which remain, and 
thus prevent the fine powder adhering to their 
wings from flying about, and the destruction of 
their wings, and consequently their vital power. 
The cocoons must be removed as fast as they are 
pierced by the moth, for being moist they com- 
municate their humidity to those which are still 
entire. The paper also on the trays, when soiled, 
is to be removed, and fresh supplied. Constant 
attention is required during the whole day, as 
there is a succession in the process of hatching, 
and union of the moths, which occasionally vary 
in relative proportion to one another. Instead of 
a frame paper may be used for receiving the eggs. 
A few good cocoons will not produce moths, 
owing to their hardness, which prevents the moth 
from making a hole by which to come forth. 

Separation of the Moth and laying the Eggs. 

If there be an excess of males they must be 
thrown away : if of females, males must be allotted 
to them, which have already been in a state of 
union. Great care must be taken when the couples 
are separated not to injure the males. The male 
ought not to remain united more than six hours; 
after the lapse of that time take the moths by the 
wings and body and separate them gently. All 
the males which are no longer in union must b© 
placed upon a frame, the most vigorous after- 
wards selected and united with those females 
which have not yet had a mate. Other vigorouj 
males must be preserved in a separate box, and 
kept in darkness. When there is a want of 
males let them remain united to the female the 
first time only five hours instead of six; the fe- 
males are not injured by waiting tor the male evea 
many hours; the only loss sustained is that of 
some eggs, which are not impregnated. Before 
separating the two sexes pre|)are in a cool, dry, 
airy chamber the linen on which the moth is to 
deposit its eggs. 

Six hours, as just said, is the usual time for the 
moths to remain united, for in that time the eggs 
of the female will be fully impregnated. It is 
also the general practice not to use the ma)* ''» 



58 



AGRICULTURE. 



aniither female, but Mr. Delonchamps assures us 
that in the event of hiivin<^ more feniiile than male 
moths, the latter may be again used to profit. In 
the year 1824 he raised many worms from eggs 
the produce of a sixth coupling, which were fully 
equal to those produced from those at the first; 
the union continued never less than from twenty 
to twenty-four hours; the male afterasixih union 
appeared as lively and as brisk as at first, but he 
had no more females. The eggs from even a thir- 
teenth union of the same male with different fe- 
males had all the characters of those of the best 
quality. In these cases the disunion of the pair 
was, moreover, never spontaneous, but always re- 
quired to be effectid liy the hands. 

The following is the manner in which the cloth 
must be arranged : 

At the bottom of a tressel or frame, which must 
be proportioned to the number of moths, place 
horizontally on each side of the length two boards, 
80 arranged that one of their sides may be nailed 
to the tressel about five inches and a half high 
above the ground, and that the other side of the 
board shall be a little higher and project out- 
wards. Upon the tressel lay a cloth, so that it 
may hang equally on each side. The ends of 
the cloth must cover the boards below; the more 
perpendicular the lateral parts of the tressel are 
the less soiled will be the cloth by the evacuation 
of the liquid from the moths. The moths which 
have been united si.\ hours are then to be gently 
separated, the females placed on the frame and 
carried to the tressel and placed on the cloth, 
one over another, beginning at the top and 
going downwards. Note the time at which the 
moths are placed on the cloth, and keep those which 
are placed afterwards separate, to avoid confusion. 

The females that have had a virgin mate must 
be treated h. the same manner as those which 
have been united with one that had been coupled 
previously five hours. The females should be 
left on the cloth thirty-six or forty hours without 
being touched; at this time if it be observed that 
the linen has not been well stocked with eggs, 
other females must be placed upon it, in order 
that the eggs may be equally distributed. When 
the heat of the room is 77° or 79°, or when at 63° 
or 65°, the eggs will be yellow, that is unimpreg- 
nated, or of a reddish color, that is imperfectly 
impregnated, and will not produce worms; the 
temperature of the room must therefore be kept 
between these extremes. Sometimes a female moth 
will escape from its mate before impregnation and 
produce many worthless eggs. 

The female cocoons, as before noted, are gene- 
rally larger than the males and not so much 
pointed as these are, and are without the ring or 
depression in the middle, which commonlj' distin- 
guishes the cocoons containing the latter. 

Eight or ten days after the deposition of the 
eggs the jonquil color peculiar to them will change 
to a reddish gray, and afterwards into a pale clay 
hue ; they are of a lenticular form, and on both 
Jurfaces there is a slight depression. 

Preservation of the Eggs. 

Collect the eggs which have fallen on the cloth 
covering the shelves of the tressel, when quite 
dry, and put them in a box, and, if numerous, in 
layers not more than half the breadth of the fin- 
ger. The cloths niised from the tressel when quite 
dry are to be folded and placed in a dry mom, the 
temperature of which does not exceed 65°, nor 
below the freezing point, 32°. 

During the summer the cloths must bo exam- 
ined every month, to remove insects, and to pre- 
■erve the cloths always in fresh air ; if the quan- 



tity be large, place them on a frame of cord at- 
tiiched to the ceiling or a r.ifter. A bnrrel-hoop 
crossed with stout pack-thread will make a good 
frame. A small quantity may be kept in a tin ease. 
If a board box be used the joints and edges of the 
top should be jiasted with paper to exclude ants. 

There exi.-ts a notion that every two or three 
years the eggs should be changed. It reciuires 
little to be sai<l on this egregious error. To sup- 
pose that the good cocoons of a cultivator, after a 
few years, are no longer fit to produce seed, and 
yet that these cocoons 3an give good seed for the 
use of another, would be to admit a siipcrstitiou» 
contradiction, which reason, practice, and science 
alike condemn. A change of seed can only be 
necessary when, from great neglect for a series of 
years of the worms, a diminutive race has been 
produced. Worms properly treated will never 
degenerate. On the subject of the degeneriicy of 
silk-worms, in the United States, the most posi- 
tive information can be given. 

Mr. Samuel Alexander, of Philadeljihia, says: 
"I am convinced that silk worms cultivated in 
Pennsylvania, instead of degenerating, improve; 
proof of which I possess, in comparing the co- 
coons of four years since with those of the last 
year. I can say, with truth, the worms hatched 
from the eggs I brought from the south of Eu- 
rope have j)roduced annually better silk." The 
testimony of Mr. Sharrod M'Call, of Florida, is 
still more decisive. 

A sample of beautiful sewing-silk, sent with his 
communication to the Secretary of the Treasury, 
was part of a parcel produced by worms, the stock 
of which he has had thirty years; and they were 
obtained from a maternal ancestor, who had pos- 
sessed them many years before. 

During all this long period no degeneracy haa 
been observed. Let proper care be taken of silk- 
worms, and no deterioration will take place. 

The time has passed when the idle reveries of 
Bufifon, llobertson, De Pauw, and others, respect- 
ing the tendency of nature "to belittle" and de- 
generate everything foreign in the new world, 
were received as truths. Facts, proud facts, de- 
monstrate not only the absurdity of their positions, 
but the superiority of many American animals and 
Vf,getables, when compared with similar produc- 
tions in the old world. 

To bake Cocoons. 

Cocoons reel more readily, and yield silk of a 
superior qualitj", without killing the insect by 
either steam of hot water, or by baking them; but 
those who have not the means of reeling oif their 
cocoons in two or three days after they are formed, 
or of selling them, must kill the insects they con- 
tain, or they will eat through, and spoil the co- 
coons by breaking the continuity of the thread. 
The easiest way to do this is to bake them in an 
oven, which must be about as hot as when bread 
has been taken out of it. After picking out all 
the spotted cocoons, put the rest in flat baskets, 
filling them within an inch of the top; cover them 
with paper, and a wrapper over it; put these bas- 
kets in the oven, and after an hour draw them 
out and cover them with a woollen rug, leaving 
the wrapper as it was. Let them stand five or six 
hours, to keep in the heat and stifle the chrysalis. 
Then spread them in thin layers on shelves, and 
move them every day (to prevent their becoming 
mouldy) until perfectly dry. It may be impor- 
tant to state that the birth of the moth may be 
prolonged a month, by keeping the cocoons in » 
very cold dry cellar. If the cocoons are kept 
over summer, they must be protected from an*.*, 
mice, and cockroaches. 



MULBERRY TREE. 



59 



Oil the CitUnre of the White Mulberry Tree. 

The proper soils for this tree are dry, sandy, or 
itony; the more stony the better, provided the 
roots can penetrate them. The situatiim should 
be high: low. rich, and moist lands never pro- 
duce nourishing leaves, however vigorously the 
trees may grow. They are always found ti) be too 
watery. The same remark may be made upon 
the leaves of young seedling plants, which will 
not produce good or abundant silk, and are 
only proper when the worms are young, say in 
their first two ages. It may be useful to have a 
parcel of these growing in a warm situation, that 
they may come forward before large trees, and 
serve for early food. 

Mulberry trees may be propagated by — 1st, 
seed; 2d, grafting: 3d, budding; -Ith, layers; 6th, 
cuttings; 6th, suckers. 

The rif>€ fruit may be sown in drills, in ground 
previously prepared; or the seeds may be washed 
out of the pulp, and mixed with an equal quantity 
of sand or fine mould, and then sown. They should 
be covered about a quarter of an inch deep. The 
seeds will soon vegetate, if the ground be rich, and 
will live through the winter, unless the eold should 
be unusually severe. A quantity of plants from 
seeds thus treated lived through the coldest win- 
ters in the Middle States. In very cold weather 
the young plants may be covered with straw or 
long manure. The following spring thin the jilants, 
60 that they may stand one toot apart at least. 
Seeds intended to be sown in the spring, or to be 
kept, should be wa.shed out, as they are apt to 
heat or to mould, if permitted to remain in the 
fruiu Land destined for spring sowing should be 
dug or ploughed in the preceding autumn, left 
rough ail winter, and be harrowed or raked fine, 
as soon as the season will permit, and the seed 
sown in drills. The young plants must be watered 
in dry weather, and weeds carefully kept down. 
Weeds will not only stint the growth of the plants, 
but cause disease in them, which may afi"ect the 
future vigor and health of the tree. In the second 
year transplant them to two feet distance from one 
another, to give room for cleansing and dressing 
the land. When transplanting, cut ofi" some of the 
roots, especially those that are ragged or decayed, 
and the tap-root, to force out lateral roots; and 
also the t<ips, at six or seven inches from the 
ground. When the plants in the nursery have 
sprung, strip oS' the side buds, and leave none but 
such as are necessarj' to form the head of the tree. 
The buds which are left should be opposite to one 
another. If the plants in the nursery do not shoot 
well the first year, in the month of March follow- 
ing cut them over, about seven inches from the 
ground, and they will grow briskly. They should 
be watered with diluted barn-yard water. 

W'hen the plants have grown to the size of one 
inch in diameter, plant them out in fields or places 
where they are to remain, and make the hole six 
feet square ; trim the roots, and press the earth on 
the roots as the holes are filled. During the first 
year of planting out, leave all the buds which the 
young trees have pushed out on the top till the 
following spring, when none are to be left but 
three or four branches to form the head of the 
tree. The buds on those branches should be on 
the outside of them, that the shoots may describe 
a circle round the stem, and that the interior of 
the tree may be kept open; and as the buds come 
out rub oti" all those on the bodies of the trees. 
For several years after, every spring open the 
heads of the trees when to: thick of wood, and 



cut off any branch which crosses or take? I ho lead 
of the rest, leaving two buds on the outside of 
every trimmed branch. Count Verri. of Italy, an 
experienced cultivator of the mulberry tree, re- 
commends to leave only one bud at the end of 
every branch, preferring those which are outside 
and opposite to each other; and when three buds 
appear together to leave the middle one, which is 
always most vigorous, and to detach the two on 
e;ich side of it. If the superior buds do nut push 
well, the two next lower ones must be left. Every 
farmer knows the very great importance of dress- 
ing ground round young trees twice in the course 
of a year, and of securing them to stakes, to in- 
sure an uprii^ht, straight growth, and to prevent 
their being shaken by winds or levelled by storms. 
The trees may be planted at the usual distances 
of apple trees. The intervals may be cultivated 
in cabbages, turnips, or mangel wurtzel. The at- 
tendance necessary to Indian corn would endan- 
ger the yoiAg trees. 

It is so much the practice in the United States 
to let trees take their chance for growing, after 
they have been planted, or sprung up from seeds 
or stones, that these particular directions may be 
disregarded. But let a comparative experiment 
be made with mulberry trees permitted to grow 
at will, and others treated as here directed, and 
the difference in their beauty and growth will be 
obvious. The advantage, in these res|)ects, will 
be decidedly in favor of trees which have been 
attended to. 

Without deciding upon the superiority of the 
various modes of propagating mulberry trees, it is 
thought proper to mention the great advantage of 
the mode of budding. In the year 1826, Mr Mil- 
lington, of Missouri, ''budded the white mulberry 
on stocks of native trees; and such as were done 
before July were forced out immediately by cut- 
ting off the stocks above the buds. Some of these 
buds made limbs more than two feet long by the 
27th of October. The buds put in after the mid- 
dle of July he did not intend to force out until 
the following spring. lie thinks budding more 
expeditious and surer than engrafting, and when 
it fails does not injure the stock so much as this 
mode. Native stocks, to engraft or bud on, can 
be procured with ease ; and the trees thus raised 
would not be liable to disease in their roots, like 
foreign trees : and these engrafted or budded trees 
would grow much faster, and furnish leaves much 
sooner, and of a larger size, and better quality. 
This will not be doubted by those who have ob- 
served how much faster an engrafted tree grows, 
and how much larger its leaves are than those of a 
seedling tree." 

Experience has fully shown that the leaves of 
the native mulberry tree produce good and strong 
silk: although not so fine as that from the white 
mulberry. Those, therefore, who have only the 
native tree, may begin their operations with it; 
and they will acquire a knowledge of the business 
of rearing silk worms, while the foreign species is 
growing. 

It must be added that experience in the raising 
of the mulberry silk worm has led to much disap- 
pointment in this country. Recently, the ailan- 
thus silk worm (bombyx or attacus cynthia) baa 
been introduced, and affords promise of success. 
Dr. Stewardson, of Philadelphia, and Bev. Mr. 
Morris, of Baltimore, report very favorablj- of its 
hardiness and productiveness. Fabrics made of 
its silk are very durable. The U. S. Agricultural 
Department, at Washington, wiU furnisk the eggs 
for triaL 



60 



HORTICULTURE. 



HORTICULTURE. 



To (hoose the best Soil for a Garden. 
Prefer a sandy loam, not less than two feet deep, 
ind good earth not of a binding nature in sum- 
mer, nor retentive of rain in winter; but of such a 
texture that it can be worked without diflSculty in 
any sejison of the year. There are few sorts of 
fruit-trees or esculent vegetables, which require 
less depth of earth to grow in than two feet to 
bring them to perfection, and if the earth of the 
kitchen-garden be three or more feet deep, so 
much the better ; for when the plants are in a state 
of maturity, if the roots even of peas, spinach, 
kidney beans, lettuce, etc., be minutely traced, 
they will be found to penetrate into the earth, in 
search of food, to the depth of two feet, provided 
the soil be of a nature that allows them; if it can 
be done, a garden should be made on land whose 
bottom is not of a springy wet nature. If this 
rule can be observed, draining will be unneces- 
sary, for when land is well prepared for the growth 
of fruit trees and esculent vegetables, by trench- 
ing, manuring, and digging, it is by these means 
brought into such a porous temperament, that, the 
rains pass through it without being detained longer 
than necessary. If the land of a garden be of too 
strong a nature, it should be well mixed with sand, 
or scrapings of roads, where stones have been 
ground to pieces by carriages. 

To make Gravel Walka. 
The bottom should be laid with lime-rubbish, 
large flint stones, or any other hard matter, for 
eight or ten inches, to keep weeds from growing 
through, and over this the gravel is to be laid 
six or eight inches thick. This should be lain 
rounding up in the middle, by which means the 
larger stones will run off to the sides, and may be 
raked away; for the gravel should never be 
screened before it is laid on. It is a common mis- 
take to lay these walks too round, which not only 
makes them uneasy to walk upon, but takes off 
from their apparent breadth. One inch in five feet 
is a sufficient proportion for the rise in the mid- 
dle ; so that a walk twenty feet wide should be 
four inches higher at the middle than at the edges, 
and so in proportion. As soon as the gravel is 
laid, it should be raked, and the large stones 
thrown back again ; then the whole should be 
rolled both lengthwise and crosswise; and the 
person who draws the roller should wear shoes 
with flat heels that he may make no holes, be- 
cause holes made in a new walk are not easily 
remedied. The walks should always be rolled 
three or four times after very hard showers, from 
which they will bind more firmly than otherwise 
they could ever be made to. 

To prepare Hot-beds, Manures, and Composti. 

Stable-dung is in the most general use for form- 
ing hot-beds, which are masses of this dung after 
it has undergone its violent fermentation. 

Bark is only preferable to dung because the 
substance which undergoes the process of putrid 
fermentation requires longer time to decay. Hence 
it is found useful in the bark pits of hot-houses, 
as requiring to be less often moved or renewed 
than dung or any other substance. 

Leaves, and especially oak leaves, come the 
nearest to bank, and have the additional advan- 
tage that when perfectly rotten like dung they form 
a rich mould or excellent manure. 



The object of preparation in these three sub- 
stances being to get rid of the violent heat which 
is produced when the fermentation is most pow- 
erful, it is obvious that preparation must consist 
in facilitating the process. For this purp<ise a 
certain degree of moisture and air in the ferment- 
ing bodies are requisite, and hence the business 
of the gardener is to turn them over frequently 
and apply water when the process appears impe- 
ded, and exclude rain when chilled with too much 
water. 

Recent stable-dung generally requires to lie a 
month in ridges or beds, and be turned over in 
that time thrice before it is fit for cucumber-beds 
of the common construction: but for McPhail's 
hot-beds, or for linings, or for frames with mov- 
able bottoms, three weeks, a fortnight, or less, 
will suffice, or no time at all need be given, but 
the dung formed .at once into linings. Tan and 
leaves require in general a month. Fermentation 
is always most rapid in summer, and if the ma- 
terials are spread abroad during the frost, it is 
totally impeded. In winter the process of prepa- 
tion generally goes on under the back sheds, which 
situation is also the best in summer, as full expo- 
sure to the sun and wind dries too much the ex- 
terior surface; but where sheds cannot be had, it 
will go on very well in the open air. Some culti- 
vators have devised plans to economize heat by 
fermenting dung in vineries which are just begin- 
ning to be forced, or in vaults under pine pits, or 
plant stoves. 

To form Dung Beds. 

In general such beds are formed on a level sur- 
face, but Mr. T. A. Knight's plan is to form a sur- 
face of earth as a basis, which shall incline to the 
horizon to the extent of 15° ; on this he forms 
the dung-bed to the same inclination, and finally 
the frame, when placed on such a bed, if as is 
usual, it be deepest behind, will present its glass 
at an angle of 20°, instead of six or eight, which 
is undoubtedly of great advantage in the winter 
season. 

Ashes are often mixed with the dung of hot- 
beds, and are supposed to promote the steadiness 
and duration of their heat, and at least to revive 
it if somewhat decayed. Tan leaves have also 
been used for the same purpose, and it is generally 
found that about one-third of tan and two-thirds 
of dung will form a more durable and less violent 
heat than a bed wholly of dung. The heat of 
dungheds is revived by linings or collateral and 
surrounding walls or banks of fresh dung, the old 
dung of the bed being previously cut down close 
to the frames, and in severe weather the sides of 
the beds are often protected by bundles of straw 
or faggots. 

The residuum of heats, properly reduced by 
keeping, is a good simple manure for most fruit 
trees, and excellent in a compost; but where Iho 
soil is naturally cold a little ashes of coals, wood, 
straw, or burnt turf, or a minute proportion of 
soot, ought to be incorporated with it. Hog-dung 
has a peculiar virtue in invigorating weak trees 
Rotten turf, or any vegetable refuse, is a general 
manure, excellent for all soils not already too rich. 
One of the best correctives of too rich a soil is 
drift sand. For an exhausted soil, where a fruit- 
tree that has been an old, profitable occoi>ant is 
wished to be continued, a dressing of animal mat- 
ter is a powerful restorative, such us hogs' or bul- 



COMPOSTS FOR MANURES. 



61 



locks blood, oWqX from the slaughter-house, refuse 
of skins and leather, decomposed carrion, etc. 
The driiinings of dung laid on as mulch are highly 
«erviceal)!e. 

It is very proper to crop the ground among new 
planted orchard trees for a few years, in order to 
defray the expense of hoeing and cultivating it, 
which should be done until the temporary pliints 
are removed and the whole be sown down in gnss. 
As the trees begin to produce fruit, begin also to 
relinquish cropping. When by their productions 
they defray all expenses, crop no longer. 

To make Composts /or Manure. 
During hot weather, says Knight, I have all the 
offals in the garden, such as weeds, leaves of straw- 
berries and other vegetables, short grass, peas, 
and asparagus haum, with the foliage of trees and 
shrubs when newly shed, carefully collected into 
a heap. These are all turned over and mixed 
during the winter, that they may be sufficiently 
rotted to mix with the dung against the end of 
summer. I have also another heap formed with 
the prunings from gooseberry and currant bushes, 
fruit-trees, raspberry shoots, clippings of box-edg- 
ings, and lappings from shrubs ; also the roots of 
greens and cabbages, which are generally burnt at 
two different periods in the year, viz., in spring 
and autumn, but previous to each burning I en- 
deavor to pare up all the coarse grasses around the 
garden, with a portion of the soil adhering there- 
to, and whenever these are sufficiently dried have 
them collected to the heap intended to be burnt. 
The fire is kindled at a convenient distance from 
the heaps, and a portion of such as burn most 
easily is first applied, until the fire has gained a 
considerable power. After this the process of 
burning is continued by applying lighter and 
heavier substances alternately, that the one may 
preserve the action of the fire, and the other pre- 
vent it from reducing thetn too much to ashes. 
When the whole are thus consumed a quantity of 
mould is thrown over the heap to prevent the fire 
from breaking through, and whenever it can be 
broken into with safety it is then mixed up into a 
dunghill with the rotted vegetables, moss-earth 
and stable-yard dung in such proportions as is 
likely to insure a moderate fermentation, which is 
generally completed in three or four weeks, at 
■which time it is most advantageously applied in 
having it carried to the ground and instantly 
dug in. 

To make Composts for Moulds. 
Composts are mixtures of several earths, or 
earthy substances, or dungs, either for the im- 
provement of the general soil under culture or for 
the culture of particular plants. 

In respect to composts for the amendment of 
the general soil of the garden, their quality must 
depend upon that of the natural soil; if this be 
light, loose, or sandy, it may be assisted by heavy 
loams, clays, etc., from ponds and ditches, clean- 
ings of sewers, etc. On the other hand, heavy 
clayey and all stubborn soils may be assisted by 
light composts of sandy earth, drift, and sea-sand, 
the shovellings of turnpike roads, ilie cleansing of 
streets, all kinds of ashes, rotten tanner's bark, 
rotten wood, saw dust, and other similar light 
opening materials that can be most oonveniently 
procured. 

To make Composts for Plants, 
These may be reduced to light sandy loam from 
old pastures : strong loam approaching nearly to 
brick earth from the same source; peat earth, from 
the surface of heaths or commons ; bog earth, from 
bogs or morasses ; vegetable earth, from decayed 
kar«)i, stalks, cow-dung, etc.; sand, either sea- 



sand, drift-sand, or powdered stone, so as to be as 
free as possible from iron; lime-rubbish; and, 
lastly, common gnrden earth. There are no 
known plants that will not grow or thrive in one 
or other of these eiirths, alone or mixed with some 
other earth, or with rotten dung or leaves. Nur- 
serymen have seldom more than three sorts of 
earth : loam, approaching to the qualities of brick- 
earth; peat or bog-earth, and the common soil of 
their nursery. With these and the addition of a 
little sand for striking plants, some sifted liuie- 
rubbish for succulents, and some well-rotted cow- 
dung for bulbs, and some sorts of trees, they con- 
tinue to grow thousands of different species in as 
great or greater perfection as in their native coun- 
tries, and many, as the pine, vine, camellia, rose, 
etc., in a superior manner. 

To pre])are Composts. 
The preparation necessary for heavy and light 
composts for general enrichment, and o'" the above 
different earths, consists in collecting iach soil in 
the compost ground, in separate ridges of three or 
four feet broad, and as high, turning them every 
six weeks or two months for a year or a year and 
a half before they are used. Peat earth, being 
generally procured in the state of turves full of 
the roots and tops of heath, requires two or three 
years to rot; but, after it has lain one year, it may 
be sifted, and what passes through a small sieve 
will be found fit for use. Some nurserymen use 
both these loams and peats as soon as procured, 
and find them answer perfectly for most plants; 
but for delicate flowers, and especially bulbs, and 
all florists' flowers, and for all composts in which 
manures enter, not less than one year ought to be 
allowed for decomposition, and what is called 
sweetening. 

To viake a Green-House or Conservator^/. 

The depth of green-houses should never be 
greater than their height in the clear; which, in 
small or middling houses may be sixteen or eigh- 
teen feet, but in large ones from twenty to twenty- 
four feet; and the length of the windows should 
reach from about one foot and a half above the 
pavement, and within the same distance of the 
ceiling. 

The floor of the green-house, which should be 
laid either with Bremen squares, Purbeck stone, 
or flat tile-s, must be raised two feet above the sur- 
face of the adjoining ground, or, if the situation 
be damp, at least three feet; and if the whole is 
arched with low brick arches under the floor, they 
will be of great service in preventing damp; and 
under the floor, about two feet from the front, it 
will be very advisable to make a flue of ten inches 
wide, and two feet deep ; this should be carried 
the whole length of the house, and then returned 
back along the hinder part, and there be carried 
up into funnels adjoining to the tool-house, by 
which the smoke may be carried off. The fire- 
place may be contrived at one end of the house, 
and the door at which the fuel is put in, as also 
the ash-grate, may be contrived to open into the 
tool-house. 

Whilst the front of the green-house is exactly 
south, one of the wings may be made to face the 
southeast, and the other the southwest. By this 
disposition the heat of the sun is reflected from 
one part of the building to the other all day, and 
the front of the main green-house is guarded from 
the cold winds. These two wings may be so con- 
trived as to maintain plants of different degrees 
of hardiness, which may be easily effected by the 
situation and extent of the fire-place, and the 
manner of conducting the flues. 



62 



HORTICULTCHE. 



The sloping glasses of these houses should be 
made to slide and take off, so that they may be 
drawn down more or less in warm weather to 
admit air to the plants; and the upright glasses 
in the front may be so contrived as that every 
other may open as a door upon hinges, and the al- 
ternate glasses inay be divided into two ; the upper 
part of each should be so contrived as to be drawn 
down like a sash, so that either of them may be 
asud to admit air in a greater or less quantity, as 
there may be occasion. As to the management 
of plants in a green-house, open the mould about 
them fmm time to time, and sprinkle a little fresh 
mould in them, and a little warm dung on that; 
also water them when the leaves begin to wither 
and curl, and notoftener, which would make them 
fade and be sickly; and take off such leaves as 
wither and grow dry. 

To propagate Vegetables. 

Plants are universally propagated by seed, but 
partially also by germs or bulbs, suckers, runners, 
slips, and offsets, and artificially by layers, in- 
arching, grafting, budding, and cutting. 

The propagation by seed is to make sure of live 
seeds; for some lose their vitality very early after 
being gathered, while others retain it only for one 
or perhaps two seasons; some seeds also are in- 
jured, and others improved by keeping. The size 
of seeds requires also to be taken into considera- 
tion, for on this most frequently depends the depth 
which they require to be buried in the soil; the 
texture of their sV-n or covering must be at- 
tended to, as on this ^ ""ten depends the time they 
require to be buried in the soil previously to ger- 
mination. On the form and surface of the outer 
coating of seeds sometimes depends the mode of 
sowing, as in the carrot, and on their qualities in 
general depends their liability to be attacked by in- 
sects. The nature of the offspring expects it, and 
the proper climate, soil, and season, require also to 
be kept in view in determining how, where, when, 
and in what quantity any seed must be sown. 

Germs or bulbs, cauline or ratiical, require in 
general to be planted immediately, or soon after 
removal from the parent plant, in light earth, 
about their own depth from the surface. Ma- 
tured bulbs maj' be preserved out of the soil for 
some months, without injury to the vitality; but 
infant bulbs are easily dried up and injured when 
80 treated. 

Slips are shoots which spring from the collar or 
the upper part of the roots of herbaceous plants, 
as in auricular, and under shrubs, as thymes, etc. 
The shoot, when the lower part from whence the 
roots proceed begins to ripen or acquire a firm 
te.xture, is to be slipped or drawn from the parent 
plant, so far as to bring off a heel or claw of old 
wood, stem, or root, on which generally some 
roots, or rudiments of roots, are attached. The 
ragged parts and edges of this claw or rough sec- 
tion are then to be smoothed with a sharp knife, 
and the slip to be planted in suitable soil and 
shaded till it strikes root afresh. 

The division of the plant is adopted in many 
species, as in grasses, the daisy, polyanthus, and 
a great variety of others. The plant is taken up, 
the earth shaken from its roots; the whole is then 
separated, each piece containing a portion of root 
and stem, which may be planted without further 
preparation. 

With certain species taking runners is a conve- 
nient and sure mode of propagation. All that is 
requisite is to allow the plantlet on the shoot or 
runner to be well rooted before being separated 
from the parent. It may then be planted where 
it is finally to remain. 



Suckers are merely runners under ground; some 
run to a considerable distance, as the acacia, nar- 
row-leaved elm, sea-lime grass, etc.; others again 
are more limited in their migrations, as the lilac, 
syringa, Jerusalem artichoke, saponaria, etc. All 
that is necessary is to dig them up, cut off each 
plantlet with a portion of root, after which its top 
may be reduced by cutting off from one-fourth to 
one-half of the shoot, in order to fit it to the cur- 
tailed root, and it may then be planted, either in 
the nursery department or, if a strong plant, wher . 
it is finally to remain. 

Propagation by Layering. 

In general the operation of layering in trees 
and shrubs is commenced before the ascent of the 
sap, or delayed till the ascent is fully up. Ths 
shoot, or extremity of the shoot, intended to be- 
come a new plant, is half separated from the parent 
plant, at a few inches distance from its extremity, 
and, while this permits the ascent of the sap at the 
season of its rising, the remaining half of them, 
being cut through and separated, forms a dam or 
sluice to the descending sap, which, thus inter- 
rupted in its progress, exudes at the wound, in the 
form of a granulous protuberance, which throws 
out roots. If the cut or notch in the stem does 
not penetrate at least half way through, some sorts 
of trees will not form a nue'eus the first season; 
on the other hand, if the notch be cut nearly 
through the shoot, a sufficiency of alburnum, or 
soft wood, is not left for the ascent of the sap, and 
the shoot dies. In delicate sorts it is not suffi- 
cient to cut a notch merely, because in that case 
the descending sap, instead of throwing out gran- 
ulated matter, in the upper side of the wound, 
would descend by the entire side of the shoot; 
therefore, besides a notch formed by cutting out 
a portion of bark and wood, the notched side ia 
slit up at least one inch, separating it by a bit of 
twig, or small splinter of stone or potsherd. The 
operation of layering is performed on herbaceous 
plants, as well as trees; and the part to become 
the future plant is, in both cases, covered with 
Soil about a third of its length. 

When the layers are rooted, which will generally 
be the case by the autumn after the operation is 
performed, they are all cleared from the stools or 
main-plants, and the head of each stool, if to be 
continued for furnishing layers, should be dressed; 
cutting off all decayed scraggy parts, and digging 
the ground round them. Some fresh rich mould 
should also be worked in, in order to encourage 
the production of the annual supply of shoots for 
layering. 

Propagation by In-arching. 

A sort of layering, by the common or slit pro- 
cess, in which the talus or heel, intended to throw 
out fibres, instead of being inserted in the soil, is 
inserted in the wood, or between the wood and 
bark of another plant, so as to incorporate with it. 
It is the most certain mode of propagation with 
plants difiicult to excite to a disposition for root- 
ing; and, when all other modes fail, this, when a 
proper description of stock or basis is to be found, 
is sure to succeed. 

The stocks designed to be in-arched, and the 
tree from which the layer or shoot is to be bent or 
arched towards them, and put in or united, must 
be placed, if in pots, or planted if in the open soil, 
near together. Hardy trees of free-growing kinds 
should have a circle of stocks planted round them 
every year in the same circumference, every other 
one being in-arched the one year, and when re- 
moved their places supplied by others. If the 
branches of the tree are too high for stocks in the 
ground, they should be planted in pots, and ele- 



BUDDING. 



63 



r-ied on posts or stands, or supported from the 
tree, etc. 

To perform the operation, having made one of 
the most convenient branches or shouts approach 
the stock, mark, on the body of the shoot, the p;irt 
■where it will most easily join to the stock; and 
in that part of each shoot pare away the bark and 
part of the wood two or three inches in length, 
and in the same manner pare the stock in the 
proper place for the junction of the shoot; next 
make a slit upwards in that part of the branch or 
shoot, as in layering, and make a slit downward 
in the stock to admit it. Let the parts be then 
joined, slipping the tongue of the shoot into the 
slit of tlio stock, making both join in an exact 
manner, and tie them closely together with bags. 
Cover the whole afterward with a due quantity 
of tempered or grafting clay or moss. In hot- 
houses earc must be taken not to disturb the pots 
coutainiug the plants operated on. 

By Budding. 

Budding, or, as it is sometimes called, grafting, 
by genus, consists in taking an eye or bud attached 
to a portion of the bark of a ligneous vegetable, of 
various size and form, and generally called a 
shield, and transplanting it to another or a differ- 
ent ligneous vegetable. Nursery-men n()W gene- 
rally prefer budding to any other mode of propa- 
gation. The object in view is precisely that of 
grafting, and depends on the same principle; all 
the ditlcrcuce between a bud and a scion being 
that a bud is a shoot or scion in embryo. Budded 
trees are two years later in producing their fruit 
than grafted ones: but the advantage of budding 
is that, where a tree is rare, a new plant can be 
got from every eye, whereas bj' grafting it can 
only be got from every three or four eyes. There 
are also trees which propagate much more readily 
by budding than grafting; and others, as most 
of the stone fruits, are apt to throw out gum when 
grafted. Budding is formed from the beginning 
of July to the middle of August, the criterion 
the formation of the buds in the axillie of the leaf 
of the present year. 

The bulls are known to be ready by the shield, 
or portion of bark to which they are attached, 
easily parting with the wood. 

Shield Budding 

Is performed as follows : Fix on a smooth part 
on the side of the stock, rather from than towards 
th§ sun, and of a height depending, as in grafting, 
on whether dwarf, half, or whole stan'iard trees 
are desired; then, with the budding-knife, make 
a horizontal cut across the riiid, quite through the 
firm wood ; from the middle of this transverse cut 
make a slit downward perpendicularly, an inch or 
more long, going also quite through to the wood. 
Proceed with expedition to take off a bud; hold- 
ing the cutting or scion in one band, with the 
thicke^t end outward, and with the knife in the 
other hand, enter it about half an inch or more 
below a bud, cutting nearly half-way into the 
•wood of the shoot, continuing it, with one clean 
slanting cut, about half an inch or more above 
the bud, so deep as to take off part of the wood 
along with it, the whole about an inch and a half 
long; then directly with the thumb and finger, or 
point of the knife, slip off the woody part reuiain- 
Lng to the bud; which done, observe whether the 
eye or germ of the bud remains perfect; if not, 
and a little hole appears in that part, the bud has 
lost its root, and another must be prepared. This 
done, place the back part of the bud or shield be- 
tween the lips, and with the flat haft of the knife 
separate the bark of the stock on each side of the 



perpendicular cut clear to the wood, for the ad- 
mission of the bud, which directly slip down, close 
between the wood and bark, to the bottom of the 
slit. Next cut off the top part of the shield even 
with the horizontal cut, in order to let it com- 
pletely into its place, and to join exactly the upper 
edge of the shield with the transverse cut, that 
the descending sap may immediately enter the 
back of the shield, and protrude granulated mat- 
ter between it and the wood, so as to effect a living 
union. The parts are to be bound round with a 
ligament of fresh bass, previously soaked in water, 
to render it pliable and tough. Begin a little below 
the bottom of the perpendicular slit, proceeding 
upward closely round every part, except just over 
the eye of the bud, and continue it a little above 
the horizontal cut, not too tight, but just sufficient 
to keep the hole close, and exclude the air, sun, 
and wet. 

Another Method of Budding. 
Trees are generally budded by making a trans- 
verse section in the bark of the stock, and a per- 
pendicular slit beneath it; the bud is then pushed 
down to give it the position which it is to have. 
This operation is not always successful, and it is 
better to employ an inverse or contrary method 
by making the vertical slit above the transverse 
section or cut, and pushing the bark containing 
the bud upwards into its proper position. This 
method very rarely fails of success, because as the 
sap descends by the bark, the bud placed above 
the transverse section receives abundance, whereas 
if it be placed below the section very little sap 
can ever get to it to promote the growth of the 
bud. Oil rubbed upon the stems and branches cf 
fruit trees destroys insects and increases the fruit- 
buds. Used upon the stems of carnations, it guards 
them against the depredations of the ear- wig. 
The coarsest oil will suit, and only a small quan- 
tity is required. 

To bud toith Double Ligatures. 
This is an expeditious mode of budding 
by Mr. T. A. Knight. The operations are per- 
formed in the manner above stated, but instead 
of one ligature two are applied, one above the 
bud, inserted upon the transverse section, through 
the bark; the other applied below in the usual 
wa3'. As soon as the buds have attached them- 
selves the lower ligatures are taken off, but the 
others are suffered to remain. The passage of the 
sap upwards is in consequence much obstructed, 
and the inserted buds begin to vegetate strongly 
in July (being inserted in June), and when these 
have afforded shoots about four inches long the 
remaining ligatures are taken off, to permit the 
excess of sap to pass on, and the young shoots are 
nailed to the wall. Being there properly exposed 
to light, their wood will ripen well, and afford 
blossoms in the succeeding spring. 
To graft Trees. 
This is a mode of propagation applicable to 
most sorts of trees and shrubs, but not easily to 
very small under-shrubs, as heath, or herbaceous 
vegetables. It is chiefly used for continuing va- 
rieties of fruit trees, A grafted tree consists of 
two parts, the scion land the stock: their union 
constitutes the graft, and the performance of the 
operation is called grafting. 

The end of grafting is, first, to preserve and 
multiply varieties and sub-varieties of fruit-trees, 
endowed accidentally or otherwise with particular 
qualities, which cannot be with certainty trans- 
ferred to their offspring by seeds, and which would 
be multiplied too slowly or ineffectually by any 
other mode of propagation, 
Second, to accelerate the fructification of trees, 



64 



HORTICULTURE. 



b nren as w 11 as fruit bearing; for example, sup- 
]iu e two iirorns of a new s])ecies of oak received 
fr"iii ii ilstant country ; sow both, nnd after they 
have grown one or two years cut one of them over 
and graft the part cutoff on a common oak of five 
or six years' growth ; the consequence will be that 
the whole nourishment of this young tree of five 
years' growth being directed towards nourishing 
the scion of one or two years, it will grow much 
faster, and consequently arrive at perfection much 
sooner than its fellow, or its own root left in the 
ground. 

The third use of grafting is to improve the 
quality of fruits, and the fourth to perpetuate va- 
rieties of ornamental trees or shrubs. 
Materials used in Grafting. 

Procure a strong pruning-knife for cutting off 
the heads of the stocks previous to their prepara- 
tion by the grafting-knife for the scion, a small 
saw for larger stocks, and a penknife for very 
small scions, chisel and mallet for cleft grafting, 
bass ribbons for ligatures, and grafting clay. 
To prepare Grafting- Clay. 

Grafting-clay is prepared either from stiff yel- 
low or blue clay, or from clayey loam or brick 
earth ; in either case adding thereto about a fourth 
part of fresh horse dung, free from litter, and a 
portion of cut hay, mixing the whole well together 
and adding a little water; then let the whole be 
well beaten with a stick upon a floor or other hard 
substance, and as it becomes too dry apply more 
water, at every beating turning it over, and con- 
tinue beating it well at top till it becomes flat and 
soft. This process must be repeated more or less 
according as the nature of the clay may require 
to render it ductile, and yet not so tough as to be 
apt to crack in dry weatber. 

Whip Grafting. 

"Whip, or as it is sometimes called tongue graft- 
ing, is the most generally adopted in nurseries for 
propagating fruit-trees. To effect this mode in 
the best style, the top of the stock and the ex- 
tremity of the scions should be nearly of equal 
diameter. Hence this variety admits of being 
performed on smaller stocks than any other. It 
is called whip-grafting, from the method of cut- 
ting the stock and scions sloping on one side so as 
to fit each other, and thus tied together in the 
manner of a whip-thong to the shaft or handle. 

The scion and stock being cut off obliquely, at 
corresponding angles, as near as the operator can 
guess, then cut off the tip of the stock obliquely, 
or nearly horizontally; make now a slit nearly in 
the centre of the sloped face of the stock down- 
wards and a similar one in the scion upwards. 
The tongue or wedge-like process forming the up- 
per part of the sloping face of the scion, is then 
inserted downwards in the cleft of the stock, the 
inner barks of both being brought closely to unite 
on one side, so as not to be displaced in tying, 
•which ought to be done immediately with a rib- 
band of bu,ss, brought in a neat manner several 
times roui.d the stock, and which is generally done 
from right to left, or in the course of the sun. 
The next operation is to clay the whole over an 
inch thick on every side from about half an inch 
or more below the bottom of the graft to an inch 
over the top of the stock, finishing the whole coat 
of clay in a kind of oval globular form, rather 
longways up and down, closing it effectually about 
the scion and every part, so as no light, wet, nor 
wind may penetrate, to prevent which is the whole 
intention of claying. 

Cleft Grafting. 

This is resorted to in the case of strong stocks, 



or in heading down and re-gi-afting old trees. The 
head of the stock or branch is first cut off ob- 
liquelj', iind then the sloped part is cut over hori- 
zontally near the middle of the slope ; a i-lcff neinly 
two inches long is made with a stout knife or 
chisel in the crown downward, at right ingles to 
the sloped part, taking care not to divide the pith. 
This cleft is kept op'en by the knife. The scion 
has its extremity for about an inch ami a half, 
cut into the form of a wedge; it is left about the 
eighth of an inch thicker on the outer side, and 
brought to a fine edge on the inside. It is then 
inserted into the opening prepared for it, and the 
knife being withdrawn the stock closes firmly 
upon it. 

Crown Grafting. 

This is another mode adopted for thick stocks, 
shortened branches, or headed down trees. It ia 
sometimes called grafting in the bark or rind, 
from the scion being inserted between the bark 
and wood. This mode of grafting is performed 
with best effect somewhat later than the others, 
as the motion of the sap renders the bark and 
wood of the stock much more easily separated for 
the admission of the scions. 

In performing this operation, first cut or saw 
off the head of the stock or branch horizontally 
or level, and pare the top smooth ; then having 
the scions cut one side of each flat and somewhat 
sloping, an inch and a half long, forming a sort 
of shoulder at the top of the slope, to rest upon 
the crown of the stock; and then raise the rind 
of the stock with the ivory wedge forming the 
handle of the budding knife, so as to aMmit the 
scion between that and the wood two inches down, 
which done, place the scion with the cut side next 
the wood, thrusting it down far enough for the 
shoulder to rest upon the top of the stock ; and 
in this manner may be put three, four, five or 
more scions in one large stock or branch. It is 
alleged as a disadvantage attending this method 
in exposed situations, that the ingrafted shoots 
for two or three years are liable to be blown out 
of the stock by violent winds; the only remedy 
for which is tying long rods to the body of the 
stock or branch, and tying up each scion and ita 
shoots to one of the rods. 

Side Grafting. 
This method resembles whip grafting, but dif- 
fers in being performed on the side of the stock, 
without bending down. It is practised on wall 
trees to fill up vacancies, and sometimes in order 
to have a variety of fruits upon the same tree. 
Having fixed upon those parts of the branches 
where wood is wanting to furnish the head or any 
part of the tree, then slope off the bark and a 
little of the wood, and cut the lower end of the 
scions to fit the part as nearly as possible, then join 
them to the branch, and tie them with bass and 
clay them over. 

Saddle Grafting. 
This is performed by first cutting the top of th« 
stock into a wedge-like form, and then splitting 
up the end of the scion and thinning off each half 
to a tongue-shape; it is then placed on the wedge, 
embracing it on each side, ami the inner barks 
are made to join on one side of the stock, as in 
cleft grafting. This is a very strong and hand- 
some mode for standard trees, when grafted at 
the standard height. It is also desirable for 
orange-trees and rose-standards, as it make.^ a 
handsome finish, covering a part of the stock, 
which, by the other methods, long remains a black 
scar, and sometimes never becomes covered with 
bark. The stocks for this purpose should not be 



GRAFTING. 



65 



much thicker than the sciona, or two scions may 
be inserted. 

Shoulder or Chink Grafting. 
This is performed with a shoulder, and some- 
times also with a stay at the bottom of the slope. 
It is chiefly used for ornamental trees, where the 
•cioE and stock are of the same size. 

Root Grafting. 

Root grafting is sometimes performed in nurse- 
ries on parts of the roots of removed trees, when 
the proper stocks are scarce; in which case the 
root of the white thorn has been resorted to as a 
stock both for the apple and pear. In general, 
however, a piece of the root of the tree of the same 
genus is selected, well furnished with fibres, and 
a scion placed on it in any of the ordinary ways 
for small stocks. Thus united, they are planted 
80 deep as to cover the ball of clay, and leave only 
a few eyes of the scion above ground. 

In a month after grafting it may be ascertained 
whether the scion has united with the stock by ob- 
serving the progress of its buds ; but, in general, 
it is not safe to remove the clay for three months 
or more, till the graft be completely cicatrized. 
The clay may generally be taken off in July or 
August, and at the same time the ligatures loos- 
ened where the scion seems to require more room 
to expand : a few weeks afterwards, when the 
parts have been thus partially inured to the air, 
and when there is no danger of the scion being 
blown off by winds, the whole of the ligatures 
may be removed. 

To choose Scions. 

Scions are those shoots which, united with the 
stock, form the graft. They should be gathered 
several weeks before the season for grafting ar- 
rives. It is desirable that the sap of the stock 
should be in brisk motion at the time of grafting; 
but by this time the buds of the scion, if left on 
the parent tree, would be equally advanced, 
whereas the scions, being gathered early, the 
buds are kept back, and ready only to swell out 
when placed on the stock. Scions of pears, plums 
and cherries, are collected in the end of January 
or beginning oF February. They are kept at full 
length sunk in dry earth, and out of the reach of 
frost till wanted, which is sometimes from the 
middle of February to the middle of March. 
Scions of apples are collected any time in Febru- 
ary, and put in from the middle to the end of 
March. In July grafting the scions are used as 
gathered. 

To choose Cuttings. 

In respect to the choice of cuttings, those 
branches of trees and shrubs which are thrown 
out nearest the ground, and especially such as 
recline, or nearly so, on the earth's surface, have 
always the most tendency to produce roots. Even 
the branches of resinous trees, which are extremely 
difiBcult to propagate by cuttings, when reclining 
on the ground, if accidentally or otherwise covered 
with earth in any part, will there throw out roots, 
and the extremity of the lateral shoot will assume 
the character of a main stem, as may be some- 
times seen in the larch, spruce and silver fir. 

The choice of cuttings then is to be made from 
the side shoots of plants rather than from their 
summits or main stems, and the strength and 
health of side shoots being equal, those nearest 
the ground should be preferred. The proper time 
for taking cuttings from the mother plant is when 
the sap is in full motion, in order that, in return- 
ing by the bark, it may form a callus or protruding 
ring of granular substance between the bark and 
Wood, whence the roots proceed. As this callus 



or ring of spongy matter is generally best formed 
in ripened wood, the cutting, when taken frotn the 
mother plant, should contain a part of the former 
year, or in plants which grow twice a year, of the 
wood of the former growth ; or in the fase ol 
plants which are continually growing, as most 
evergreen exotics, such wood as has begun to 
ripen or assume a brownish color. This is the 
true principle of the choice of cuttings as to time; 
but there are many sorts of trees, as willow, elder, 
etc, the cuttings of which will grow almost at any 
season, and especially if removed from the mother 
plant in winter, when the sap is at rest. 

These ought always to be cut across, with the 
smoothest and soundest section possible at an eye 
or joint. And as buds are in a more advanced 
state in wood somewhat ripened or fully formed 
than in forming wood, this section ought to be 
made in the wood of the growth of the preceding 
season ; or as it were in the point between the two 
growths. It is a common practice to cut off the 
whole or a part of the leaves of cuttings, which is 
always attended with bad effects in evergreens, in 
which the leaves may be said to supply nourish- 
ment to the cutting till it can sustain itself. This 
is very obvious in the case of striking from buds, 
which, without a leaf attached, speedily rot and 
die. Leaves alone will even strike root, and form 
plants in some instances, and the same may be 
stated of certain flowers and fruits. 

Piping. 
This is a mode of propagation by cuttings, and 
is adopted with plants having jointed tubular 
stems, as the dianthus tribe; and several of the 
grasses and the arundines may be propagated in 
this manner. When the shoot has nearly done 
growing, its extremity is to be separated at a part 
of the stem where it is nearly indurated or ri- 
pened. This operation is effected by holding the 
root end between the finger and thumb of one 
hand, below a ptiir of leaves, and with the other 
pulling the top part above the pair of leaves, so 
as to separate it from the root part of the stem at 
the socket, formed by the axillaj of the leaves, 
leaving the stem to remain with a tubular termi- 
nation. These pipings are inserted without any 
further preparation in finely sifted earth to the 
depth of the first joint or pipe. 

To insert Cuttings. 
Cuttings, if inserted in a mere mass of earth, 
will hardly throw out roots, while, if inserted at 
the sides of the pots so as to touch the pot in their 
whole length, they seldom fail to become rooted 
plants. The art is to place them to touch the 
bottom of the pot; they are then to be plunged 
in a bark or hot-bed and kept moist. 

To manage Cuttings. 
No cutting requires to be planted deep, though 
the large ought to be inserted deeper than such 
as are small. In the case of evergreens the leaves 
should be kept from touching the soil, otherwise 
they will damp or rot off; and in the case of tu- 
bular-stalked plants, which are in general not very 
easily struck, 'owing to the water lodging in the 
tube and rotting the cutting, both ends may be 
advantageously inserted in the soil, and besides a 
greater certainty of success, two plants will be 
produced. Too much light, air, water, heat or 
cold, are alike injurious. To guard against these 
extremes in tender sorts, the means hitherto de- 
vised is that of inclosing an atmosphere over the 
cuttings by means of a hand or bell-glass, accord- 
ing to their delicacy. This preserves a uniform 
stillness and moisture of atmosphere. Immersing 
the pot in earth has a tendency to preserve a 



66 



HOETICULTUEE. 



steady, uniform degree of moi?t\ire at the roots; 
and shading, or planting the cuttings if in the 
open air in a shady situation, prevents the had 
effects of excess of light. The only method of 
regulating the heat is by double or single cover- 
ings of glass or mats, or both. A hand-glass 
placed over a bell-glass will preserve, in a shady 
situation, a very constant degree of heat. 

What the degree of heat ought to be is decided 
by the degree of heat requisite for the mother 
plant. Most species if the erica, dahlia, and 
geranium, strike better fhen supplied with rather 
more heat than is requisite for the growth of these 
plants in green-houses. The myrtle tribe and 
camellias require rather less : and in general a 
lesser portion of heat, and of everything else pro- 
per for plants, in their rooted and growing state, 
is the safest. 

To sow Seeds with Advantage. 
This is the first operation of rearing. Where 
seeds are deposited singly, as in rows of beans or 
large nuts, they are said to be planted; where 
dropped in numbers together, to be sown. The 
operation of sowing is either performed in drills, 
patches or broadcast. Drills are small excavations 
formed with the draw-hoe, generally in straight 
lines parallel to each other, and in depth and 
distance apart varying according to the size of 
the seeds. In these drills the seeds are strewed 
from the hand of the operator, who, taking a 
small quantity in the palm of his hand and fin- 
gers, regulates its emission by the thumb. Some 
seeds are very thinly sown, as the pea and spinach; 
others (hick, as the cress and small salading. 

Patches are small circular excavations made 
with the trowel; in these seeds are either sown or 
planted, thicker or thinner, and covered more or 
less, according to their natures. This is the mode 
adopted in sowing in pots, and generally in flower 
borders. 

In broadcas'; sowing the operator scatters the 
seed over a c^ siderable breadth of surface, pre- 
viously prepared by digging, or otherwise being 
minutely pulverized. The seed is taken up in 
portions in the hand and dispersed by a horizon- 
tal movement of the arm to the extent of a semi- 
circle, opening the hand at the same time and 
scattering the seeds in the air so that they may fall 
as equally as possible over the breadth taken in 
by the sower at once, and which is generally six 
feet — that being the diameter of the circle in 
■which his hand moves through half the circum- 
ference. In sowing broadcast on beds and narrow 
strips or borders, the seeds are dispersed between 
the thumb find fingers by horizontal movements 
of the hand in segments of smaller circles. 

Dry weather is essentially requisite for sowing, 
and more especially for the operation of covering 
in the seed, which in broadcast sowing is done by 
treading or gently rolling the surface, and then 
raking it; and in drill-sowing by treading in the 
larger seeds, as peas, and covering with the rake ; 
smaller seeds, sown in drills, are covered with the 
same implement without treading. 

Tu plaid Sliriibs and Trees. 
Planting, as applied to seeds or seed-like roots, 
as potatoes, bulbs, etc., is most frequently ])er- 
formed in drills or in separate holes made with 
the dibbler ; in these the seed or bulb is dropped 
from the hand, and covered with or without tread- 
ing, according to its nature. Sometimes planting 
iti performed in ])atches, as in pots or borders, in 
which case the trowel is the chief instrument used. 
Quincunx is a mode of planting in rows, by 
whi(rh the plants in the one row are always op- 
posed to the blanks in the other, so that when a 



plot of ground is planted in this way the plants 
appear in rows in four directions. 

Planting, as applied t<i plants already originated, 
consists generally in inserting them in the soil of 
the same depth, and in the same position as they 
were before removal, but with various excejitions. 
The principal object is to preserve the fibrous 
roots entire, to distribute them equally around the 
stem among the mould or finer soil, and to pro- 
serve the plant upright. The plant should not be 
planted deeper than it stood in the soil 'before re- 
moval, and commonly the same side should be 
kept towards the sun. Planting should as much 
as possible be accompanied by abundant water- 
ing, in order to consolidate the soil about the 
roots ; and where the soil is dry, or not a stiff clay, 
it may be performed in the beginning of wet 
weather, in gardens; and in forest planting, on 
dry soils, in all open weather during autumn, 
winter and spring. 

To tcater Gardens. 
Watering becomes requisite in gardens for va- 
rious purposes, as aliment to plants in a growing 
state, as support to newly-transplanted plants, 
for keeping under insects, and keeping clean the 
leaves of vegetables. One general rule must be 
ever kept in mind during the employment of water 
in a garden, that is, never to water the top or 
leaves of a plant when the sun shines. All water- 
ing should be carried on in the evening or early 
in the morning, unless it be confined to watering 
the roots, in which case transplanted plants, and 
others in a growing state, may be watered at any 
time; and if they are shaded from the sun, they 
maj' also be watered over their tops. Watering 
over the tops is performed with the rose, or dis- 
penser attached to the spout of the watering-pot, 
or by the syringe or engine. Watering the roots 
is best done with the rose; but in the case of 
watering pots in haste, and where the earth is 
hardened, it is done with the naked spout. In 
new-laid turf, or lawn of a loose, porous soil, and 
too mossy surface, the water-barrel may be advan- 
tageousl}' used. 

Many kitchen crops are lost, or produced of 
very inferior quality, for want of watering. Let- 
tuces and cabbages are often hard and stringy, 
turnips and radishes do not swell, onions decay, 
cauliflowers die off; and, in general, in dry soils, 
copious waterings in the evenings, during the dry 
season, would produce that fullness of succulency, 
which is found in the vegetables produced in the 
low countries, and in the Marsh Gardens at Paris ; 
and in this country at the beginning and latter 
end of the season. 

The watering of the foliage of small trees, to pre- 
vent the increase of insects, and of strawberries 
and fruit shrubs, to swell the fruit, is also of im- 
portance. 

To water the Foliage of Wall Trees. 
Water is to be supplied to a garden from a re- 
servoir, situated on an eminence, a considerable 
height above the garden walls. Around the 
whole garden, four inches below the surface of 
the ground, a groove, between two and three 
inches deep, has been formed in the walls, to re- 
ceive a three-quarter inch pipe for conducting the 
water. About fifty feet distant from each other, 
are apertures through the wall, two and a half 
feet high, and ten inches wide, in which a cock is 
placed, so that on turning the handle to either side 
of the wall, the water issues from that side. The 
nozzles of the cocks have screws on each side, to 
which is attached at pleasure a leathern pipe, with 
a brass cock and director; roses, pierced with 
holes of difi"erent sizes, being fitted to the latter. 



FRUIT TREES. 



67 



By this coDtrivance, all the trees, both inside and 
outside the wall, can be most effectually watered 
and washed, in a very short space of time, and 
with little trouble. One mat may go over the 
whole in two hours. At the same time the bor- 
ders, and even a considerable part of the quar- 
ters, can be watered with the greatest ease, when 
required. 

To transplant. 

Transplanting consists in removing propagated 
plants, whether from seeds, cuttings, or grafts, ac- 
cording to their kinds and other circumstances, 
to a situation prepared to receive them. Trans- 
planting, therefore, involves three things : first, 
the propagation of the soil, to which the plant is 
to be removed ; secondly, the removal of the 
plant; thirdly, the insertion in the prepared soil. 

The preparation of the soil implies, in all cases, 
stirring, loosening, mixing, and comminution ; 
and, in many rases, the addition of manure or 
compost, according to the nature of the soil and 
plant to be inserted, and according as the same 
may be in open grounds, or pots, or hot-houses. 

The removal of the plant is generally effected 
by loosenin:; the t-aith around it, and then draw- 
ing it out of the soil with the hand; in all cases 
avoiding as much as possible to break, or bruise, 
or otherwise injure the roots. In the case of small 
seedling plants, merely inserting the spade, and 
raising the portion of earth in which they grow 
will suffice ; but in removing larger plants, it is 
necessary to dig a trench round the plant. 

In some cases, the plant may be lifted with a 
ball of earth, containing all its roots, by means 
of the trowel ; and in others, as in large shrubs or 
trees, it may be necessary to cut the roots at a 
certain distance from the plant, one year before 
removal, in order to furnish them with young 
fibres, to enable them to support the change. In 
pots less care is necessary, as the roots and bail 
of earth may be preserved entire. 

To accelerate Plants in ffot-JTouses. 
There are two leading modes of accelerating 
plants in these buildings ; the first is by placing 
them there permanently, as in the case of the 
peach, vine, etc., planted in the ground ; and the 
second is by having the plants in pots, and intro- 
ducing or withdrawing them at pleasure. As far 
as respects trees, the longest crops, and with far 
less care, are produced by the first method ; but in 
respect to herbaceous plants and shrubs, whether 
culinary, as the strawberry and kidney- bean, or 
ornamental, as the rose and the pink, the latter is 
by far the most convenient method. Where large 
pots are used, the peach, cherry, fig, etc., will 
produce tolerable crops. Vines and other fruit 
trees, when abundantly supplied with water and 
manure in a liquid state, require but a very small 
quantity of mould. 

To protect Vegetables from injuries by means of 
Straw Ropes. 
This is effected by throwing the ropes in differ- 
ent directions over the trees, and sometimes de- 
positing their ends in pails of water. It has been 
tried successfully on wall-trees, and on potatoes 
and other herbaceous vegetables. As soon as the 
buds of the trees become turgid, place poles 
against the wall, in front of the trees, at from four 
to six feet asunder, thrusting their lower ends into 
the earth, about a foot from the wall, and fasten- 
ing them at the top with a strong nail, either to 
the wall or coping. Then procure a quantity of 
straw or hay- ropes, and begin at the top of one of 
the outer poles, making fast the end, and pass the 
rope from pole to pole, taking a round turn upon 



each, until the end is reached, when, after secur- 
ing it well, begin about eighteen inches below, and 
return in the same manner to the other end, and 
so on till within two feet of the ground. Straw- 
ropes have also been found very useful in protect- 
ing other early crops from the effects of frost, as 
peas, jiiitatoes, or kidney-beans, by fixing them 
along the rows with pins driven into the ground. 

The same by Nets. 
The net should be placed out at the distance of 
fifteen or eighteen inches from the tree, being 
kept off by looped sticks, with their butts placed 
against the wall, and at a distance of about a yard 
from each other. In order to make them stand 
firmly, the net should be first stretched tightly on, 
and be fastened on all sides. If the nets were 
doubled or trebled, and put on in this way, they 
would be a more effectual screen, as the meshes 
or openings would, in that case, be rendered very 
small. Woollen nets are deemed the best, and are 
now in general use in Scotland. In screening 
with nets of any kind, they are always to be left 
on night and day, till all danger be over. 

The same by Canvas Screens. 
This is effected either by placing movable can- 
vas screens over or around detached trees, porta- 
ble hand-cases over herbaceous plants, tents or 
open sheds over the forests' productions, or frames 
or sheets against trees trained on walls. In all 
cases they should be placed clear of the tree or 
plant, either by extended, forked or hooked sticks, 
or an}' other obvious resource. 

To raise and manage Fruit Trees. 
In the removal or transplantation of trees, gar- 
deners and nurserymen are generally very care- 
less and inattentive in taking them up, and care 
not how much the roots are broken or lessened in 
number, provided they have enough left to keep 
the tree alive; the consequence is that although 
the branches left on remain alive, there is so great 
a deficiency of sap, from the loss of roots, that the 
vessels cannot be filled the following spring. 

The roots are broken or cut off at random, and 
generally diminished more than one-half, or they 
are doubled back and distorted, and if there be 
enough left to keep the plant alive, it is thought 
quite sufficient, and by these means the appear- 
ance of blossoms and fruit being prematurely pro- 
duced, those stinted and deformed plants are sold 
as half or full-trained trees for four times the 
price of others, and when sold they are again 
taken up and the roots treated and diminished in 
the same careless manner. 

When the soil of a garden wherein fruit-trees 
are to be planted is not naturally comfortable or 
congenial to the first principle, it must be made so. 
The top of a wall should be so formed as to 
throw off water, for otherwise it will generally be 
damped, which renders the trees unhealthy, and 
when the substance against which the branches 
are fixed is dry, the temperature on all sides will 
be more equal. 

In preparing beds or borders, due attention 
must be paid both to the soil and subsoil, as each 
equally affects the health and fruitfulness of trees, 
and principally as it retains or discharges water, 
stagnant water being at all times particularly det- 
rimental to the fructification of trees. 

For peaches, nectarines, etc., a border of ten or 
twelve feet wide will generally prove sufficient. 
In cases where the soil has been too close and re- 
tentive, and the roots apt to grow deep on the 
substratum, lay a stratum of six inches of the 
common soil of the garden and then form a EtraV 
um of about six inctas for the roots to run and 



68 



HORTICULTURE. 



repose in, composed of two-third parts of fine 
drift sand (the scrapings of a public road tiiat 
has been made or repaired with flints), nnd one- 
third part of rich vegetable mould, well mixed 
together; and the better way to perform this is, 
first to lay on about three inches of the compo- 
sition, and on this place the roots of the pbint, 
a-ad over them spread the other three inches, and 
cover the whole down with from nine to twelve 
inches of the common soil of the place. 

Where it is not found necessary to form an arti- 
ficial substratum, it will be sufficient to remove 
the soil to the depth of fifteen or eighteen inches, 
and there form the stratum of the roots, covering 
it down with afoot or nine inches of the common 
eoil. 

General mode of planting Trees. 
The operation of inserting plants in the soil is 
performed in various ways ; the most general 
mode recommended by Marshal and Nicol is pit- 
ting, in which two persons are employed, one to 
operate on the soil with a spade, and the other to 
insert the plant and hold it till the earth is put 
round it, and then press down the soil with the 
foot. 

The pit having been dug for several months, the 
surface will therefore be incrusted by the rains or 
probably covered with weeds. The man first 
strikes the spade downwards to the bottom two or 
three times, in order to loosen the soil, then 
poaches it, as if mi.xing mortar for the builder; 
he next lifts up a spadeful of the earth, or if ne- 
eessary two spadesful, so as to make room for all 
the fibres without their being anywise crowded 
together; he then chops the rotten turf remaining 
in the bottom and levels the whole. The boy now 
places the plant perfectly upright an inch deeper 
than when it stood in the nursery, and holds it 
firm in that position. The man trindles in the 
mould gently; the boy gently moves the plant, 
not from side to side, but upwards and downwards, 
until the fibres be covered. The man then fills in 
all the remaining mould, and immeiliately proceeds 
to chop and poach the next pit, leaving the boy to 
set the plant upright and to tread the mould about 
it. This in stifi', wet soil he does lightly, but in 
sandy or gravelly soil he continues to tread until 
the soil no longer retains the impression of his 
foot. The man has by this time gut the pit ready 
for the next plant; the boy is also ready with it 
in his hand, and in this manner the operation 
goes on. 

One general rule, and one of considerable im- 
portance in transplanting, is to set the plant or 
tree no deeper in the ground than it was origi- 
nally ; deep planting very often causes a delay, if 
not sudden destruction. 

More expeditious method. 
The following mode has been practised for many 
years on the Duke of Montrose's estate, in Scot- 
land: The operator with his spade makes three 
cuts twelve or fifteen inches long, crossing each 
Other in the centre at an angle of 60°, the whole 
having the form of a star, lie inserts his spade 
across one of the rays, a few inches from the cen- 
tre, and on the side next himself; then bending 
the handle towards himself, and almost to the 
ground, the earth opening in fissures from the 
centre in the direction of the cuts which had been 
made, he at the same instant inserts his plant at 
the point where the spade intersected the ray, 
pushing it forward to the centre and assisting the 
roots in rambling through the fissures. He then 
lets down the earth by removing his spade, hav- 
ing pressed it into a compiict state with his heel ; 
the operation is finished by adding a little earth 



with the grass side down, completely covering the 
fissures for the purpose of retaining the moisture 
at the root, and likewise as ji top-dressing, which 
greatly encourages the plant to put fresh roots 
between the swards. 

German method of forcing Trees. 
"With a sharp knife make a cut in the bark of 
the branch which is meant to be forced to bear, 
and not far from the place where it is connected 
with the stem, or if it is a small branch or shoot, 
near where it is joined to the large bough; the 
cut is to go round the branch, or to encircle it, and 
penetrate to the wood. A quarter of an inch from 
this cut make a second like the first, round the 
branch, so that by both encircling the branch a 
ring is formed upon the branch a quarter of an 
inch broad between the two cuts. The bark be- 
tween these two cuts is taken clean away with a 
knife down to the wood, removing even the fine 
inner bark, which lies immediately upon the wood, 
so that no connexion whatever remains between 
the two parts of the bark, but the bare and naked 
wood appears white and smooth; but this bark 
ring, to comjiel the tree to bear, must be made at 
the time when the buds are strongly swelling or 
breaking out into bloom. 

The Appl-e. 

The best soil for the apple is a dry, loamy, rich 
soil, with a light clay subsoil that the roots can 
easily penetrate to a considerable depth; with an 
easterly or southern exposure. The best fertili- 
zers are barn-yard manure, lime, and bone-dust. 
Care should be taken to apply the manure gene- 
rally over the surface. 

The best varieties for cultivation are the follow- 
ing, which ripen in succession : the Early Har- 
vest; Red Astraehan; Summer Rose; American 
Summer Pearmain; Large Early Bough ; Graven- 
stein ; Maiden's Blush ; Fall Pippin ; Smokehouse; 
Rambo; Esopus; Spitzenberg; Boston Russet; 
Rhode Island Greening; Baldwin; Wine-sap. 

The apple-tree is subject to several diseases. 
The best preventive of them is heading low, so 
that the trunk of the tree will be shaded from the 
hot sun, and washing the tree occasionally with 
soap-suds, — a pint of soft soap to a gallon of 
water. 

The Pear. 

The best soil for the pear is a moderately heavy, 
sandy, and dry soil, with a sub-soil of light clay 
which is easily penetrated by the roots to a great 
depth ; a moderate portion of iron in the soil is 
desirable. The best situation is an undulating 
eastern or southern exposure. The best fertili- 
zers, as in the case of the apple, are barn-yard 
manure, lime, and bone-dust. Iron cinders are a 
good application when there is a deficiency of that 
element in the soil. 

The most desirable varieties for general culture 
as standards to ripen in succession are as follows : 

Doyenne d'Ete; Bloodgood ; Dearborn's Seed- 
ling; Beurre Giffard; Bartlett; Sickel; Tyson; 
Howell; Belle Lucrative; BufFum; Blemish Beau- 
ty; Beurre Bose; Doyenne Boussock ; Beurre 
d'Anjou ; Sheldon ; Beurre Clairgcau ; Lawrence. 

The best varieties for dwarf pears, on quince 
stocks, are Beurre d'Anjou ; Ducliesse d'Angou- 
leme ; Glou Morceau ; Vicar of Wakefield. 

The most serious disease of the pear is the 
blight. The remedy is, to cut the blight oflf well 
down into the second wood. 

The Peach. 
The soil most suitable for the peach-tree is ■ 
dry, light, sandy, undulating soil, with a light 



PINE-APPLES, 



69 



clay subsoil, and an eastern or southern expo- 
sure. The best fertilizer for the peach is Peruvian 
guimo. Among the best varieties to ripen in suc- 
cession aie. of cleiirstoiies, the Early Ydrli; Early 
Tillntson; George the Fciurth; OMmixon Free- 
stone; Colunil)i:in ; Crawford's Late. Of cling- 
stones, — Large White; Oldniixon Cling; Heath. 

The principal diseases of the peach are, the yel- 
lows, and worms which prey u|)on the crown roots 
near the surface of the ground. The most effec- 
tual preventive for the yellows is, to be careful to 
get healthy trees, and to plant them well above 
the surface of the ground, by throwing up ridges 
with the plough, say fifteen or twenty feet apart; 
then plant the tree on the ridge, also making a 
slight mound to cover the roots. If the tree shows 
signs of weakness, dig the earth well from the 
crown roots, scrape the worms away if any, and 
then sprinkle in the hole around the roots a hand- 
ful or two of guano, and fill it up with earth. 
Worms may be prevented, also, by coating the 
bnrk of each tree, for three or f(mr inches next to 
the ground, with coal or gas tar; which will not 
allow the parent insect to deposit its eggs. Only 
a short distance must be so coated, as to cover the 
whole trunk would kill the tree. A kind of coat 
made of the gas-soaked felt used for roofs will 
answer the same purpose. 

All orchard trees require good cultivation, but 
especially the peach. Ashes are said by some to 
be a good addition to its manure. 

The Plum. 

The plum-tree is hardy, and requires but little 
attention; it bears abundantly, and may be con- 
sidered a sure crop when the soil suits. The best 
for it is a stiff clay, which is not suitable to the 
habits of the curculio, the great enemy of the 
plum. 

The best varieties are, the Green Gage, Purple 
Gage, and Prince's Yellow Gage. 

The Blackberry. 
For the cultivated blackberry the soil should be 
rich, dry, and mellow. Barn-yard manure and 
bone-dust are its best fertilizers ; it is a good plan 
to mix them with half-rotten straw, or some such 
thing. They should be planted three feet apart 
in the rows; the rows being six feet asunder. 
The most approved variety is the Lawton or Ro- 
chelle; its fruit is very large, beautiful, and lus- 
cious, when allowed to become fully ripe on the 
bush.- The Dr. Warder, Dorchester and Marshall 
Winder varieties are also very fine. Immense 
numbers !if cultivated blackberries are now sold 
annually in the markets of our cities. 

The Raepberri/, 

The best soil for the raspberry is a rich, light, 
deep soil. Plant them in rows six feet apart and 
three feet asunder in the row. It is well occa- 
sionally to throw up the earth around them so as 
to protect the roots which keep near the surface 
from the hot sun. The most desirable varieties 
are, the American Black; Hudson River Ant- 
werp; Improved American Black; Brinckle's 
Orange. 

The Strawberry. 

For this fruit the most suitable soil is light and 
sandy. It may be enriched by ashes, bone, barn- 
yard manure, etc. The plants should be set one 
foot apart, in rows two feet from each other. Put 
in the young plants from the middle of August to 
the middle of September. Keep the ground mel- 
low and free from weeds. In the following spring 
manure and hoe the groun<i well, to keep it moist 
and free from weeds. AVith such care a quart of 



fruit has sometimes been picked from one plant, 
the next season after planting. Some cultivators 
prefer to cut off all the blossoms the first springy 
so as to strengthen the plants for growth. The 
best varieties of strawberry are, Wilson's Albany; 
Hovey's Seedling; Triomphe de Gand; Bartlett; 
McAvoy's Superior. 

The Cranberry, 
This is a hardy trailing shrub, growing wild in 
many parts of the country. It is easily cultivated, 
and when once established in the soil requires very 
little attention ; it produces large crops, and the 
fruit commands high prices. The best soil is that 
of swampy, sandy meadows or bogs, which are 
unfit for any other purpose. This fruit is well 
worthy of the attention of any one who has wet, 
swampy land. It will flourish from Maine to 
middle Virginia. 

To ]3lant Small Fruits. 

Currants and gooseberries are often planted in 
lines, by the side of the walks or alleys of the 
garden ; but it is a better method to plant them 
in quarters by themselves, and to make new plan- 
tations every sixth or seventh year. 

Raspberries produce the finest fruit when 
young; that is, about the third or fourth year 
after planting, if properly managed. 

It is proper to plant some of all the above fruits 
on a north border, or other shaded situation, in 
order to prolong the season of them, if that be an 
object, besides planting them out in quarters as 
hinted above. 

From four to six feet square, according to the 
quality of the soil, may be deemed a proper dis- 
tance at which to plant the above fruits; that is, 
in good land six feet, in middling land five, and in 
poor land four feet apart. Some may also very pro- 
perly be planted against vacant places on any of 
the walls, pales or espaliers. Antwerp raspber- 
ries, in particular, and some kinds of gooseberries, 
are highly improved in size and flavor if trained 
to a south wall. 

To choose Plants. 
No better mode exists at present than having 
recourse for trees to the most reputable nurseries; 
and, with McPhail and Nicol, we would recom- 
mend, instead of maiden plants, " to make choice 
of those not very young, but such as are healthy, 
and have been transplanted several times, and 
been in a state of training for two or three ye:i ^ 
at least." A safe mode is to plant partly maideu 
and partly trained plants, by which means those 
which come early into fruit, should they prove 
bad sorts, may be replaced by others. 

To manage Orchards. 

The whole ground of an orchard should be dug 
in the autumn and laid up in a rough state for tha 
winter, giving it as much surface as possible in 
order that the weatlier may fully act upon and 
meliorate the soil; thus following it as far as the 
Ciise will admit. Observe to dig carefully near to 
the trees, and so as not to hurt their roots and 
fibres. If the soil be shallow, and if these lie 
near to the surface, it would be advisable to dig 
with a fork instead of the spade. 

Crop to within two feet of the trees the first 
year, a yard the second, four feet the third, and 
so on until finally relinquished; which, of course, 
would be against the eighth year, provided the 
trees were planted at thirty or forty feet apart, 
with early-bearing sorts between. By this time, 
if the kinds have been well chosen, the temporary 
trees will be in full bearing, and will forthwith 
defray every necessary exp«Qse. 



70 



HOKTICULTURE. 



Let a small basin or hollow be made round the 
item of each tree, a foot or eighteen inches in dia- 
meter and two or three inches deep, according to 
the extent of its roots. Fill this basin with 
dung to the thickness of five or six inches, over 
■which sprinkle a little earth, just enough to keep 
it from being blown about. This both nourishes 
the young- fibres, and keeps the ground about 
them moist in hot weather if wetted freely once 
a week. 

To clothe the Stems of Stand nrd Trees. 

This is done by an envelope of moss or short 
grass; or litter wound round with shreds of mat- 
ting is of great use the first year after planting to 
keep the bark moist, and thereby aid the ascent 
and circulation of the sap in the alliurnum. This 
operation should be performed at or soon after 
planting, and the clothing may be left on till by 
decay it drops ofiF of itself. It is of singular ser- 
vice in very late planting, or when, from unfore- 
seen circumstances, summer-planting becomes 
requisite. 

To prune Orchard Trees, 

The object in pruning young trees is to form a 
proper head. The shoots may be pruned in pro- 
portion to their lengths, cutting clean away such 
as cross one another, and fanning the tree out 
towards the extremities on all sides, thereby keep- 
ing it equally poised, and fit to resist the effects 
of high winds. When it is wished to throw a 
young tree into a bearing state, which should not 
be thought of, however, sooner than the third or 
fourth j'ear after planting, the leading branches 
should be very little shortened and the lower or 
side branches not at all, nor should the knife be 
used, unless to out out such shoots as cross one 
another. 

The season for pruning orchards is generally 
winter or early in spring. A weak tree ought to 
be pruned directly at the fall of the leaf. To 
prune in autumn strengthens a plant, and will 
bring the blossom buds more forward ; to cut the 
wood late in spring tends to check a plant, and is 
one of the remedies for excessive luxuriance. 

To recover Deformed Trees. 
Where a tree is stinted or the head ill-shaped 
from being originally badly pruned, or barren from 
having overborne itself, or from constitutional 
weakness, the most expeditious remedy is to head 
down the plant within tliree, four or five eyes (or 
inches, if an old tree) of the top of the stem, in 
order to furnish it with a new head. The recovery 
of a langui.«hing tree, if not too old, will be fur- 
ther promoted by taking it up at the same time 
and pruning the roots : for as, on the one hand, 
the depriving of too luxuriant a tree of p.nrt even 
of its sound, healthy roots, will moderate its 
vigor, so, on the other, to relieve a stinted or 
sickly tree of cankered or decayed roots, to prune 
the extremities of sound roots, and especially to 
shorten the dangling tap-roots of a plant afl'ected 
by a bad subsoil, is, in connection with heading 
down, or very short pruning, and the renovation 
of the soil, and draining if necessary of the sub- 
soil, the most availing remedy that can be tried. 

To cure Diseases of Orchard Trees. 
A tree often becomes stinted from an accumu- 
lation of moss, which aflfects the functions of the 
bark and renders the tree unfruitful. This evil 
is to be removed bj' scraping the stem and 
branches of old trees with the scraper, and on 
young trees a hard brush will effect the purpose. 
Abercrombie and Nicol recommend the finishing 
of tiiis operation by washing with soap-suds, or a 



medicated wash of some of the different sorts for 
destroying the eggs of insects. 

Wherever the bark is decayed or cracked it 
ought to be removed. 

The other diseases to which orchard trees are 
subject are chiefly the canker, gum, mildew and 
blight, which are rather to be prevented by such 
culture as will induce a healthy state than to be 
remedied by topical applications. Too much lime 
may bring on the canker, and if so, the replacing 
a part of such soil with alluviui or vegetable earth 
would be of service. 

The gum may be constitutional, arising from 
offensive matter in the soil; or local, arising from 
external injury. In the former case improve the 
soil, in the latter employ the knife. 

The mildew may be easily subdued at its first 
appearance, by scattering flour of sulphur upon 
the infected parts. 

For the blight and caterpillars, Forsyth recom- 
mends burning of rotten wood, weeds, potato- 
haulm, with straw, etc., on the windward side of 
the trees, when they are in blossom. He also re- 
commends washing the stems and branches of all 
orchard trees with a mixture of "fresh cow dung 
with wine and soap-suds," as a wbitewasher would 
wash the ceiling or walls of a room. The pro- 
mised advantages are, the destruction of insects 
and fine bark, more especially when it is found 
necessary to take off all the outer bark. 

To preserve Apple, Cherry, and Plum-trees from 
Frost, as practised in Russia. 

The severity of the winters at St. Petersburg 
is so great that few fruit trees will survive it, even 
with careful matting; to prevent the loss which is 
thus usually sustained, the following mode of 
training has been attended with complete success. 
It consists in leading the branches of the trees on 
horizontal trellises only ten or twelve inches from 
the ground. When the winter sets in, there are 
heavy falls of snow, and as the frost increases, the 
snow generally augments, by which the trees are 
entirely buried, and receive no injury from the 
most intense frost. 

Another very great advantage of training trees 
in the above method consists in the growth of the 
wood, it being of equal strength, and the fruit pro- 
duced being all alike, the blooms come out much 
earlier, and the crop ripens sooner. The trees 
are always clean and free from insects. 

The only cherry that does not succeed in that 
way is the Black-heart; this is attributed to the 
damps which affect the early blossoms, but in a 
milder climate this injury would be obviated by 
placing the trellis higher from the ground. When 
the trellis decays under the apples, it is never re- 
newed, as the trees keep always (from the strength 
of their branches) their horizontal position. 

There are other advantages of treating fruit 
trees in this manner; they come sooner into bear- 
ing, and their fruit is not affected by high winds. 
The apples are never gathered, but suffered to 
drop ofl', for the distance they fall is not suf&cient 
to bruise them. 

To preserve and pack Hoots, etc. 
Roots, cuttings, grafts, and perennial plants in 
general, are perserved, till wanted, in earth or 
moss, moderately moist, and shaded from the sun. 
The same principle is followed m packing them 
to be sent to a distance. The roots, cr root ends 
of the plants, or cuttings, are enveloped in balls 
of clay or loam, wrapped round with moist moss, 
and air is admitted to the tops. In this way 
orange-trees are sent from Genoa to any part of 
Europe and North America in perfect preserva- 



PINERIES. 



n 



tion ; and cuttings of plants sent to any distance 
which can bo accomplished in eight months, or 
even longer with some kinds. Scions of the apple, 
pear, etc., if enveloped in clay, and wrapt up in 
moss or straw, and then placed in a portable ice- 
house, so as to prevent a greater heat than 32° 
from penetrating to them, would keep for a year, 
and might thus be sent from England to China.. 
The buds of fruit trees may be preserved in a 
vegetating state, and sent to a considerable dis- 
tance by reducing the half-stalks to a short length, 
and enclosing the shoot in a double fold of cab- 
bage-leaf, bound close together at each end, and 
then enclosing the package in a letter. It is of 
advantage to place the under surface of the cab- 
bage-leaf inwards, by which the enclosed branch 
is suiiplied with humidity, that being the porous 
surface of the leaf, the other surface being nearly 
or wholly impervious to moisture. 

Screen for protecting Wall Treen. 
It consists of two deal poles, on which is nailed 
thin canvas, previously dipped in a tanner's bark 
pit, to prevent its being mildewed when rolled up 
wet. At the top the ends of the poles fit into 
double iron loops, projecting a few inches from the 
wall, immediately under the coping; and at the 
bottom they are fixed by a hole at the end of each 
pole, upon a forked iron coupling which projects 
about fourteen inches from the wall, thereby giv- 
ing the screen a sufficient inclination to clear the 
branches. When it is wished to uncover the trees, 
one of the poles is disengaged, and rolled back to 
the side of the other, where it is fastened as before. 
The most violent winds have no injurious effect 
upon shades of this kind ; a wall is very expedi- 
tiously covered and uncovered, and there is not 
any danger of damaging the blossoms in using 
them ; they occupy very little space when rollecl 
up, are not liable to be out of order ; and, although 
rather expensive at first, seem to be very durable. 
From the facility with which the screen is put up, 
it may be beneficially used in the seasons when 
fruit ripens to secure a succession, by retarding 
the crop of any particular tree. 

The lower ends of the poles are advantageously re- 
tained in their place by means of a small iron spring 
key, attached to the coupling by a short chain. 

To protect Fruits from Insects. 

Some species, as wasps, flies, etc., are prevented 
from attacking ripe fruits by gauze or nets, or by 
inclosing the fruit, as grapes, in bags. 

The blossoms of the hoya carnosa drives wasps 
from grapes in hot-houses; and the fruit of the 
common yew-tree the same in open air. 

To manage Pineries. 

The culture of Pine-apples (says Nicol), is at- 
tended with a heavier expense than that of any 
Other fruit under glass, especially if they be grown 
in lofty stoves; but, independent of this, pine-ap- 
ples may certainly be produced in as great per- 
fection, if not greater, and with infinitely less 
trouble and risk, in fluid pits, if properly con- 
Btnicted, than in any other way. 

The pinery should, therefore, be detached from 
the other forcing-houses, and consists of three pits 
in a range; one for crowns and suckers, one for 
succession, and one for fruiting plants. The fruit- 
ing pit to be placed in the centre, and the other 
two right and left, forming a range of one hun- 
dred feet in length, which would give pine-apples 
enough for a large family. 

The fruiting pit to be fortj' feet long, and ten 
wide, over walls ; and each of the others to be 
thirty feet long, and nine feet wide also over walls. 
The breast-wall of the whole to be on a line, and 



to be eighteen inches above ground. The back- 
wall of the centre one to be five feet, and of the 
others to be four and a half feet higher than the 
front. The front and end flues to be separated 
from the bark bed by a three inch cavity, and the 
back flues to be raised above its level. 

The furnaces may either be placed in front or 
at the back, according to convenience; but the 
strength of the heat should be first exhausted in 
front, and should return in the back flues. The 
fruiting ))it would require two small furnaces in 
order to diffuse the heat regularly, and keep up a 
proper temperature in winter; one to be placed at 
each end ; and either to play first in front and re- 
turn in the back ; but the flues to be above, and 
not alongside of one another. The under one to 
be consiilcred merely as an auxiliary flue, as it 
would be wanted occasionally. None of these 
flues need be more than five or six inches wide, 
and nine or ten deep. Nor need the furnaces be 
so large, by a third or a fourth part, as those for 
large forcing houses ; because there should be pro- 
per oil-cloth covers for the whole, as guards against 
severe weather, which would be a great saving of 
fuel. The depth of the pits should be regulated 
so that the average depth of the bark-beds may 
be a yard below the level of the front flues, as' to 
that level the bark will generallj' settle, although 
made as high as their surfaces when new stirred 
up. If leaves, or a mixture of leaves with dung, 
are to be used instead of bark, the pits will re- 
quire to be a foot or half a yard deeper. 

General Mode of Cultivating the Pine. 

The culture of this plant generally commences 
in a common hot-bed frame, heated by dung; at 
the end of six or nine months it is removed to a 
larger framed hot-bed or pit, generally called a 
succession-bed ; and after remaining here from 
three to twelve months, it is removed to its final 
destination, the fruiting-bed. Here it shows its 
fruit, continues in a growing state during a period 
of from six to twelve months, according to the 
variety grown, mode of culture, etc., and finally 
ripens its fruit and dies, leaving the crown or ter- 
minal shoot of the fruit, and one or more suckers 
or side-shoots as successors. The production of a 
single pine-apple, therefore, requires a course i»f 
exotic culture, varying from eighteen months to 
three years. 

Soil. 

The pine-apple plant will grow in any sort of 
rich earth taken from a quarter of the kitchen 
garden, or in fresh sandy loam taken from a com- 
mon pastured with sheep, etc. If the earth be 
not of a rich, sandy quality, of darkish color, it 
should be mixed well with some perfectly rotten 
dung and sand, and if a little vegetable mould is 
put with it, it will do it good, and also a little 
soot. Though pine-plants will grow in earth of 
the strongest texture, yet they grow most freely in 
good sandy loam not of a binding quality. 

Heat. 
Pines do not require so strong a bottom-heat aa 
many keep them in ; yet there is something in a 
mild tan- heat so congenial to their natures, that 
they thrive much better in pots plunged in a bark- 
bed, if properly managed, than when planted out 
on a bed of earth that is heated, and often 
scorched by umler-flues. The tan or bark-pits 
are, therefore, essential to the pinery. Bark-pits 
are filled with tan which has previously under- 
gone a course of draining and sweating. The 
heat thus produced will last from three to six 
months, when it is sifted and again put in a state 
of fermentation, by replacing the deficiency occa- 



72 



HORTICULTURE. 



sioned by decay, and a separation of the dust by 
sifting with new tan. In this way the bark-bed 
is obliged to be stirred, turned, refreshed, or even 
renewed, several times a year, so as to produce 
and retain at all times a bottom-heat of from 
75° to 85° in each of the three departments of pine 
culture. 

Prnpnrjntion of the Pine. 

The pine is generally propagated by crowns and 
Buckers, though, in common with every other 
plant, it may be propagated by seed. 

To separate Crowns and Suckers. 

When the fruit is served at table, the crown is 
to be detached by a gentle twist, and returned to 
the g.irdener, if it be wanted for a new plant. 
Frui'. stalk suckers are taken off at the same pe- 
riod. Suckers at the base of the herb are com- 
monly fit for separation when the fruit is mature; 
though, if the stool be vigorous, they may be left 
on for a month after the fruit is cut, the stool re- 
ceiving plentiful waterings on their account. The 
fitness of a sucker to be removed is indicated, at 
the lower part of the leaves, by a brownish tint; 
on the ajipearance of which, if the lower leaf be 
broken off, the sucker is easily displanted by the 
thumb. 

If the old fruiting-plant offers only small bot- 
tom suckers, or fails to furnish any, good suckers 
may be thus brought out : having waited till the 
fruit is cut, take the old plant in its pot out of the 
bark-bed ; strip off the under-leaves near the root, 
and with the knife cut away the leaves to six 
inches from the bottom. Take out some of the 
stale mould from the pot, fill up with fresh, and 
give a little water. Plunge the old plant into a 
bed with a good growing heat. Let the routine 
culture not be neglected, and the old ))l:ints will 
soon send out good suckers; allow these to grow 
till they are four inches long or more, and on the 
signs of fitness detach them. 

As soon as either crowns or suckers are de- 
tached, twist off some of the leaves about the base ; 
the vacancy thus made at the bottom of the stem 
is to favor the emission of roots. Pare the stump 
smooth ; then lay the intended plants on a shelf 
in a shaded part of the stove or any dry apart- 
ment. Let crowns and fruit off-sets lie" till the 
part that adhered to the fruit is perfectly healed ; 
and root suckers in the same manner till the i>art 
■which was united to the old stock is become dry 
and firm. They will be fit to plant in five or six 
days. 

Treatment of the Plants. 

Keep the plants growing gently, and have the 
pots, in general, completely filled with the roots 
by the time at which it is intended to excite them 
into blossom. From the middle of February to 
the 1st of March is a good time to have the main 
crop in flowers; as the prospective season is the 
finest. About a month before it is expected to 
see fruit dress the plants by taking away two 
inches in depth from the top of the mould. Twist 
off some of the lower leaves. Fill up with fresh 
compost, round the stem, to the remaining leaves. 
The bark-bed should be revived at the same time, 
so as to make it lively ; but no new tan should be 
;!.'('] till the time for the fullest heat arrives. 
It n is desired to ripen eminently large fruit, de- 
stroy the suckers as they spring, by twisting out 
their hearts with an iron sharp-pointed instrument 
formed for the purpose. Apply this to the heart 
of the sucker ; and, turning it round, bring the 
heart away; on the other hand, when the multi- 
plication of the stock is a principal olycct, the I 
snckers must not be extirpated. A yet further 
advantage may be given to the swelling of the | 



fruit, by having a few of the lower leaves of the 
plant taken off, and by putting a rim of tin, or 
anything else in the form of a hoop, round the top 
of the pot, sufficient to raise the mould three or 
four inches. The mould should be of the best 
quality, and constantly kept in a moderately moist 
state; this may be done by having the surface 
kept covered with moistened moss. The roots of 
the pine-plant, especially those produced from the 
part of the stem ju.<t under the leaves, will then 
make a surprising progress, and the fruit will be 
greatly benefited by this expedient. 

To cut Ripe Pines. 
The indications of maturity are a diffusive fra- 
grance, accompanied by change in the color of 
the fruit; most sorts becoming yellow or straw 
color; others dark green, or yellowish tinged with 
green. Cut pine-apples before they are dead 
ripe, or the spirit of the flavor will be dissipated. 
Bring away with the fruit above five inches of 
stalk, and leave the crown adhering to the top. 
If pine-apples be not cut soon after they begin to 
coliir, they fall greatly off in flavor and richness, 
and that sharp luscious taste, so much admired, 
becomes insipid. 

To destroy Insects in Pines. 
If the plants by proper culture be kept healthy 
and vigorous, insects will not annoy, but leave 
them. The coccus hesperides seems to delight in 
disease and decay, as flies do in carrion. The fol- 
lowing recipe may safely be applied to pine-applQ3 
in any state, but certainly best to crowns and suck- 
ers, at striking them in August ; to others it may, 
at any rate, be used in the March shifting, when 
they are 'shaken out of their pots : 

Take of soft soap, 1 pound ; flowers of sulphur, 
1 pound; tobacco, half a pound; nux voniii'a, 1 
ounce ; soft water, 4 gallons. Boil all these together 
till the liquor is reduced to three gallons, and set 
it aside to cool. In this liquor immerse the whole 
plant, after the roots and leaves are trimmed for 
potting. Plants in any other state, placed in the 
bark-bed, may safely be watered over head with 
the liquor reduced in strength by the addition of 
a third part of water. As the bug harbors most 
in the angles of the leaves, there is the better 
chance that the medicated water will be effectual, 
because it will there remain the longest, and there 
its sediment will settle. The above is a remedy 
for every species of the coccus ; and for most in- 
sects, on account of its strength and glutinous 
nature. Its application will make the plants look 
dirty; therefore, as soon as the intended effects 
may be supposed to have followed, whatever re- 
mains of the liquor on the leaves should be washed 
off with clean water. It would be improper to 
pour a decoctiim charged with such offensive ma- 
terials, over fruiting plants. 

Other Methods. 
Turn the plants out of the pots, and clean the 
roots; then keep them immersed f(ir twenty-four 
hours in water in which tobacco stalks have been 
infused. The bugs are then to be rubbed off with 
a sponge, and plants, after being washed in clean 
water and dipped, are to be repotted. 

In the " Caledonian Horticultural Transactions," 
a similar mode is described, only in tlie place of 
tobacco-juice flowers of sulphur are directed to be 
mixed with the water. With a bit of bass-mat, 
fi.\ed on a small stick and dipped in water, dis- 
place as many of the insects as can be seen. 
Then immerse the plants in a tub of water, con- 
taining about one pound of flowers of sulphur to 
each garden potful. Let them remain covered in 
the water twenty-four hours, then lay them with 



GRAPES. 



73 



their tops downwards to dry, and re-pot them in 
the Jirual manner. 

The experience of Hay, one of the best prac- 
tical gardeners in Scotland, leads him to conclude 
that even moderate moisture is destructive to these 
insects. For many years he regularly watered liis 
pine plants over head with the squirt during the 
summer months. This was done only in the even- 
ing. It never injured the plants, and the bug 
never appeared upon them. 

The Grnpe. 
For the grape, the best soil is a light, loamy, dry, 
limestone soil, with a high and warm expiisure, 
especially to the south. The earth .should be kept 
■well cultivated and free from weeds. The most 
useful fertilizers for the grape are well-rotted 
barn-yard manure, bone, and lime. For ordinary 
cultivation the best varieties are, the Isabella, Ca- 
tawba, Diana, Delaware, Concord, Clinton, and 
the Rebecca when you have a sheltered situation. 
Some of the finer foreign wine-grapes, of France, 
Italy, and the Rhine region, may be naturalized 
■with success in some parts of the United States; 
but it is hardly yet determined which are best 
suited for the purpose. 

To plant Vines. 

Vines are often either trained against the 
back wall or on a trellis under a glass roof. In 
the former case the plants are always placed in- 
side the house; but in the latter, there are two 
opinions among practical men, one in favor of 
planting them outside, and the other inside the 
parapet wall. 

Abercrombie says: "Let them be carefully 
turned out of the pots, reducing the balls a little 
and singling out the matted roots. Then place 
them in the pits, just as deep in the earth as they 
were before, carefully spreading out the abres and 
filling in with fine sifted earth or with vegetable 
mould. Settle all with a little water, and let them 
have plenty of free air every day, defending them 
from very severe frost or much wet; which is all 
the care they will require till they begin to push 
young shoots. 

Composts for Vbies. 

The following are the materials and proportions 
of a good cnmpost, recommended by Abercrombie : 
Of tup-spit sandy loam, from an upland pasture, 
one-third part; unexhausted brown loam from a 
garden, one-fourth part; scrapings of roads, free 
from clay, and repaired with gravel or slate, one- 
si.vth part; vegetable mould, or old tan reduced 
to earth, or rotten stable-dung, one-eighth part; 
shell marl or mild lime, one-twelfth part. The 
borders to he from three to five feet in depth, and, 
where practicable, not less than four feet wide in 
surlace within the house, communicating with a 
border outside of the building not less than ten 
feet wide. 

To cTiooan the Plants. 

Vines are to be had (n the nurseries, propagated 
either from layers, cuttmgs, or eyes; and, provided 
the plants be well routed, and the wood ripe, it is 
a matter of iuditferenee from which class the 
choice is made. 

Speedy Mode of Storing a New Grnpe House. 

This mode is only to be adopted where a vinery 
previously exists in the open air, or where there 
ie u friend's vinery in the neighborhood. 

In the end of June or beginning of July, when 
the vines have made new shoots from ten to twelve 
feet long, and about the time of the fruit setting, 
Eelect any supiTUumerary shoots, and loosening 
tbem from the trellis, bend them down so as to 



make them form a double or flexure in a pot filled 
with earth, generally a mixture of loam and vege- 
table mould, taking care to make a portion of last 
year's wood, containing a joint, pass into the soil 
in the pot. The earth is kept in a wet state, and 
at the same time a moist warm air is maintained 
in the house. In about ten days roots are found 
to have proceeded plentifully from the joint of last 
year's wood, and these may be seen by merely stir- 
ring the surface of the earth, or sometimes they 
inaj' be observed penetrating to its surface. The 
layer may now be safely detached ; very fre- 
quently it contains one or two bunches of grapes, 
which continue to grow and come to perfection. 
A layer cut off in the beginning of July generally 
attains, by the end of October, the length of fif- 
teen or twenty feet. A new grape-house, there- 
fore, might in this way be as completely furnished 
with plants in three months, as by the usual me- 
thod, above described, in three years. 
Another Mode. 

A mode of more general utility than the fore- 
going, is to select the plants in the nursery a year 
before wanted, and to order them to be potted into 
very large pots, baskets, or tubs, filled with the 
richest earth, and plunged into a tan bed. They 
will thus make shoots which, the first year after 
removal to their final destination, will, under or- 
dinary circumstances, produce fruit. 
To prune and train Vines. 

The methods of pruning established vmes admit 
of much diversity, as the plants are in different 
situations. Without reckoning the cutting down 
of young or weak plants alternately to the lower- 
most summer shoot, which is but a temporary 
course, three ditterent systems of pruning are 
adopted. 

The first is applicable only to vines out of doors, 
but it may be transferred to plants in a vinery 
without any capital alteration. In this method 
one perpendicular leader is trained from the stem, 
at tlie side of which, to the right and left, the 
ramifications spring. Soon after the growing 
season has commenced, such rising shoots as are 
either in fruit or tit to be retained, or are eligibly 
placed for mother- bearers ne.xt season, are laid in 
either horizontally, or with a slight diagonal rise 
at something less than a foot distance, measuring 
from one bearing shoot to the next. The rising 
shoots, intended to form young wood, should be 
taken as near the origin of the branch as a good 
one oflfers, to allow of cutting away, beyond the 
adopted lateral, a greater quantity of the branch, 
as it becomes old wood; the new- sprung laterals, 
nut wanted for one of these two objects, are 
pinched off. The treatment of those retained 
during the rest of the summer thus diflFers : As 
the shoots in bearing extend in growth, they are 
kept stopped about two eyes beyond the fruit. 
The coronate shoots, cultivated merely to enlarge 
the provision of wood, are divested of embryo 
bunches, if they show any, but are trained at full 
length as they advance during the summer, until 
tliey reach the allotted bounds. In the winter 
pruning there will thus be a good choice of mo- 
ther-bearers. That nearest the origin of the former 
is retained, and the others on the same branch are 
cut away ; the rest of the branch is also taken ofi", 
so that the old wood may terminate with the 
adopted lateral. The adopted shoot is then short- 
ened to two, three, four, or mure eyes, according 
to its place on the vine, its own strength, or the 
strength of the vine. The lower snoots are pruned 
in the shortest, in order to keep the means of 
always supplying young wood at the bottom of 
the tree. 



74 



HOETICULTURE. 



Second method. 

The second method is to head the natural leader 
80 as to cause it to throw out two, three, or more 
principal shoots; these are trained as leading 
branches, and in the winter-pruning are not re- 
duced, unless to shape them to the limits of the 
house, or unless the plant appears too weak to 
sustain them at length. Laterals from these are 
cultivated about twelve inches apart, as mother- 
bearers; those in fruit are stopped in summer, 
and after the fall of the leaf are cut into one or 
two eyes. From the appearance of the mother- 
bearers, iLus shortened, this is called spur-prun- 
ing. 

Third viethod. 

The third plan seems to flow from taking the 
second as a foundation, in having more than one 
aspiring leaiier, and from joining the superstruc- 
ture of the first sy.'^tem immediately to this in re- 
serving well-placed shoots to come in as bearing 
wood. Thus, supposing a stem which has been 
headed to send up four vigorous competing lead- 
ers, two are suffered to benr fruit and two are di- 
vested of such buds as break into clusters, and 
trained to the length of ten, twelve, fifteen feet or 
more, for mother-bearers, which have borne a 
crop, are cut down to within two eyes of the stool 
or legs, according to the strength of the plant, 
while the reserved shoots lose no more of their 
tops than is necessary to adjust them to the trellis. 

To prune Vines to advantage. 
In pruning vines leave some new branches every 
year, and take away (if too many) some of the 
old, which will be of great advantage to the tree, 
and much increase the quantity of fruit. When 
you trim your vine, leave two knots and cut them 
off the next time, for usually two buds yield a 
bunch of grapes. Vines thus pruned have been 
known to bear abundantly, whereas others that 
have been cut close to please the eye have been 
almost barren of fruit. 

To mature Grapes by Incision of the Yine Bark. 

It is not of much consequence in what part of 
the tree the incision is made, but in ease the trunk 
is very large the circles ought to be made in the 
smaller branches. All shoots which come out 
from the root of the vine or from the front of the 
trunk, situated below the incision, must be re- 
moved as often as they appear, unless bearing 
wood is particularly wanted to fill up the lower 
part of the wall, in which case one or two shoots 
may be left. 

Vines growing in forcing houses are equally im- 
proved in point of size and flower, as well as made 
to ripen earlier, by taking awfiy circles of bark. 
The time for doing this is when the fruit is set, 
and the berries are about the size of small shot. 
The removed circles may here be made wider than 
on vines growing in the open air, as the bark is 
sooner renewed in forcing houses, owing to the 
•warmth and moisture in those places. Half an 
inch will not be too great a width to take off in a 
circle from a vigorous growing vine, but I do not 
recommend the operation to be performed at all in 
weak trees. 

This practice may be extended to other fruits, 
io as to hasten their maturity, especially figs, in 
which there is a most abundant flow of returning 
sap, and it demonstrates to us why old trees are 
more disposed to bear fruit than young ones. Mil- 
ler informs us that vineyards in Italy are thought 
to improve every year by age till they are fifty 
years old. For as trees become old the returning 
vesstls do not convey the sap into the roots with 
the same facility they did when young. Thus by 



occasionally removing circles of bark we only an. 
ticipate the jirocess of nature. In both cases a 
stagnation of the true sap is obtained in tlie fruit- 
ing branches, and the redundant nutriment then 
passes into the fruit. 

It often hajipens after the circle of bark has 
been removed, a small portion of the inner bark 
adheres to the alburnum. It is of the utiuost im- 
portirnce to remove this, though ever so small, 
otherwise in a very short space of time the com- 
munication is again established with the roots, and 
little or no effect is produced. Therefore, in al)out 
ten daj's after the first operation has been per- 
formed, look at the part from whence the bark was 
removed, and separate any small portion which 
may have escaped the knife the first time. 

To prevent the Dropping off of Grapes. 

Make a circular incision in the wood, cutting 
away a ring of bark about the breadth of the 
twelfth of an inch. The wood acquires greater 
size about the incision, and the ojieration accele- 
rates the maturity of the wood, and that of the 
fruit likewise. The incision should not be made 
too deep and further than the bark, or it will spoil 
both in the wood and the fruit. 

To retard the Sap. 

At certain periods preventing or retarding the 
mounting of the sap tends to produce and ripen 
the fruit. An abundance of sap is found to in- 
crease the leaf buds and decrease the flower buds. 
A process to retard sap has long been emjiloyed in 
the gardens of Montreuil. The practice is to di- 
varicate the sap as near the root as may be, by 
cutting ofi' the main stem and training two lateral 
branches, from which the wall is to be filled. An- 
other process of interrupting the rising of the sap 
by separating the bark has been long in practice 
in vine-forcing houses; this is done when the 
grapes are full grown, and is found to assist the 
bark in diminishing the aqueous and increasing 
the saccharine juice. 

To destroy Insects in Vines. 

The red spider is the grand enemy to the vine; 
after every winter's pruning and removal of the 
outward rind on the old wood, anoint the branches, 
shoots and trellis with the following composition, 
the object of which is the destruction of their eggs 
or larvas : 

Soft soap, 2 lbs. ; flour of sulphur, 2 lbs. ; leaf of 
roll tobacco, 2 lbs. ; nux vomica, 4 oz. ; turpentine, 1 
English gill. 

Boil the above in 8 English gallons of scft river 
water till it is reduced to six. 

Lay on this conipositi(m, milk-warm, with a 
painter's brush; then with a sponge carefully 
anoint every branch, shoot and bud, being sure t« 
rub it well into every joint, hole and angle. If 
the house is much infected the walls, flues, rafters, 
etc., are also to be jtainted over with the same 
liquor. Watering over the leaves and fruit at all 
times, except the ripening season, is the preven- 
tive recommended, and which all gardeners ap- 
prove. 

To protect Grapes from Wasj)s. 

Plant near the grapes some yew-trees, and the 
wasps will so far prefer the yew-tree berries as 
wholly to neglect the grapes. 

^To take off Siiperjhiotis SiicJeers from Shrubs. 

Many flowering shrubs put out strong suckers 
from the root, such as lilacs, syringa, and some of 
the kinds of roses which take greatly from the 
strength of the mother plant, and which, if not 
wanted for the purpose of nlanting the ullow- 
ing season should be 'wisted off or otherwise da 
stroked. 



FRUIT-TREES. 



75 



To renovate old Apple- TreeH. 
Take fresh made lime from the kiln, slake it 
well wiih water and well dress the tree with a 
brush, and the insects and moss will he completely 
destroyed, the outer rind will fall off and a new, 
smooth, clear, healthy one will be formed, and the 
tree will assume a most healthy appearance and 
produce the finest fruit. 

Treatment of Apple-Trees. 
The limlis of apple-trees are recommended by 
some to be brushed all over in the midst of sum- 
mer, but it is difficult to brush the branches of 
trees when the fruit is ujion them. Instead of 
brushing the trees in summer, as soon as the 
leaves have fallen every tree should be carefully 
and freely pruned; this will open a passage to the 
6un and air, and will contribute to health in the 
future season. In addition to this, says a corres- 
pondent of the Monthly Magazine, I should re- 
commend brushing off the moss and cutting out 
the cankered parts at any season this is conve- 
nient, and I further recommend the tree to be 
anointed some feet from the ground with a com- 
position of sulphur and goose oil, and unless the or- 
chard is ploughed, the soil should be opened at 
the roots. 

To render New Pippins Productive. 
To render it more hardy, the farina of the pip- 
pin should be introduced to the flower of the Sibe- 
rian crab, whereby a mule is produced, which 
ripens in cold and e.\posed situations, yet retains 
the rich flavor of the other parent. But these 
hybrid or mule productions in a few generations 
return to the character of the one or the other va- 
riety. A most excellent variety oi this apple, 
called the Downton Pippin, has been obtained by 
introducirig the farina of the golden to the female 
flower of the Orange Pippin, and ihe progeny is 
more hardened than either parent. 

To obtain Early Fruit by Exhibiting the Trees. 

Mr. Knight having trained the branches of an 
apple-tree against a southern wall in winter, 
loosened them to their utmost, and in spring, when 
the flower-buds began to appear, the branches were 
again trained to the wall. The blossoms soon ex- 
panded and produced fruit, which early attained 
perfect maturity, and, what is uiore, the seeds from 
their fruits afforded plants which, partaking of the 
quality of the parent, ripened their fruit very con- 
siderably earlier than other trees raised at the 
same time from seeds of the same fruit, which had 
grown in the orchard. 

To hasten the Ripening of Wall Fruit. 
Painting the wall with black paint or laying a 
composition of the same color, produces not only 
more in quantity, in the proportion of five to three, 
but the quality is also superior in size and flavor 
to that which grows against the wall of the natu- 
ral color. But the trees must be clear of insects, 
or they will thrive, from the same cause, more 
than the fruit. 

To preserve Plants from Frost. 
Before the plant has been exposed to the sun or 
thawed, alter a niuht's frost, sprinkle it well with 
■pring-wuter in which sal-ammoniac or common 
talt has been infused. 

To engraft the Coffee-Tree. 
Plant in small hampers during the rainy season 
joung plants raised by seed, when they are from 
twelve to eighteen inches high. Place them in the 
shade until they are quite recovered, then remove 
them in the hampers, respectively, to the foot of 
the coffee treos chosen for the mother plants, which 



ought to be of the most healthy and productive 
kind. 

These latter ought to be cut down to within 
three or four inches of the ground, to make them 
throw out new wood near their roots. It is those 
shoots which are grafted when they are about a 
foot or fifteen inches long upon the seedling jdants 
in the hampers placed round the mother plants. 
The hampers should be in part buried in the 
ground to preserve the earth within them moist. 

There are several ways of performing the ope- 
ration of grafting, but we shall give only the two 
following, which seem most likel.y to answer the 
purpose, without calling upon the cultivator to 
pursue too complex a process : 

1st Draw together the stem of the plant in the 
hamper and one of the branches of the mother 
plant. Then make a longitudinal incision on each 
of them of the same length ; bring the two in- 
cisions together, so that one wound covers the 
other; bind them closely together and finally cover 
them with a mixture of clayey earth an<l eow 
dung. It would be useful to cut off the top of 
the ])lant in the hamper, in order to force the sap 
into the branch of the mother plant. 

2d. Draw together the tree in the hamper and 
the branch of the mother plant as before, and take 
()ff from three to eight inches of the head of the 
former. Then make a triangular incision upon 
this cut, and a similar one on the branch of the 
mother plant, to unite the two wounils: make them 
fast together and cover them with the same com- 
position as before; then place the branch ujjright 
by means of a prop. When the parts are firmly 
knit together, cut the branch away from the 
mother pl:mf. and Ihe engrafting is completed. 

Young trees thus engrafted, after remaining one 
or two years in the nursery, should be removed to 
the plantation they are designed for. This method 
is highly useful to the fruit trees which do not 
propagate with all their best qualities by means 
of seed. In the same manner excellent varieties 
of spice trees may be raised from plants propa- 
gated by seed. 

To preserve Fruit Trees in Blossom from Frost. 

Surround the trunk of the tree in blossom with 
a wisp of straw or hemp. The end of this sink 
by means of a stnne tied to it in a vessel of spring 
water at a little distance from the tree. One ves- 
sel will conveniently serve two trees, or the cord 
may be lengthened so as to surround several be- 
fore its end is plunged into the water. It is neces- 
sary that the vessel should be placed in an open 
situation out of the reach of any shade, so that 
the frost may produce all its effects on the water 
by means of the cord communicating with it. 

Chinese Ifode of Propagating Fniit Trees. 

Strip a ring of bark about an inch in width 
from a bearing branch ; surround the place with a 
ball of fat earth or loam, bound fast to the branch 
with a piece of matting, over this they suspend a 
pot or horn with water, having a small hole in the 
bottom just sufiicient to let the water drop, in 
order to keep the earth constantly moist. The 
branch throws nevr roots into the earth just above 
the place where the ring of bark was stripped 
off. The operation is performed in the spring, and 
the branch is sawn off and put into the grour.d at 
the fall of the leaf. The following year it wil] 
bear fruit. 

This mode of propagating, not only fruit trees 
but plants of every description, received particular 
attention from the editor while in China, and has 
since been practised by him in this country with 
never-failing success. The mode he has adopted 
is this: — A common tin cup has a round hola 



HORTICULTURE. 



punched in the bottom, a little larger than will 
atlniit the stem of the branch it is intended to re- 
ceive. A slit is then to be made fr(im the edge 
down one side and along the bottom to the central 
aperture. The two sides can thus he separated 
s<> as to let in the branch without injury ; it is 
then closed up, the cup filled with Icjom mixed 
with chopped moss, and another cup or gourd 
pierced with a small hole suspended from a branch 
above. This is to be kept filled with water. The 
tiuie to do this is in the spring just before the sap 
rises. In the fall the limb, as before stated, is to 
be taken ofl' below the cup and planted, with all 
the earth that adheres to the roots. 

To held Wounds in Treea, 
Make a varnish of common linseed oil, rendered 
very drying by boiling it for the spfice of an hour, 
with an ounce of litharge to each pound of oil, 
niiNed with calcined bones, pulverized and sifted 
to the consistence of an almost liquid paste. With 
this paste the wounds are to be covered by means 
of a brus^h, after the bark and other substance 
have been pared, so as to render the whole as 
smooth and even as possible. The varnish must 
be applied in dry weather, in order that it may 
attach itself properly. 

Compoeidon for Healing Wounds in Trees. 
Take of dry pounded chalk three measures, and 
of common vegetable tar one measure; mix them 
thoroughly, and boil them with a low heat till the 
composition becomes of the consistency of bees- 
wax ; it may be preserved for use in this state for 
any length of time. If chalk cannot conveniently 
be got, dry brick-dust may be substituted. After 
the broken or decayed li:!,b la? brcu sawed off, 
the whole of the saw-cut must be very carefully 
pared away, and the rough edges of the bark, in 
particular, must be made quite smooth : the doing 
of this properly is of great consequence; then lay 
on the above composition hot, about the thickness 
of half a dollar, over the wounded place, and over 
the edges of the surrounding bark; it should be 
spread with a hot trowel. 

To propagate Herbs by Slips and Cuttings. 
Many kinds of pot-herbs may, in July, be pro- 
pagated by cuttings or slips, which may b^ planted 
out to nurse on a shady border for a f«w weeks, 
or till they have struck root, and may then be 
planted out where they are to remain. If made 
about the middle or end of the month, they will 
be ready for transplanting before the end of Au- 
gust, and in that case will be well established 
before the winter. The kinds are marjoram, mint, 
eage, sorrel, tansy, tarragons and thyme. 

To prevent the growth of Weeds round Young Fruit- 
Trees. 

To diminish the growth of weeds round fruit 
trees, spread on the ground round the fresh trans- 
planted trees, as far as the roots extend, the refuse 
Btalks of flax after the fibrous parts have been 
separated. This gives them very surprising vigor, 
as no weeds will grow under flax refuse, and the 
earth remains fresh and loose. Old trees treated 
in the same manner, when drooping in an orchard, 
will recover and push out vegerian shoots. In 
place of flax stalks the leaves which fall from 
trees in autumn may be substituted, but they 
must be covered with waste twigs or anything 
else that can prevent the wind from blowing them 
away. 

To avoid the bad effects of Iron Nails, etc., on 
Fridt-Trees. 

It often happens that some of the limbs of fruit- 
trees, trained against a wall, are blighted and die, 



while others remain in a healthy and flourishing 
state. This has hitherto been erroneously attri- 
buted to the effects of lightning; but from closer 
observation, and from several experiments, it has 
been found to arise from the corroding elTects of 
the nails and cramps with which trees in this sit- 
uation are fastened. To avoid this inconvenience, 
therefore, it requires only to be careful in pre- 
venting the iron from coming in contact with the 
bark of the trees. 

To destroy JIfoss on Trees. 
Remove it with a hard scrubbing brush in Feb- 
ruary and March, and wash the trees with cow- 
dung, urine and soap-suds. 

To protect Trees and Shrubs from the attack of 
Hares. 
Take three pints of melted tallow to one of tar, 
and mi,\ them well together over a gentle fire. 
In November take a small brush and go over the 
rind or bark of the trees with the mixture, in a milk- 
warm state, as thin as it can be laid on with the 
brush. This coating will not hinder the juices or 
sap expanding in the smallest degree. Its effi- 
cacy has been proved by applying the liquid to 
one tree and missing another, when the latter has 
been attacked and the former left. During five 
years' experience, of those besmeared the first two 
years not one was injured afterwards. If all the 
bark were properly gone over with the mixture, 
they probably would not need any more for some 
years. 

To prevent the Propagation of Insects on Ajyple- 
Trees. 
Let a hard shoe-brush be applied to every in- 
fected limb, as if it were to coach harness, to get 
off the dirt, after which, with the tin box and 
brush, give the limbs a dressing, leaving them 
exposed to the sun to increase the efficacy of the 
application. This should be repeated occasionally 
during the summer, choosing always a dry time, 
and warm, clear sunshine. 

To prevent the Ravages of the Gooseberry Cater- 
pillar. 

The only remedy is placing something about the 
stem or among the branches of the bush, the smell 
of which is obnoxious to flies, and which they will 
not approach. The smell of coal-tar or petroleum 
is said to keep off the caterpillars ; the fact is, 
that it keeps off the fly. The practice is to wrap a 
beam or twist of seed, strongly impregnated with 
this strong-scented bitumen, round the stem of 
the bush, and no caterpillar will touch a leaf. 

Other remedies are used, such as soap-suds 
thrown over the bushes, lime, chimney-soot, and 
a strong decoction of elder-leaves ; but who can 
eat gooseberries and currants after they have 
been besmeared with such filthy materials ? Keep- 
ing off the fly by the smell of something which is 
disagreeable to it goes to the root of the evil at 
once, and there is nothing in the smell of coal-tar 
which can excite a prejudice in the most delicate 
stomach. 

Another Method. 

A few small pits or holes, from twelve to ilfU^eo 
inches deep, being dug among the bushes, at con- 
venient distances, all the surfaco mould immedi- 
ately under and near to the buidies, wherein the 
greatest quantity of shells is likely to be depo- 
sited, is taken off with a common garden hoe and 
buried in these holes or pits ; alter which the 
whole surface is carefully dug over to a consi- 
derable depth. Wherever these operations are 
properly performed, no apprehension of loss from 
this kind of caterpillar need be entertained. 



FRUIT-TREES. 



77 



TV) cfire the Disease fn Apple- Trees. 

Brush off the white down, clear off the red stain 
nnderneath it, and anoint the places infected with 
a liquid mixture of train oil and Scotch snuff. 
Another Method. 

Orchards are occasionally nnieh injured by an 
insect appearing like a white efflorescence ; when 
bruised ijetween the fingers it emits a blood- red 
fluid. Mix a quantity of cow-dung with human 
urine, to the cimsistence of paint, and let the in- 
fectei trees be anointed with it, about the begin- 
ning of March. 

To cure the Canher in Apple- Trees. 

The only means of preventing the canker 
worm, which destroys the young fruit, and endan- 
gers the life of the tree, when discovered, and 
which, in many instances, has proved to be effec- 
tual, is encircling the tree, about knee-high, 
with a streak of tar, early in the spring, and occa- 
sionally adding a fresh coat. 

In other Trees. 

Cut them off to the quick, and apply a piece of 
sound bark from any other tree, and bind it on 
with a flannel roller. Cut off the canker, and a 
new shoot will grow strong, but in a year or two 
you will find it cankered. 

To cure Ulcers in Elm-Trees. 

The remedy consists in boring every tree at- 
tacked by the disease, at the ulcer itself; and in 
applying a tube to the hole occasioned by the 
borer, penetrating about nine lines in depth. The 
sound trees, which are also bored, afford no 
liquor, whereas those that are ulcerated afford it 
in great abundance, increasing particularly in fine 
weather, and when the wound is exposed to the 
south. Stormy weather and great winds stop 
the effusion. In this manner the ulcers dry and 
heal in forty-eight hours. 

To cleanse Orchard Trees ly Lime. 

The use of lime has been highly recommended 
in the dressing of old moss-eaten orchard trees. 
Some fresh made lime being slaked with water, 
and some old worn out apple-trees well dressed 
with it with a brush, the result was that the in- 
sects and moss were destroyed, the outer rind fell 
off, and a new, smooth, clear, healthy one formed ; 
the trees, although twenty years old, assuming a 
most healthy appearance. 

To cure Blight in Fruit Trees. 

A smothering straw-fire should be made early 
in October, in calm weather, under each tree, and 
kept up during an hour or more. This done, 
scrape the moss and other impurities from the 
trunk, and from every obscure hole and corner; 
set your ladders to the branches, carefully clean- 
ing them in the same way, taking from the re- 
maining leaves every web or nidus of insects. If 
need be, wash the trunk, and all the larger wood, 
■with a solution of lime and dung. Last of all, it 
is necessary to destroy the insects or eggs, which 
may have dropped upon the ground, and it may be 
useful to loosen the soil in the circumference. In 
the spring, or early blighting season, apply your 
ladders, make a careful survey of every branch, and 
act accordingly; repeat this monthly, picking 
off all blights by hand, and using the water-en- 
gine, where ablution may be necessary. To those 
who have fruit, or the market profit thereof, every 
orchard or garden, little or great, will amply re- 
pay such trouble and expense. 

Another Method. 
Trees newly transplanted, in general, escape its 
attack, when other trees, of the same kind of fruit, 



grown in the same .situation, are nearly de- 
stroyed. Peach and nectarine trees should be dug 
up once in every five or six years, and replanted 
with fresh mould. By this method, a larger 
quantity of fruit of a superior kind will be ob- 
taineil. The covering of trees with mats, by 
almost totally depriving them of light, has a ten- 
dency to create blight, which often attends an 
excess of heat or cold. 

To preserve Apjjle-Trees from Blight. 

Washing the branches with quick-lime will pre- 
serve the trees from blight, and insure a crop; 
those which escape washing suft'er from the blight, 
whilst the others produce a good crop. 
To prevent the Blight or Mildeio/roni injuring Or- 
chards. 

Rub tar well into the bark of the apple-trees, 
about four or si.x inches wide round each tree, 
and at about one foot from the ground. This 
effectually prevents blight, and abundant crops 
are the consequence. 

To prevent Mildew on Frnit-Treea. 

Take one quart of whiskey, two pounds of pow- 
dered sulphur, two ounces of copperas, and a small 
quantity of camphor. Dissolve first the camphor, 
reduced to powder, gradually in the spirit, then 
dissolve also the copperas in it; then rub gradu- 
ally the powdered sulphur into the solution, when 
the whole will form a mixture of a thiokish con- 
sistence. The fruit-trees, in the spring of the year, 
immediately after being cleaned and tied up, are 
to have their trunks and all their branches cum- 
pletely covered with this mixture, by means of a 
large paint-brush. 

To ])revent 3Iildeio on Peach-Trces. 
In the months of January and February, if the 
trees are in a stunted or sickly state, take away 
all the old mould from the roots as carefully as 
possible, and put in its place fresh rotten turf from 
an old pasture, without any dung; and the trees 
will not only recover their health, but produce a 
crop of fine fruit. 

To prevent Gumming in Fruit-Trees. 

To prevent gumming, or the spontaneous exu 
dation of gum from the trunks of fruit trees, 
which injures to a considerable extent the growth 
and strength of the tree, — 

Take of horse dung any quantity, mix it weH 
up with a quantity of clay and a little sand, so as 
to make a composition; then add a quantity of 
pitch-tar (which is put upon cart-wheels), and 
form a wettish composition of the whole. The 
fruit trees, in the spring of the year, after they are 
cleaned and tied up, are to have their trunks and 
stems completely bedaubed or covered with this 
mixture. 

To cultivate the Cucumber. 

To produce cucumbers at an early season, is an 
object of emulation with every gardener; and 
there is scarcely any person who has not a cu- 
cumber-bed in his garden. Cucumbers are forced 
in hot-beds, pits, and hot-houses, and the heat of 
fire, steam, and dung have been applied to their 
culture; but dung is the only thing yet found out, 
by the heatf of which the cucumber may be advan- 
tageously cultivated. 

Soil. 

Cucumbers, like every other plant, will grow in 
any soil, though not with the same degree of vigor, 
provided they be supplied with a sufficiency of 
heat, light, water, and air. 

For Early Forcing. 
Abercrombie recommends a mould or compost 
of the fcllowing materials One-third of rich top- 



78 



HORTICULTURE. 



spit earth, from an upland pasture, one-half of 
vegetable mould, and one-sixth of well decom- 
posed horse dung, with a small quantity of sand. 

McPhail used vegetable mould made from a 
mixture of the leaves of elm, lime, beech, syca- 
more, horse and sweet chestnut, spruce and iScotch 
fir, walnut, laurel, oak. evergreen, oat, ash, etc., 
and among them withered grass, and weeds of 
various sorts. This vegetable mould is preferable 
to any other. 

Compost used in Keio Garden. 

Of light loam, a few months from the common, 
one-third part; the best rotten dung, one-third 
part; leaf mould, and heath earth, equal parts, 
making together one-third part; the whole well 
mixed for use. 

To form the Seed. 

If one light frame will be large enough for ordi- 
nary purposes, choose a dry sheltered part of the 
melon ground, and form abed. When high winds 
are suffered to blow against a cucumber Ised, they 
have a very powerful effect on it; therefore, when 
a cucumber bed is about to be formed, the first 
object of consideration should be to have it shel- 
tered from the high winds and boisterous stormy 
weather. Having put on the frame, and waited 
till the bed is fit for moulding, lay in five or six 
inches depth of the proper earth or compost. 
Sowing. 
Abercrombie sows some seeds in the layer of 
the earth, which he spreads over the bed, putting 
them in half an inch deep. He also sows some 
seeds in two, three, or more small pots of the same 
kind of earth, which may be plunged a little into 
that of the bed. 

To raise Plants from Cuttings. 
Instead of raising cucumber plants from seed, 
they may be raised from cuttings, and thus kept 
on from year to year, in the following manner: 
Take a shoot which is ready for stopping, cut it 
off below the joint, then cut smooth the lower end 
of the shoot or cutting, and stick it into fine leaf 
or other rich mould, about an inch deep, and give 
it plenty of heat, and shade it from the rays of 
the sun till it be fairly struck. By this method 
cucumber plants may readily be propagated. 
Treatment till removed to the Fruiting Bed. 
After sowing continue the glasses on the frame; 
giving occasional vent above for the steam to eva- 
porate. The plants will be up in a few days, when 
it will be proper to admit air daily, but more 
guardedly at the upper ends of the lights. In 
frosty weather hang part of a mat over the aper- 
ture. When the plants are a little advanced, with 
the seed leaves about half an inch broad, take them 
up and prick some in small pots of light earth, 
previously warmed by the heat of the bed. Put 
three plants in each pot, and insert them a little 
slopingly, quite to the seed-leaves. Plunge the 
pots into the earth ; and prick some plants also 
into the earth of the bed. Give a very little water 
just to the roots ; the water should be previously 
warmed to the temperature of the bed. Draw on 
the glasses ; but admit air daily, to promote the 
growth of the plants, as well as to give vent to the 
Steam rising in the bed, by tilting the lights be- 
hind from half an inch to an inch or two high, in 
proportion to the heat of the bed and the tempera- 
ture of the weather. Cover the glasses every night 
with garden mats and remove them timely in the 
morning. Give twice a week, once in two days, 
or daily, according to the season, a very light 
watering. Keep up a moderate lively heat in 
the bed by requisite linings of hot dung to the 
Bides. 



To guard the Seeds from Hfice, 
Lay a pane of glass over the pot or pan till they 
have come up, and afterwards at night cover with 
a pot of equal size till the seed-leaves have ex- 
panded and the husks h:ive (lrop|jed ; lor, until 
then, the jilants are liable to be destroyed. The 
cover, however, should always be removed by sun- 
rise, and replaced in the evening. It is at night 
these vermin generally c<immit their depredations. 
No air need be admitted till the heat begins to 
rise, and steam begins to appear; but after that 
the light should be tilted a little every day, in 
whatever state the weather may be, until tlie plants 
break ground. Air must then be admitted with 
more care; and if frosty, or very chill, the end of 
a mat should be hung over the opening, that the 
air may sift through it, and not immediately strike 
the plants. 

To transplant Cucumbers. 
As soon as the seed-leaves of the plants are fully 
expanded, transplant them singly into pots of the 
48th size, and give a little water and air night 
and day. The temperature for seedlings is from 
65° to 75°. With this heat and water, as the 
earth in the pots becomes dry, and a little air 
night and day so as to keep the internal air in the 
frame sweet and fluctuating between the degrees 
of heat above-mentioned, the plants will be fit for 
finally transplaniing out in one month, that is, by 
the 14th of November, into the fruiting frames. 

To form the Fruiting Bed. 

Begin to make preparations for the fruiting bed, 
about three weeks before the plants are ready to 
be planted out for good. The dung collected, 
after being well worked, is made up into a bed 
about four or five feet high, and the frames and 
lights set upon it. It is afterwards suffered to 
stand for a few days to settle, and until its violent 
heat be somewhat abated, and when it is thought 
to be in a fit state for the plants to grow in, its 
surface is made level, and a hill of mould laid in 
just under the middle of each light, and when the 
mould gets warm the plants are ridged out in it. 
After this, if the bed has become perfectly sweet, 
and there be heat enough in it, and the weather 
proves fine, the plants will grow finely. 
To Plant Out. 

When the temperature is ascertained to be right, 
bring the plants in their pots; turn over the hills 
of mould, forming them again properly, and then 
proceed to planting. Turn those in pots clean out 
one at a time, with the ball of earth whole about 
the roots; and thus insert one patch of three 
plants which have grown together, with the ball 
of earth entire into the middle of each hill, earth- 
ing them nearly around the stems. Also any not 
in pots having been pricked into the earth of the 
bed, if required for planting, may be taken up 
with a small ball of earth and planted similarly. 
AVith water warmed to the air of the bed, give a 
very light watering about the roots, and shut 
down the glasses till next morning. Shade the 
plants a little from the mid-day sun a few days, 
till they have taken root in the hills, and cover 
the glasses every evening with large mats, which 
should be taken off in the morning. 

Mr. Phail's ilethod of Covering the Frames. 

First, lay clean single mats on the lights in 
length and breadth, nearly to cover the sashes, 
taking care not to suffer any part of the mats to 
hang over the sashes on or above the linings, for 
that would be the means of drawing the steam 
into the frames in the night time. On these mats 
spread equally a covering of soft hay, and on the 
hay lay another covering of single mats, upon 



VEGETABLES. 



79 



which are laid two, and sometimes three or four, 
rows of hoards to prevent the covering from being 
bljwn off by the winds. Tne mats laid on next 
to the glass are merely to keep the seeds and dust 
which may happen to be in the hay from getting 
into the frames among the plants. If the bed be 
high, in covering up, stejis or short ladders must 
be used by those whose oflSce it is to cover and 
uncDver; and great care must be taken not to 
break or injure the glass. 

Setting the Fruit. 
The cucumber bears male and female blossoms 
distinctly on the same plant. The latter only pro- 
duce the fruit, which appears first in miniature 
close under the case, even before the flower ex- 
pands. There is never any in the males ; but 
these are placed in the vicinity of the females, and 
are absolutely necessary, by the dispersion of their 
farina, to impregnate the female blossom ; the fruit 
of which will not, otherwise, swell to its full size, 
and the seeds will be abortive. The early plants 
under the glass, not having the tuil current of the 
natural air, nor the assistance of bees and other 
winged insects to convey the farina, the artificial 
aid of the cultivator is necessary to effect the im- 
pregnation. 

At the time of fructification watch the plants 
daily, and, as soon as a female flower and some 
male blossoms are fully expanded, proceed to set 
the fruit the same day. Take off a male blossom, 
detaching it with part of the foot-stalk; hold this 
between the finger and thumb; pull away the 
flower-leaf close to the stamens and central part, 
which apply close to the stigma of the female 
flower, twirling it a little about, to discharge 
thereon some particles of the fertilizing powder. 
Proceed thus to set every fruit, as the flowers of 
both sorts open, while of a lively full expansion; 
and generally perform it in the early part of the 
day, using a fresh male, if possible, for each im- 
pregnation, as the males are usually more abun- 
dant than the female blossoms. In consequence, 
the young fruit will soon be observed to swell 
freely Cucumbers attain the proper size for 
gathering in about fifteen or twenty days from 
the time of setting; and often, in succession, for 
two or three months or more, in the same bed, by 
good culture. The above artificial operation will 
be found both necessary and effectual in forcing 
the cucumber, between the decline of autumn and 
May, while the plants are mostlj- shut under glass. 
In plants more fully exposed to the free air the im- 
pregnation is effected mostly or wholly by nature. 
To save the Seed. 
Select some best summer fruit, from good pro- 
ductive plants, which permit to continue in full 
growth till they become yellow. Then cut them 
from the vine, and place them upright on end, in 
the full sun, for two or three weeKS, when they 
may be cut open, and, the seed being washed out 
from the pulp, spread it to dry and harden ; then 
put It up in papers or bags for future sowing. It 
will reiaain good many years; and seed of three 
or four years' keeping is preferable for early 
frame crops. 

Injects and Diseases. 
The thrips sometimes attack early cucumbers, 
and are to be destroyed by fumigation. The red 
spider rarelj- makes its appearance; when it does 
water must have been improperly withheld. Some 
soils produce canker in the shoots, especiallj' where 
they branch from the main stem. When this is 
the case, the only resource is to renew the soil 
uid the plants. 

To grow Cucumbers under Hnnd-Glasses. 
The following method is given by McPhail as 



that generally practised : The seeds are sown 
about the middle of April, in a cucumber or 
melon bed, add when they come up they are pot- 
ted out into small pots, two or three plants in 
each, and kept properly watered, and stopped at 
the first or second joint. About the middle of 
May a warm situation, where the mould is very 
rich, is pitched on, and a trench dug out about 
two feet deep, three broad, and the length pro- 
portioned according to the number of lights it is 
intended for. This breach is filled with good 
warm dung, and when the dung is come to its full 
heat it is covered over with eight, ten, or twelve 
inches deep of rich mould. The glasses are then 
set upon it about three feet distnnt from each 
other, and when the mould gets warm under them 
the plants are turned out of the pots, with their 
balls whole, and plunged in the mould under the 
glasses, and a little water given them to settle the 
mould about their roots, the glasses set over them; 
and, after they have made roots and begin to grow, 
in fine days they are raised a little on one side to 
let the plants have free air; and, as the weather 
gets warmer, air is given more plentifully, to 
harden the plants, so that they may be able to 
bear the open air and run from under the glasses. 
When the plants begin to fill the glasses, they are 
trained out horizontally, and the glasses set upon 
bricks to bear them from the pliints. After this 
the plants require nothing more than to be sup- 
plied with water when the summer showers are 
not suflicient, and to stop them when they run 
too thin of branches, and thin them of leaves or 
branches when they are likely to be overcrowded. 
In warm summers and in warm situations, by 
this mode of management, the plants will bear 
plentifully for about two months, provided they bo 
not attacked by insects or weakened by diseases. 

To prevent the Irregular Growth of Jfehns. 
Melons frequently, in certain situations, lose 
their circular form and grow larger on one side 
than the other, and these misshapen fruits are 
always bad. To remedy this, take a small forked 
stick, in proportion to the size of the melon, and 
thrust it into the ground as nearly as possible to 
the tail of the fruit, taking the precaution to lay a 
little moss between the two prongs, and suspend 
the melon to the fork. In a few days the melon 
will resume its form, when the fork may be re- 
moved, and the operation is finished. The quality 
of the fruit remains undiminished. 

To produce Mushrooms, 

If the water wherein mushrooms have been 

steeped or washed be poured upon an old bed, or 

if the broken part of mushrooms be strewed 

thereon, there will speedily arise great numbers. 

To produce New Potatoes throughout the Winter 
Jlonths. 
Prepare a proper quantity of red sand, of a 
rather loamy nature, and mix it up with a portion 
of lime in powder, viz., about one- third, about 
fourteen days before using it. This soil is to be 
spread about three inches thick at the bottom of 
any old wooden box, or on a very drj' brick cellar 
floor. The cellar ought not to be exposed to tho 
frost, nor j-et too much confined from the air. 
Procure a measure or two of large potatoes of a 
prior j'ear's growth ; the sorts preferred are the 
red-apple potatoes and the pink-eyes of purple 
potatoes. Set these on the soil whole, about three 
inches apart, with the crown or the principal eye 
to the soil in preference ; but put no soil over 
them. Plant about the 20th of September, which 
allows from ten to twelve weeks for their growth ; 
the old potatoes also throw out numerous sprouts 



80 



HORTICULTUEE. 



or stalks, with many potatoes growing on thera. 
The original potatoes for planting whole, for sets 
in September, should be such as were of perfect 
growth in the October of the preceding year, and 
well preserved during the winter. The sprouts 
which shoot from them should be removed by the 
end of April; and these sprouts, which will be 
from fix to tnenty-six inches long, may be planted 
with all their fibres in a garden, for a first crop; 
about June 15 the potato sets may be sprit again, 
and the sprouts planted for a second crop; and in 
September the potato sets may be sprit a third 
time, and the sprouts of the last produce thrown 
away as useless. At the end of September the 
original or seed potato is to be gently placed on 
the soils, as before mentioned for a Christmas 
crop. At the end of three months at furthest the 
old potatoes should be carefully twisted from the 
new ones, and the sprouts taken off the old po- 
tato, and the old potato is then to be placed on its 
bottom or side, on a fresh bed of soil prepared as 
before, and left to produce another crop from fresh 
eyes placed next the soil ; as you are to observe 
that the old potato should not be set or placed 
twice on the same side, and you must take care 
at that time to remove the sprouts, to prevent the 
moisture from rotting the old potato. By the 
above method may be had four crops of new po- 
tatoes from one potato, exclusive of those pro- 
duced from the sprouts planted in the garden in 
April and June, from which may be obtained two 
crops of well-grown potatoes in September and 
October, weighing from ten to twelve ounces each. 
The crops were very plentiful, in proportion to the 
quantity planted. 

The potatoes are remarkably well flavored, and 
may be kept longer without prejudice after gath- 
ering, before dressed, than potatoes grown in the 
natural ground. 

To raise Peas in Atttumn. 
The purple-flowered peas are found to answer 
best for a late crop in autumn, as they are not so 
liable to be mildewed as many of the other sorts, 
and will continue flowering till the first crop stops 
them. These peas may be sown in July, August, 
or so late as the first week in September, if sown 
in a warm, sheltered situation, and in a soil in- 
clining to sand. Soak the peas in warm milk, and 
after you have drawn the drills water them before 
you sow the peas ; it is best to sow them towards 
the evening. If the autumn should prove very dry 
they will require frequent watering. When peas 
are sown before winter or early in spring, they are 
very apt to be eaten by mice. To prevent this, 
Boak the peas for a day or two in train oU before 
you sow them, which will encourage their vegeta- 
tion and render them so obnoxious to the mice 
that they will not eat them. 

To gate Peas in Circles instead of Straight Roics. 
It is a great error in those persons who sow the 
rows of tall-growing peas close together. It is 
much better in those sorts which grow six or eight 
feet high to have only one row, and then to leave 
a bed ten or twelve feet wide for onions, carrots, 
or any crops which do not grow tall. The advan- 
tages which will be derived are, that the peas will 
not be drawn up so much, be stronger, will flower 
much nearer the ground, and in wet weather can 
be more easily gathered without wetting you. But 
instead of sowing peas in straight rows, if you 
will form the ground into circles of three feet di- 
ameter, with a space of two feet between each 
circle, in a row thirty feet long, you will have six 
circles of peas, each nine feet, in all fifty-four feet 
of peas instead of thirty, on the same extent of 



ground. If you want more than one row of cir- 
cles leave a bed of ten or twelve feet before you 
begin another. For the very tall sorts four feet 
circles will afford more room for the roots to grow 
in, and care must be taken by applying some ten- 
der twigs or other support, to prevent the circles 
from joining each other. This method is equally 
applicable for scarlet beans. 
To prevent Miee from Destroying early-soicn Pens. 

The tops of furze, or whins, chopped and 
thrown into the drills, and thus covered up, by 
goading them in their attempts to scratch, is an 
effectual preventive. Sea sand strewed pretty 
thickly upon the surface has the same effect. It 
gets in their ears and is troublesome. 

To cultivate Common Garden Rhidiarh. 

It is not enough to give it depth of good soil, 
but it must be watered in drought, and in winter 
must be well covered with straw or dung. If this 
be attended to your rhubarb will be solid when 
taken out of the ground, and your kitchen, if a 
warm one, will soon fit it for use. 
To force Jihnboro. 

Cover plants of the rheum hybridura with com- 
mon garden-pots (number twelve), having their 
holes stopped. These are covered with ferment- 
ing dung and the plants come very fine and quick- 
ly, but are much broken by the sides and tops of 
the pots. After it is all well up the dung and 
pots are entirely taken off and large hand-glasses 
are substituted in their stead, thickly covered with 
mats every night and in dull weather. This pro- 
cess greatly improves their flavor, and gives a 
regular supply till that in the open air is ready 
for use. 

Another Method. 

Inclose and cover the bed with open frame- 
work, around and on which place the dung, and 
with this treatment the rhubarb will come up very 
regularly, be of excellent quality and want far 
less attention than is required by the former 
method, for the frame-work renders hand-glasses 
or any othen cover unnecessary. Care should be 
taken to lay the dung in such a manner that the 
top may be partly or wholly taken off at any time 
for the purpose of gathering or examination with- 
out disturbing the sides. 

This is a superior method of forcing the rheum 
hybridum, but still the forcing by pots will an- 
swer very well for any of the smaller-growing 
species. 

Third Method. 

To those who dislike the trouble of either frames 
or pots, it may be useful to know that rhubarb will 
come in much quicker by being covered about six 
inches thick with light litter; care should betaken 
in putting it on and removing it that no injury be 
done to the plants. 

To dry Ehubarl. 

The best method of drying rhubarb is to strip 
it off its epidermis. This is a long operation, but 
both time and expense are spared in the end by 
the promptness and regularity of the drying. 
Many cultivators of rhubarb on a large scale have 
repeated the experiment and have met with the 
most decisive results. 

To cure Rhubarb. 

The method of curing the true rhubarb is as 
follows : Take the roots up when the stalks are 
withering or dying away, clean them from the 
earth with a dry brush, cut them in small pieces 
of about four or five inches in breadth and about 
two in depth, taking away all the bark, and make 
a hole in the middle and string them on pack 



ONIONS AND ASPARAGUS. 



81 



thread, keeping every piece apart, and every 
aiciining. if the weiither is fine, place them in the 
open part of the garden on stages erected by pla- 
cing small posts about six feet high in the ground 
and six feet asunder, into which fix horizontal 
pegs about a foot apart, beginning at the top, and 
the rhubard being sprung crosswise on small 
poles, place them on these pegs, so that if it should 
rain you could easily remove each pole with the 
suspended pieces into any covered place. Never 
I ufiei- I hem to be out at night, as the damp moulds 
I hem. 

To cultivate Onions. 

Never use the hoe to the plant except it be for 
clearing the ground from weeds. When the onions 
have shot out their leaves to their full size, and 
Vfhen they begin to get a little brown at the top. 
clear away all the soil from the bulb down to the 
ring, from whence proceed the fibres of the roots, 
and thus form a basin round each bulb, which 
Cutches the rain and serves as a receptacle for the 
vater from the watering-pot. The old bulbs will 
then immediately begin to form new ones, and if 
they are kept properly moist and the soil is good 
the clusters will be very large and numerous. 
This is not the only advantage of this mode of 
treatment, as the bulbs thus grown above ground 
are much sounder than those formed beneath the 
surface, and will keep quite as well as any other 
Bort, which was not the case until this plan was 
adopted. 

By a particular mode of culture, the onion in 
this country may be grown nearly in form and 
size like those from Spain and Portugal. The 
seeds of the Spanish or Portugal onion should for 
this purpose be sown at the usual period in the 
spring, very thickly, and in poor soil, under the 
shade of apple or pear-trees. In autumn the bulbs 
will not be much larger than peas, when they 
should be taken from the soil and preserved until 
the succeeding spring, and then planted at some 
distance from each other, in a good soil, and ex- 
posed to the sun. The bulbs will often exceed five 
inches in diameter, and will keep throughout the 
winter much better than those cultivated in the 
usual manner. 

The Portuguese Mode of Cultivating Onions. 

They must first be raised on a nursery-bed, in 
the warmest and most sheltered part of the gar- 
den, as'early in the month of February as the sea- 
son will permit; as soon as the plants are strong 
enough to bear removal, that is to say, when they 
are about the thickness of a goose-quill, let some 
puddle be prepared with garden mould and water, 
with a small proportion of soot, the whole to be 
of the consistence of thick cream ; as the plants 
are drawn from the seed-bed, let their roots be in- 
stantlj' immersed in the puddle, and there remain 
till they are transplanted, where they are perma- 
nently to continue. The plants should be set out 
about six inches apart, and the ground kejtt per- 
fectly clear of weeds, and regularly refreshed with 
water in hot and dry weather. On this latter cir- 
cumstance will very much depend their size and 
mildnrss ; to this is owing the superiority of onions 
grown in Portugal, which are all cultivated in the 
way here recommended. By keeping the roots in 
puddle, if it were only for a few minutes, during 
the interval between the taking up and transplant- 
ing, they are prevented from receiving the slight- 
est check from the access of the atmospheric air, 
and will require no immediate watering when first 
r;ransplanted. 

To obtain a good Crop of Onions. 

In order to obtain a good crop of onions it is 
proper to sow at different seasons, viz., in light 
6 



soils, in August, January, or early in February ; 
and, in heavy wet soils, in March, or early in 
April. Onions, however, should not be sown in 
January, unless the ground be in a dry state, 
which is not often the case at so early a period of 
the season : but if so, advantage should be takea 
of it. 

To cultivate Asparagus. 

That part of the garden which is longest ex- 
posed to the sun, and least shaded by shrubs and 
trees, is to be chosen for the situation of the as- 
paragus quarter. A pit is then to be dug five feet 
in depth, and the mould which is taken from it 
must be sifted, taking care to reject all stones, 
even as low in size as a filbert nut. The best parts 
of the mould must then be laid aside for making 
up the beds. 

The materials of the beds are then to be laid in 
the following proportion and order: — 

Six inches of common dunghill manure; eight 
inches of turf; six inches of dung as before; six 
inches of sifted earth; eight inches of turf; six 
inches of very rotten dung; eight inches of the 
best earth. 

The best layer of earth must then be well mixed 
with the last of dung. The addition of salt to the 
earth of asparagus beds, especially in places far 
from the sea, is suggested by the natural habits 
of the plant. 

The quarter must now be divided into beds five 
feet wide, by paths constructed of turf, two feet 
in breadth, and one in thickness. The asparagus 
mu.st be planted about the end of March, eighteen 
inches asunder. In planting them, the bud or top 
of the shoot is to be placed at the depth of an inch 
and a half in the ground, while the roots must be 
spread out as widely as possible, in the form of an 
umbrella. A small bit of stick must be placed as 
a mark at each plant, as it is laid in the ground. 
As soon as the earth is settled and dry, a spadeful 
of fine sand is to be thrown on each plant, in the 
form of a mole-hill. If the asparagus plants 
should have begun to shoot before their transplan- 
tation, the young shoots should be cut off, and the 
planting will, with these precautions, be equally 
successful, though it should be performed in this 
country even as late as July. Should any of the 
plants originally inserted have died, they also may 
be replaced at this season. The plants ought to 
be two years old when they are transplanted; 
they will even take at three, but at four they are 
apt to fail. 

In three years the largest plants will be fit to out 
for use. If the buds be sufficiently large to furnish 
a supply in this manner, the asparagus shoots 
should be cut as fast as they appear; otherwise 
they must be left till the quantity required has 
pushed forth ; in which case the variety in color 
and size prevents them from having so agreeable 
an appearance. An iron knife is used for this 
purpose. 

The asparagus-bed now described will generally 
last thirty j'ears ; but if they be planted in such 
abundance as to require cutting only once in 
twenty-seven years, half the bed being always in 
a state of reservation, it will last a century or 
more. The turf used in making the beds should 
be very free from stones. 

Another Method. 
Make the bed quite flat, five feet wide, of good 
soil, without any dung, long or short; sow it with 
onions. Then sow two asparagus seeds (lest one 
should fail) about one inch deep, near each other; 
twelve inches each way sow two more; and if the 
spring is cold and dry let the wee<ls grow until 
rain comes. In October cover the bed with ma- 



82 



HOKTICULTUEE. 



Buro or mtten hot-bed. The next spring remove 
the weakest of the two plants, and keep the bed 
free from weeds. To raise seed, select the thick- 
est stems; after blossoming enough, take off the 
tops, to make the seed strong. This is also the 
best way to raise double ten-weeks and Brompton 
stocks. Six pounds are sufficient for any strong 
plant; setting them to flower near double ones is 
of no use. The excess in petal arises from cuiti- 
vaticm, and transplanting into rich soil; wild 
flowers are seldom double. Keep all small seeds 
in the pod until you sow them. 

To force Aipararjus. 

The pits in which succession pines are kept in 
the summer have at bottom a layer of leaves about 
eighteen inches deep, covered with the same thick- 
ness of tan, which becomes quite cold when the 
pines are removed. In one of the pits should be 
spread over the entire surface of the old tan a 
quantity of asparagus roots, and cover it with six 
inches more of tan, and apply linings of hot dung, 
and successively renew it round the sides, keep- 
ing up thereby»a good heat. The above mode was 
practised in the middle of December by Mr. Wil- 
liam Ross, and in five weeks the crop was fit for 
use. As soon as the shoots made their appear- 
ance, and during the day-time he took off the 
lights, introducing as much air as possible, which 
gave them a good natural color, and the size was 
nearly as large as if they had been produced in 
the open ground, at the usual season. 

To insure perfect success, it is expedient to 
have giiod roots to place in the bed; the usual 
plan of taking them from the exhausted old beds 
of the garden is bad. If they are past their best 
and unfit to remain in the garden, they cannot be 
in a good state for forcing. Young roots, four 
years old from the seed, are much preferable : 
they are costly if they are to be purchased every 
year; but where there is sufficient space a regular 
Bowing for this particular purpose should be made 
annually, and thus a succession of stock secured. 

To render Asparagus more Productive. 

In the formation of beds the male plants only 
should be selected, which may easily be done by 
not planting from the seed-bed until they have 
flowered. AVhen the plants are one year old 
transplant them into the other beds, at six inches 
distance; let them remain there until they flower, 
which will be in most of them in the second year; 
put a small stick to each male plant to mark it, 
and pull up the females, unless it is wished to 
make a small plantation with one of them to prove 
the truth of the experiment. 

Towards the end of July, especially if it be rainy 
weather, cut down the stalks of the asparagus, 
fork up the beds, and rake them smooth. If it be 
dry, water them with the draining of a dunghill ; 
but, instead of leaving them round, leave them 
rather flat or hollow in the middle, the better to 
retain the water or rain. In about twelve or four- 
teen days the asparagus will begin to appear, and 
if it be dry weather continue watering once or 
twice a week. By this method asparagus may be 
cut about the end of September; at which time 
the hot-beds will succeed this, so that by making 
five or six hot-beds during the winter, a regular suc- 
cession of it may be had every month of the year. 

To raise Capsicum and make Cayenne Pepper. 

Capsicum pepper is produced from the capsi- 
etm, which is raised for ornament, with many 
otter annual flowers, or for pickling the green 
pods, and is the seed and pod when ripe. In 
March or April procure some pods of any of the 
8ort.s of capsicums, as there are many varieties of 



them of different shapes; take out the seeds, ::nd 
sow them on a bed not too thick. When they are 
about four inches high prick them out on the hot- 
bed at six inches asunder, or put each into a small 
pot, or three into a large one, and keep them still 
under the glasses. In June, when the weather ia 
settled, plant them all in a warm situation in a 
rich earth, where they are to remain, s<ime on the 
borders of the flower garden and some into larger 
pots, which you can shelter in bad weather. 
To cultivate the Alpine Strawberry. 
The process consists of sowing the seed on a 
moderate hot-bed in the beginning of April, and 
removing the plants, as soon as they have acquired 
sufficient strength, to beds in the open ground. 
They will begin to blossom after midsummer, and 
afford an abundant late autumnal crop. This 
strawberry ought always to be treated as our an- 
nual plants. 

To cultivate Sea Kail. 
The seed is to be sown in the month of April in 
drills, on a good light dry soil; as the plants rise, 
thin them and keep them clean. The first winter 
earth them up to protect them from the frost; the 
following summer thin them to about eighteen 
inches distance, leaving the best plants. At 
Christmas take away the decayed leaves and cover 
up each plant with a large deep pan or flower-pot, 
upon which lay a quantity of the leaves of trees, 
to keep off the frost and create heat to the plants. 
Stable litter is sometimes used instead of leaves, 
but it is apt to give the plants a rank taste. In 
the following month of April the pots will be quite 
full of fine tender blanched shoots, which may be 
cut over by the ground (but not too near) and the 
stumps covered up again for a second crop. This 
may be repeated with the same plants two or three 
times during the spring, before the plants are left 
for summer's growth. With this .treatment the 
sea kail, if sufficiently boiled in two waters, will 
be found equal to any asparagus or brocoli, and 
may be eaten with butter, or butter and vinegar 
and pepper, as may suit the taste. The plant 
being a perennial one, will last for any length of 
time with proper culture. 

To cultivate Radishes to have them at all Seasons. 
Take seeds of the common radish and lay them 
in rain water to steep for twenty-four hours ; then 
put them quite wet into a small linen bag, well 
tied at the mouth with a packthread. If you 
have steeped a large quantity of seeds, you may 
divide them into several bags. Then expose the 
bags in a place where they will receive the great- 
est heat of the sun for about twenty-four hours, 
at the end of which time the seed will begin to 
grow, and you may then sow it in the usual man- 
ner in earth well exposed to the heat of the sun. 
Prepare two small tubs to cover each other exactly. 
These may be easily provided by sawing a small 
cask through the middle, and they will serve in 
winter; in summer one will be sufficient for each 
kind of earth that has been sown. As soon as you 
have sown your seeds you must cover them with 
your tub, and at the end of three days you will 
find radishes of the size and thickness of young 
lettuces, having at their extremities two small 
round leaves, rising from the earth, of a reddish 
color. These radishes, cut or pulled up, will be 
excellent if mixed with a salad, and they have a 
much more delicate taste than the common rad- 
ishes which are eaten with salt. 

By taking the following precautions you ma.y 
have them in the winter, and even during the 
hardest frosts. After having steeped the seeds in 
warm water, and exposed them to the sun as al 
ready directed, or in a place sufficiently hot to 



TO DESTROY INSECTS, 



83 



make them shoot forth, warm the two tubs ; till 
one of them with earth well diin<red; sow your 
seeds, thus prepared, in one of them, and cover 
it with the other tub; you must then be careful 
to sprinkle it with warm water as often as may be 
necessary. Then carry the two tubs closely joined, 
taking care they cover each other, into a warm 
vault or cellar, and at the end of fifteen days you 
may gather a fine salad. 

To increase Potnge Herbs. 
The manzel worzel would, if permitted to run 
up, grow to a great height, and afford a good 
plucking of potage vegetables twice a week in 
winter (only). It must be planted late, but may 
continue in the ground two or three years, when 
its roots will be wasted, the herbage become 
dwarfish, and it must be renewed by seed. 

To gtiard Cabbages from the Depreda.tions of Ca- 
terpillars. 

Sow with hemp all the borders of the ground 
wherein the cabbage is planted; and, although 
the neighborhood be infested with caterpillars, 
the space inclosed by the hemp will be perfectly 
free, and not one, of these vermin will approach it. 
y'o bullish the Red Spider. 

Cut off the infected leaf. The leaf once attacked 
soon decays and falls off; but in the mean time 
the animals remove to another, and the leaf, from 
the moment of attack, secuis to cease to perform 
its office; but persevere in the amputation, and 
the plants become healthy. 

To stop the Jiovayes of Caterpillars from Shrubs, 
Plants, and Vegetables. 

Take a chafing-dish with lighted charcoal, and 
place it under the branches of the tree or bush 
whereon are the caterpillars; then throw a little 
brimstone on the coals. The vapor of the sulphur, 
which is mortal to these insects, and the suffocat- 
ing fi.\ed air arising from the charcoal, will not 
only destroy all that are on the tree, but will 
effectually prevent the shrubs from being, at that 
season, infested with them. A pound of sulphur 
will clear as many trees as grow on several acres. 

Another method of driving these insects off fruit 
trees is to boil together a quantity of rue, worm- 
wood, and common tobacco (of each equal parts), 
in common water. The liquor should be very 
strong. Sprinkle this on the leaves and young 
branches every morning and evening during the 
time the fruit is ripening. 

To destroy Insects on Plants. 

Tie up some flowers of sulphur in a piece of 
muslin or fine linen, and with this the leaves of 
young shoots of plants should be dusted, or it ma}^ 
be thrown on them by means of a common swans- 
down puff, or even bj' a dredging box. 

Fresh assurances have repeatedly been received 
of the powerful influence of sulphur against the 
whole tribe of insects and worms which infest and 
prey on vegetables. Sulphur has also been found 
to promote the health of plants on which it was 
sprinkled ; and that peach-trees in particular were 
remarkably improved by it, and seemed to absorb 
it. It has been likewise observed that the verdure 
and other healthful appearances were perceptibly 
increased; for the quantity of new shoots and 
leaves formed subsequently to the operation, and 
having no sulphur on their surfaces, served as a 
kind of comparative index, and pointed out dis- 
tinctly the accumulation of health. 

I To cultivate the Sunfower. 

The sunflower, kidney-beans, and potatoes, 
mixed together, agree admirably, the neighbor- 
hood of the sunflower proving advantageous to 



the potato. It is a well-authenticated fact that, 
with careful attention, the sunflower will make 
excellent oil. 

The marc or refuse of the sunflower, after the 
oil is expressed, may be prepared as a light viand 
for hogs and goats, pigeons and poultry, which 
will banquet on it to satiety. Query, would it not 
make good oilcakes for fattening pigs? if brought 
into notice it might become an object of magni- 
tude. Forty-eight pounds of sunflower will pro- 
duce twelve pounds of oil. In fine, I esteem it a> 
Worthy of consideration ; for 1. In the scale of ex- 
cellence, it will render the use of grain for fee<ling 
hogs, poultry, pigeons, etc. completely unneces- 
sary. 2. As it resembles olive oil, would it not 
be found, <>d examination, competent to supply its 
place ? Whatever may be the points of difference, 
it certainly may be serviceable in home consump- 
tion and manufactures. 3. Its leaves are to be 
plucked as they become yellow, and dried. 4. It 
affords an agreeable and wholesome food to sheep 
and rabbits. To goats and rabbits the little 
branches are a delicious and luxurious gratifica- 
tion, as is also the disc of the pure flower, after 
the grains have been taken out. Rabbits eat the 
whole, except the woody part of the plant, which 
is well adapted for the purpose of fuel. 6. Its al- 
kalic qualities appear to deserve notice; forty- 
eight quintals j-ielil eighty pounds of alkali, a 
l>roduce four times superior to that of any other 
plant we are acquainted with, maize excepted, 
t). Might it not be used as a lye? And minuter 
observation might convert it into soap, the basis 
of both being oil. 

Dig and trench about it, as both that and the 
potato love new earths. Let the rows be twenty- 
nine inches distant from each other, and it will 
be advantageous, as the turnsole loves room. 

Three grains are to be sown distant some inches 
from each other, and. when their stems are from 
eight to twelve inches high, the finest of the three 
j only to be left. Twc tufts of French beans to be 
planted with potatoes. The French beans will 
climb up the side of the sunflower, which will act 
and uniformly support like sticks, and the sun- 
flower will second this disposition, by keeping off 
the great heat from the potato, and produce more 
than if all had been planted with potatoes. 

Each sunflower will produce one or two pounds, 
and the acre will bring in a vast amount, or con- 
tain one thousand pounds, being one-third mure 
than grain. 

To economize the Sunflower. 

The cultivation of the annual sunflower is re- 
commended to the notice of the public, possessing 
the advantage of furnishing abundance of agree- 
able fodder for cattle in their leaves. When in 
flower bees flock from all quarters to gather honey. 
The seed is valuable in feeding sheep, pigs, and 
other animals; it produces a striking effect in 
poultry, as occasioning them to lay more eggs, 
and it yields a large quantity of excellent oil by 
pressure. The dry stalks burn well, the ashes 
affording a considerable quantity of alkali. 

To remove Herbs and Flowers in the Summer, 
If you have occasion to transplant in the sum- 
mer season, let it be in the evening, after the heat 
is passed. Plant and water the same immedi- 
ately, and there will be no danger from the heat 
next day; but be careful in digging up the earth 
you do not break any of the young shoots, as the 
sap will exude out of the same, to the great danger 
of the plants. 

Method of Groxoing Flowers in Winter. 
In order to produce this effect the trees or 



84 



HORTICULTURE. 



shrubs, being taken up in the spring, at the time 
when they are about to bud, with some of their 
own soil cirefully preserved among the roots, 
must be placed upright in a celbar till Miehael- 
mns; when, with the addition of fresh earth, they 
are to be put into proper tubs or vessels, and 
placed in a stove or hot-house, where they must 
every morning be moistened or refreshed with a 
solution of half an ounce of sal-ammoniac in a 
pint of rain-water. Thus, in the month of Feb- 
ruary, fruits or roses will appear; and, with re- 
spect to flowers in general, if they are sown in 
pots at or before Michaelmas, and watered in a 
similar manner, they will blow at Christmas. 

To preserve Wood from Insects. 
In the East Indies aloes are employed as a var- 
nish to preserve wood from worms and other 
insects ; and skins, and even living animals, are 
anointed with it for the same reason. The havoc 
committed by the white ants, in India, first sug- 
gested the trial of aloe juice to protect wood from 
them, for which purpose the juice is either used 
as extracted, or in solution by some solvent. 

To preserve Young Shoots from Slugs and Earicigs. 
Earwigs and slugs are fond of the points of the 
young shoots of carnations and pinks, and are very 
troublesome in places where they abound; to pre- 
Tent theu) they are sometimes insulated in water, 
being set in cisterns or pans. If a pencil dipped 
in oil was drawn round the bottom of the pots 
once in two days, neither of these insects or ants 
would attempt them. Few insects can endure oil, 
and the smallest quantity of it stops their progress. 

Vegetable Liquor to hasten the Blowing of Bulbous- 
Rooted Fhnoers. 

Take nitre, 3 ounces; common salt, 1 ounce; 
potash, 1 ounce; sugar, ^ ounce; rain-water 1 
pound.' Dissolve the salts in a gentle heat, in a 
glazed earthen pot, and when the solution is com- 
jjlete add the sugar, and filter the whole. Put 
about eight drops of this liquor into a glass jar, 
filled with rain or river-water. The jars must be 
kept always full, and the water removed every ten 
or twelve days, adding each time a like quantity 
of the liquor. The tlowers also must be placed 
on the corner of a chimney-piece, where a fire is 
regularly kept. The same mixture may be em- 
ployed for watering flowers in pots, or filling the 
dishes in which they are placed, in order to keep 
the earth, or the bulbs or plants which they con- 
tain, in a state of moisture. 

To restore Floioers, 

Most flowers begin to droop and fade after being 
kept during twenty-four hours in water; a few 
may be revived by substituting fresh water, but 
all (the most fugacious, such as poppy, and per- 
haps one or two others excepted,) may be restored 
by the use of hot water. For this purpose place 
the flowers in scalding hot water, deep enough to 
eovrr about one-third of the length of the stem; 
by I he time the water has become cold the flowers 
will have become erect and fresh ; then cut off the 
coddled ends of the stems and put them into cold 
water. ^ 

To preserve Flower Seeds. 

Those who are curious about saving flower seeds 
must attend to them in the month of August. 
Many kinds will begin to ripen apace, and should 
be carefully slicked and supported to prevent 
them from being shaken by high winds, and so 
partly lost. Others should be defended from 
much wet, such as asters, marygolds, and gener- 
ally those of the class syngenesia, as from the 
construction of their flowers they are apt to rot, 



and the seeds to mould in bad seasons. When- 
ever they are thought ripe, or sooner in wei 
weather, they should be removed to an airy shed 
or loft, gradually dried and rubbed or beat out 
at convenience. When dried wrap them up in 
papers or in tight boxes containing powdered 
charcoal. 

To improve all sorts of Seeds. 
Charles Miller, son of the celebrated botanist, 
published a recipe for fertilizing seed, and tried it 
on wheat, by mixing lime, nitre and pigeon's 
dung in water, and therein steeping the seed. 
The produce of some of these grains is stated at 
sixty, seventy and eighty stems, many of the ears 
five inches long, and fifty corns each, and none 
less than forty. 

To preserve Seeds for a long time. 
When seeds are to be preserved longer than the 
usual period, or when they are to be sent to a 
great distance, sugar, salt, cotton, saw-dust, sand, 
paper, etc., have been adopted with different de- 
grees of success. Chinese seeds, dried by means 
of sulphuric acid, in Leslie's manner, may be af- 
terwards preserved in a vegetating state for any 
necessary length of time by keeping them in an 
airy situation in any common brown paper, and oc- 
casionally exposing them to the air on a fine day, 
especially after damp weather. This method will 
succeed with all the larger mucilaginous seeds. 
Very small seeds, berries and oily seeds may pro- 
bably require to be kept in sugar, or among cur- 
rants or raisins. 

To preserve Exotic Seeds. 

Five years ago, says a correspondent of the 
Monthly Magazine, I had a collection of seeds 
sent me from Scrampoore, in the East Indies, 
which have been since that period kept in small 
bottles in a dry situation, without corks; last 
spring som* of them were sown, and produced 
strong, healthy plants, under the following sys- 
tem ; but if taken from the bottles and sown in 
the ordinary way I have found them either to fail 
altogether or to produce germination so weak that 
the greatest care can never bring them to any 
perfection. 

I have long observed that oxygen is necessary 
to animal and vegetable life, and that soil which 
has imbibed the greatest proportion of that air or 
gas yields the strongest germination, and with the 
least care produces the best and most healthy 
plants; under that impression I prepare the soil 
by adding to it a compost made from decayed 
vegetables, night soil and fresh earth, well mixed 
together and turned several times ; but should the 
weather be dry I have generally found the com- 
post better by adding water to keep it moist. On 
the evening before I intended to sow the seeds I 
have immersed them in a weak solution of chlo- 
rine, and suff'ered them to remain until they begun 
to swell. 

By pursuing this treatment even with our En- 
glish annual seeds, I am gratified with an earlier 
germination and with generally stronger and more 
healthy plants. 

To dry Flowers. 

They should be dried off as speedily as possi- 
ble, the calyces, claws, etc., being previously taken 
off; when the flowers are very small the calyx is 
left, or even the whole flowering spike, as in the 
greatest portion of the labiate flowers ; compound 
flowers with pappous seeds, as coltsfoot, ought to 
be dried verj' high and before they are entirely 
opened, otherwise the slight moisture that re- 
mains would develope the pappi, and these would 
form a kind of cottony nap, which would be very 



TO PRESERVE VEGETABLES AND FRUIT. 



85 



hurtful in infusions, by leaving irritating parti- 
cles in the throat. Flowers of little or no suiell 
may be dried in a heat of 75° to 100° Fahr.; the 
suoculcnt petals of the liliaceous phuits, whose 
odor is very fiigaceous, cannot well be dried ; sev- 
eral sorts of flowering tops, as those of lesser cen- 
taury, lily of the valley, wormwood, niellilot, wa- 
ter germander, etc., are tied up in small parcels 
and hung up, or exposed to the sun, wrapped in 
paper cornets, that they may not be discolored. 
The color of the petals of red roses is preserved 
by their being quickly dried with beat, after which 
the yellow anthers are separated bj' sifting; the 
odor of roses and red pinks is considerably in- 
creased by drying. 

To dry Tops, Leaves, or Whole Herbs. 

They should be gathered in a dry season, 
cleansed from discolored and rotten leaves, 
screened from earth or dust, placed on handles 
covered with blotting paper and e.xposed to the 
sun or the heat of a stove, in a dry, airy place. 
The quicker they are dried the better, as they 
have less time to ferment or grow mouldy: hence 
they should be spread thin and frequently turned ; 
when dried they should be shaken in a large 
meshed sieve to get rid of the eggs of any insects. 
Aromatic herbs ought to be dried qiiici\ly with a 
moderate heat, that their odor may not be lost. 
Cruciierous jdauts should not be dried, as in that 
case they lose much of their antiscorbutic qualities. 
Some persons have proposed to dry herbs in a 
water bath, but this occasions them, as it were, to 
be half boiled in their own water. 
Tu dry Roots. 

They should be rubbed in water to get rid of 
the dirt and also some of the mucous substance 
that wouM otherwise render them mouldy; the 
larger are then to be cut, split, or peeled, but in 
most aromatic roots, the odor residing in the hark, 
they must not be peeled; they are then to be 
spread on sieves or hurdles and dried in a heat of 
about 120° Fahr. either on the top of an oven, in a 
stove, or a steam closet, taking care to shake them 
occasionally to change the surface exposed to the 
air. Thick and juicy roots, as rhubarb, briony, 
peony, waier-lily, etc., are cut in slices, strung 
upon a thread and hung in a heat of about 90° to 
100° Fahr. Squills are scaled, threaded and 
dried round the tube of a German stove, or in a 
hot closet. Rhubarb should be washed to sefia- 
rate that mucous principle which would otherwise 
render it black and soft when powdered. Pota- 
toes are cut in slices and dried. 

To preserve Hoots. 

These are preserved in different ways, according 
to the object in view. Tuberous roots, as those 
of the dahlia, paeonia, tuberose, etc., intended to 
be planted in the succeeding spring, are preserved 
through the winter in dry e.irth, in a temperature 
lather under than above what is natural to them. 
So may the bulbous roots of commerce, as hya- 
cinths, tulips, onions, etc., but for convenience, 
these are kept cither loose, in cool dry shelves or 
lofts, or the finer sorts in papers, till the season 
of planting. 

Roots of all kinds may be preserved in an ice- 
house till the return of the natural crop. 

After stufiing the vacuities with straw, and 
covering the surface of the ice with the same 
material, place on it case boxes, casks, baskets, 
etc., and fill them with turnips, carrots, beet- 
roots, and in particular potatoes. By the cold of 
the place vegetation is so much suspended that 
all these articles may be thus kept fresh and un- 
injured till they give place to another crop in its 
natural reason. 



To gather Vef/etables. 
This is, in part, performed with a knife, and in 
part by fracture or torsion with the hand. In all 
cases of using the knife, the general principle of 
cutting is to be attended to, leaving also a sound 
section on the living plant. Gathering with the 
hand ought to be done as little as possible. 

To preserve Vegetables. 
This is effected in cellars or sheds, of any tem- 
perature, not lower nor much above the freezing- 
point. Thus cabbages, endive, chicory, lettuce, 
etc., taken out of the ground with their main 
roots, in perfectly dry weather, at the end of the 
season, and laid on, or partially immersed in sand 
or dry earth, in a close shed, cellar, or ice-oold 
room, will keep through the winter, and be fit for 
use till spring, and often till the return of the sea/- 
son of their produce in the garden. 

Time for Gathering Fruits. 

This should take place in the middle of a dry 
day. Piums readily part from the twigs when 
ripe ; they should not be much handled, as the 
bloom is apt to be rubbed off. Apricots may be 
accounted ready when the side next the sun ieels 
a little soft upon gentle pressure with the finger. 
They adhere firmly to the tree, and would over- 
ripen on it and become mealy. Peaches and nec- 
tarines, if moved upwards, and allowed to descend 
with a slight jerk, will separate, if ready ; and 
they may be received into a tin funnel lined with 
velvet, so as to avoid touching with the fingers or 
bruising. 

A certain rule for judging of the ripeness of figg 
is to notice when the small end of the fruit be- 
comes of the same color as the large one. 

The most transparent grapes are the most ripe. 
All the berries in a bunch never ripen equally; 
it is therefore proper to cut away unripe or de- 
cayed berries before presenting the bunches at 
table. 

Autumn and winter pears are gathered, when 
dry, as they successively ripen. 

Immature fruit never keeps so well as that 
which nearly approaches maturity. Winter ap- 
ples should be left on the trees till there be dan- 
ger of frost; they are then gathered on a dry day. 

To gather Orchard Fruits. 

In respect to the time of gathering, the crite- 
rion of ripeness, adopted by Forsyth, is their 1; - 
ginning to fall from the tree. Observe attentiveiy 
when the apples and pears are ripe; and do not 
pick them always at the same regular time of the 
year, as is the practice with many. A dry season 
will forward the ripening of fruit, and a wet one 
retard it so that there will sometimes be a month's 
difference in the proper time for gathering. If 
this is attended to the fruit will keep well, and be 
plump, and not shrivelled, as is the case with all 
fruit that is gathered before it is ripe. 

The art of gathering is to give them a lift, so as 
to press away the stalk, and if ripe, they readily 
part from the tree. Those that will not come off 
easily should hang a little longer; for when they 
come off hard they will not be so fit to store ; 
and the violence done at the foot-stalk may injure 
the bud there formed for the next year's fruit. 

Let the pears be quite dry when pulled, and in 
handling avoid pinching the fruit, or in any way 
bruising it, as those which are hurt not only de- 
cay themselves, but presently spread infection to 
those near them : when suspected to be bruised, 
let them be carefully kept from others, and used 
first; as gathered, lay them gently in shallow 
baskets 



86 



HORTICULTURE. 



To preserve Green Frmts. 

Green fruits are generally preserved by pick- 
ling or salting, and this operation is usually per- 
formed by some part of the domestic establish- 
ment. 

To preserve Ripe Fruit. 

Saob ripe fruit as may be preserved is generally 
laid up in lofts and bins, or shelves, when in large 
quantities, and of baking qualities ; but the better 
Borts of apples and pears are now preserved in a 
♦ystfifi of drawers, sometimes spread out in them ; 
at other times wrapped up in papers, or placed in 
pots, cylindrical earthen vessels, among sand, 
moss, paper, chaff", hay, saw-dust, etc., or sealed 
op in air-tight jars or casks, and placed in the 
fruit-cellar. 

To preserve Pears. 

Having prepared a number of earthen-ware 
jars, and a quantity of dry moss, place a layer of 
moss and pears alternately till the jar is filled, 
then insert a plug, and seal around with melted 
rosin. These jars are sunk in dry sand to the 
depth of a foot ; a deep cellar is preferable for 
keeping them to any fruit-room. 

Another Method. 

Choice apples and pears are preserved in glazed 
jars, provided with covers. In the bottom of the 
jars, and between each two layers of fruit, put some 
pure pit-sand, which has been thoroughly dried. 
The jars are kept in a dry, airy situation, as cool 
as possible, but secure from frost. A label on the 
jar indicates the kind of fruit, and when wanted 
it is taken from the jar and placed for some time 
on the shelves of the fruit-room. 

In this way Colmarts, and other fine French 
penrs may be preserved till April ; the Terling till 
June; and many kinds of apples till July, the 
skin remaining. 

To preserve Apples and Pears. 

Tlie most successful method of preserving ap- 
ples and pearsis by placing them in glazed earthen 
vessels, each containing about a gallon, and sur- 
rounding each fruit with paper. These vessels 
being perfect cylinders, about a foot each in 
height, stand very conveniently upon each other, 
and thus present the means of preserving a large 
quantity of fruit in a very small room ; and if the 
space between the top of one vessel and the base 
of another be filled with a cement composed of two 
parts of the curd of skimmed milk, and one of 
lime, by which the air will be excluded, the later 
kinds of apples and pears will be preserved with 
little change in their appearance, and without any 
danger of decay, from Octoi)er till February or 
March. A dry and cold situation, in which there 
is little change of temperature, is the best for the 
vessels; but the merits of the pears are gre.itly 
increased by their being taken from the vessels 
about ten days before they are wanted for use, 
and kept in a warm room, for warmth at this, as 
at other periods, accelerates the maturity of the 
pear. 

To preserve various sorts of Fruit. 

By covering some sorts of cherry, plum, goose- 
berry and currant trees, either on walls or on 
bushes with mats, the fruit of the red and white 
currant, and of the thicker-skinned gooseberry- 
trees, may be preserved till Christmas and later. 
Grapes, in the open air, may be preserved in the 
same manner; and peaches and nectarines may 
be kept a month hanging on the trees after they 
are ripe. 

Arkwright, by late forcing, retains plump grapes 
on his vines till the beginning of May, and even 
later, till the maturity of his early crops. In this 



way grapes may be gathered every day in the 
year. 

Another Method. 
But the true way to preserve keeping-fruit, 
such as the apple and pear, is to put them in air- 
tight vessels, and place them in the fruit cellar, in 
a temperature between thirty-two and forty de- 
grees. In this way all the keeping sorts of these 
fruits may be preserved in perfect order for eating 
for one year after gathering. 

To store Fruit. 

Those to be used first, lay by singly on shelvei 
or on the floor, in a dry southern room, on clean 
dry moss or sweet dry straw, so as not to touch 
one another. Some, or all the rest, having first 
laid a fortnight singly, and then nicely culled, aro 
to be spread on shelves or on a dry floor. But 
the most superior way is to pack in large earthen, 
China or stone jars, with very dry long muss at 
the bottom, sides, and also between them if 
possible. Press a good coat of moss on the top, 
and then stop the mouth close with cork or other- 
wise, which should be rosined round about with a 
twentieth part of beeswax in it. Baked saw-dust 
will do as well. As the object is effectually to 
keep out air (the cause of putrefaction), the jars, 
if earthen, may be set on dry sand, which put also 
between, round and over them, to a font thick on 
the top. In all close storing, observe there should 
be no doubt of the soundness of the fruit. Guard 
in time from frost those that lie open. Jars of 
fruit must be soon used after unsealing. 

To Jceep Apples and Pears for IfnrJcet. 

Those who keep their fruit in storehouses for 
the supply of the London and other markets, as 
well as those who have not proper fruit-rooms, 
may keep their apples and pears in baskets or 
hampers, putting some soft paper in the bottoms 
and round the edges of the baskets, etc., to keep 
the fruit from being bruised ; then put in a layer 
of fruit, and over that another layer of paper; and 
so on, a layer of fruit and of paper alternately, 
till the basket or hamper be full. Cover the top 
with paper three or four times thick to exclude 
the air and frost as much as possible. Every dif- 
ferent sort of fruit should be placed separately; 
and it will be proper to fix a label to each basket 
or hamper, with the name of the fruit that it con- 
tains, and the time of its being fit for use. 
Another Wai/. 

Another way of keeping fruit is to pack it in 
glazed earthern jars. The pears or apples must 
be separately wrapped up in soft paper, then put 
a little well-dried bran in the bottom of the jar, 
and over the bran a layer of fruit; then a little 
more bran to fill up the interstices between the 
fruit, and to cover it; and so on, a layer of fruit 
and bran alternately, till the jar be full: then 
shake it gently, which will make the fruit and 
bran sink a little; fill up the vacancy at top with 
a piece of bladder to exclude the air ; then put on 
the top or cover of the jar, observing that it fitJ 
as closely as possible. These jars should he key i 
in a room where there can be a fire in wet or damp 
weather. 

Nieol considers it an error to sweat apples pre- 
viously to storing them. The fruit ever after re- 
tains a bad flavor. It should never be laid in 
heaps at all ; but if quite dry when gathered 
should be immediately carried to the fruit-room, 
and be laiil, if not singly, at least tiiiii on toe 
shelves. If the finer fraits are placed on any- 
thing else than a clean shelf, ii should lie on fine 
paper. Brown paper gives liiein the fl^ivor of 
pitch. The fine larger kinds oi' pears should not 



TO PACK FRUIT. 



87 



be allc »?ed even to touch one another, but should 
be laid quite single and distinct. Apples, and all 
oriliiiarv jiears, should be laid thin ; never tier above 
tier. Fiee air should be ndinitted to the fruit- 
loom always in good weather, for several hours 
every day; and in damp weather a fire should be 
kept in it. Be careful at all times to excluile 
frost from the fruit, and occasionally to turn it 
when very mellow. 

To preserve Frtiits or Flotcers. 
Mix one pound of nitre with two pounds of sal 
aniHuiniac .nnd three pounds of clean common 
sand. In dry weather take fruit of any sort not 
fully ripe, allowing the stalks to remain, and put 
them one by one into an open glass, till it is quite 
full; cover the glass with oiled cloth, closely tied 
down ; put the glass three or four inches into the 
earth in a dry cellar, and surround it On all sides, 
to the depth of three or four inches, with the 
above mixture. This method will preserve the 
fruit quite fresh all the year round. 

To preserve Walnuts. 
Walnuts for keeping should be suffered to drop 
of themselves, and afterwards laid in an open airy 
place till thoroughly dried; then pack them in 
jars, bo.\es or casks, with fine clean sand that has 
been well dried in the sun, in an oven, or before 
the fire, in laj'ers of sand and walnuts alternately ; 
set them in a dry place, but not where it is too 
hot. In this manner they have been kept good 
till the latter end of April. Before sending them 
to table wipe the sand clean off: and if they have 
become shrivelled, steep them in milk and water 
for six or eight hours before they are used; this 
will make them plump and fine, and cause them 
to peel easily. 

To preserve Chestnuts and Filberts. 

The chestnut is to be treated like the walnut 
after the husk is removed, which in the chestnut 
opens of itself. Chestnuts and walnuts may be 
preserved during the whole winter by covering 
them with earth, as cottagers do potatoes. 

Filberts may always be gathered by hand, and 
should afterwards be treated as the walnut. Nuts 
intended for keeping should be packed in jars or 
boies of dry sand. 

To preserve Medlars and Quinces. 
The medlar is not good till rotten ripe. It is 
generally gathered in the beginning of November, 
and placed between two layers of straw to forward 
its maturation. Others put medlars in a box on a 
three-inch layer of fresh bran, moistened well 
with soft warm water; then strew a laj'er of straw 
between them, and cover with fruit two inches 
thick, which moisten also, but not so wet as before. 
In a week or ten days after this operation they 
will be fit for use. 

Quinces are gathered in November, when they 
are general!}' ripe. After sweating in a heap for 
a few days, they are to be wiped dry and placed 
on the fruit-shelf, at some distance from each 
other. 

To pack Fruit for Carriocje. 
If fruit is to be sent to any considerable dis- 
tance, great care should be taken in packing it. 
It should not be done in baskets, as they are liable 
to be bruised among heavy luggage, and the fruit 
of course will be impaired. Fors3-th, therefore, 
recommends boxes made of strong deal, of differ- 
ent sizes, according to the quantity of fruit to be 
packed. The following are the dimensions of the 
boxes in which fiuit used to be sent by the coach 
to Windsor and Weymouth, for the use of the 
royal family : 



The larger box is two feet long, fourteen inches 
broad, and the same in depth. The smaller box 
is one foot, nine inches long, one foot broad, and 
the same in depth. These boxes are made of inch 
deal, and well secured with three iron clamps at 
each corner; they have two small iron handles, 
one at each end, by which they are fastened to the 
roof of the coach. In these boxes are sent melons, 
cherries, currants, pears, peaches, nectarines, plums 
and grapes; they are first wrapped in pine leaves, 
and then in paper. The Sherries and currants are 
first packed in a flat tin box one foot four inchea 
long, ten inches broad and four deep. 

In packing, proceed thus : First put a layer of 
fine, long, dry moss in the bottom of the tin box, 
then a layer of currants or cherries, then another 
layer of moss, and so on alternately fruit and 
moss until the box is so full that when the lid is 
hasped down the fruit may be so finely packed as 
to preserve them from friction. Then make a 
layer of fine moss and short, soft, dry grass, well 
mixed, in the bottom of the deal box; pack in the 
melons with some of the same, tight in between 
all the rows, and also between the melons in the 
same row, till the layer is finished, choosing the 
fruit as nearly of a size as possible, filling up 
every interstice with the moss and grass. When 
the melons are packed, put a thin layer of moss 
and grass over them, upon which place the tin 
box with the currants, packing it firmly all round 
with moss to prevent it from shaking; then put a 
thin layer of moss over the box and pack the 
pears firmly (but so as not to bruise them) on that 
layer in the same manner as the melons, and so 
on with the peaches, nectarines, plums, and lastly 
the grapes, filling up the box with moss, that the 
lid may shut down so tight as to prevent any fric- 
tion among the fruit. The boxes should have 
locks and two keys, which may serve for them all, 
each of the persons who pack and unpack the 
fruit having a key. The moss and grass should 
always be returned in the boxes, which, with a 
little addition, will serve the whole season, being 
shaken up and well aired after each journey, and 
keeping it sweet and clean. After the wooden box 
is locked cord it firmly. 

If fruit be packed according to the above di- 
rections, it may be sent to great distances by 
coaches or wagons with perfect safety. 

Other Methods of Packing Fruit. 

Fruits of the most delicate sorts are sent from 
Spain and Italy to England, packed in jui - .vith 
saw-dust from woods not resinous or otherwise ill 
tasted. One large branch of grapes is suspended 
from a twig or pin laid across the mouth of the 
jar, so that it may not touch either the bottom or 
si<les ; saw-dust or bran is then strewed in, and 
when full the jar is well shaken to cause it to set- 
tle ; more is then added till it is quite full, when 
the supporting twig is taken away, and the earthen 
cover of the jar closely fitted and sealed, gener- 
ally with fine stucco. 

In the same way grapes may be sent from the 
remotest part of Scotland or Ireland to the me- 
tropolis. AVhen the distance is less they may be 
sent enveloped in fine paper and packed in mess. 
The simplest mode for short distances is to wrap 
each bunch in tine, soft paper, and lay them on a 
bed of moss in a broad, flat basket with a proper 
cover. 

Cherries and plums may be packed in tnin lay- 
ers, with paper and moss between each. 

Peaches, apricots, and the finer plums may 'iach 
be wrapped separately in vine or other leaves, or 
fine paper, and packed in abundance of cotton, 
flax, fine moss, or dried short grass. Moss is ap« 



88 



HORTICULTURE. 



to communicate its flavor to fine fruits, and so is 
short grass, if not thoroughly dried and sweet- 
ened. Cotton best preserves the bloom on peaches 
and plums. 

To preserve Grapes. 

Where there are several bunches in one branch, 
it may be cut off, leaving about six inches in 
length or more of the wood, according to the dis- 
tiince between the bunches, and a little on the out- 
side of the fruit at each end; seal both ends with 
common bottle wax, then hang them across a line 
in a dry room, taking care to clip out with a pair 
of scissors any of the berries that begin to decay 
or become mouldy, which, if left, would taint the 
Others. In this way grapes may be kept till Feb- 
ruary, but if cut before the bunches are too ripe, 
they may be kept much longer. 

Grapes may be kept by packing them in jnrs 
(everj- bunch being first wrapped up in soft pa- 
per), and covering every layer with bran well dried, 
laying a little of it in the bottom of the jar, then 
a layer of grapes, and so on, a layer of bran and 
of grapes alternately till the jar is filled ; then 
shake it gently and fill it to the top with bran, 
laying some paper over it and covering the top 
with a bladder tied firmly on to exclude the air ; 
then put on the top or cover of the jar, observing 
that it fits close. These jars should be placed in 
a room where a fire can be kept in wet, damp 
weather. 

French. Method of Preserving Grapes. 
Take a cask or barrel inaccessible to the exter- 
nal air, and put into it a layer of bran dried in an 
oven, or of ashes well dried and sifted. Upon 
this place a layer of bunches of grapes, well 
cleaned, and gathered in the afternoon of a dry 
day, before they are perfectly ripe. Proceed thus 
■with alternate layers of bran and griipes till the 
barrel is full, taking care that the grapes do not 
touch each other, and to let the last layer be of 
bran ; then close the barrel, so that the air may 
not be able to penetrate, which is an essential 
point. Grapes thus packed will keep nine or even 
twelve mcjnths. To restore them to their fresh- 
ness, cut the end of the stalk of each bunch of 
grapes and put that of white grapes into white 
wine and that of black grapes into red wine, as 
flowers are put into water to revive or to keep 
them fresh. 

To pack Young Trees for Exportation. 
The long, white moss of the marshes, sphag- 
num palustre, mny be applied for this purpose. 
Squeeze one part of the moisture from the uioss, 
and lay courses of it about three inches thick, in- 
terposed with other courses of the trees, short- 
ened in their branches and roots, stratum above 
stratum, till the box is filled ; then let the whole 
be trodden down and the lid properly secured. 
The trees will want no care even during a voyage 
of ten or twelve months, the moss being retentive 
of moisture, and appearing to possess an anti- 
septic property which prevents fermentation or 
putrefaction. Vegetation will proceed during the 
time the trees remain inclosed, shoots arising both 
fi' ■11 the branches and roots, which, however, are 
!■ .. ched and tender, for want of light aud air, to 
which the trees require to be gradually inured. 
This moss is very common in most parts of Eu- 
rope and America. 

How to dry Sweet Corn. 

When the corn is in good condition for eating, 

the grains being fully grown, boil a quantity of 

ears just enough to cook the starch, and then let 

them dry a few hours, and then shell or cut off 



the grains and spread them in the sun till dried. 
The best way to dry the corn is to nail a piece of 
cloth of very open texture on a frame, which, if 
two feet wide and five long, will be of a conve- 
nient size to bundle. If the corn is spread thinly 
upon this cloth it will dry quickly without sour- 
ing. It should be covered with a mosquito net- 
ting to keep off the flies. Another person gives 
the following directions for drying sweet corn : 
As soon as the corn is fit for the table, husk and 
spread the ears in an open oven or some quickly- 
drying place. When the grains loosen shell the 
corn, or shell as soon as you can ; then spread 
upon a cloth to dry in the sun, or on paper in a 
warm oven; stir often, that it may dry quickly, 
and not overheat. It more resembles the undried 
by its being whole, is sweeter and retains more of 
its natural flavor by drying fistor. When wholly 
dried expose it to the wind by turning it slowly 
from dish to dish ; the wind blows off all the trou- 
blesome white chaff. 

Flower Gardening. 

Autumn is the best time to miinure a flower 
garden. It should be done once a year, and bet- 
ter in spring (Ajiril) than not at all. Lay on four 
inches deeji of well-rotted manure, and dig it in 
at once. During the summer the earth will need 
now and then to be stirred with a hoe or rake; 
but in May it should always be thoroughly dug 
over with a spade, avoiding of course the plants 
in the bed. In May transplanting, setting of 
bulbs, or bedding plants and sowing seeds may be 
done. 

AVeeding can be best done by hand, early in the 
morning; letting the sun kill the weeds that are 
pulled up. 

Never water, unless the soil evidently requires 
it. Clayey soils seldom need it; loose and sandy 
more often. Use always a watering-pot, with a 
rose, to sprinkle gently, without pouring or dash- 
ing. Rain-water is the best; it may be collected 
in a hogshead from a roof-spout. Very cold water 
should never be used for flowers : better too warm 
than too cold. 

Shade-trees spoil a garden, but it should be 
protected from a strong wind. 

Shrubbery. 

To plant shrubs, dig for each a hole two or three 
feet in diameter; fill with rich loam ; set the shrub 
or small tree in the middle, and tread it firm. If 
it droop, syringe or sprinkle it at night, or set a 
flower-pot near the root and till it with water to 
soak down. 

Prune shrubs only to avoid too great irregular- 
ity of shape or to remove dead parts. 

For the winter, tender plants require to be tied 
up in cedar boughs or straw, in November. The 
covering should be taken off in April. 

Favorite shrubs are the following: the Juno 
Berrj', Flowering Acacia, Flowering Almond, Li- 
lacs, Laburnum, Siberia Tree-pea, Tree PiBonies, 
Magnolias, Azaleas. Fringe Tree, Althaea, Tarta- 
rean Honeysuckle, Spiraeas, Syringa, Pyrus Japo- 
nica, Cranberry Tree. 

Climbers, which are both hardy and ornnmentiil, 
are the Trumpet-flower (Bignonia radicans) Vir- 
ginia Creeper, Clematis, Glycene, and the Honey- 
suckles, Coral. Evergreen, etc. ; and the climbing 
roses, as the Baltimore Belle, Queen of the Prairie, 
Superba, and Greville Rose. 

Rhododendrons are highly ornament.\l whea 
they thrive. So is the Kalmia, or common htureli 
and the evergreen Ledum. 

Roses. 
These require a rich, well-mixed soil, in pots or 



FLOWER GARDENING. 



89 



in the garden. Loam, or leaf mould, with half as 
mut-h manure, and a little fine sand, will do the 
best. Kuses which require to be taken up and 
kept in lioujie for the winter should be well pruned 
at that time. Do not water roses so as to make 
the soil sodden around the roots. A little broken 
charciial about them will aid the brilliancy of their 
blooming. 

Roses :ire chiefly of the China, Tea, and Bour- 
bon vnrieties. Of the first these are much ad- 
mired: Agrippina (crimson), Eel's Blush (a great 
bloomer), Common Daily, White Daily, Madame 
Bosaiiquet, Saiiguinea (crimson), Louis Philippe 
(dark crimson), Eugene Hanly (nearly white), and 
Eugene Beauharnois (fragrant). 

Tea Roses are more delicate. The following 
are preferred: Odorata, Devoniensis, Caroline, 
Triomphe de Lu.\embourg, Safrano (beautiful 
buds), Clara Sylvain (pure white), Bougere, Ma- 
dame Desprez (white), and Pactole (lemon yellow). 

Bourbon Roses are hardy in our Middle and 
Southern States. Of them we would choose Gloire 
de Dijon, Souvenir de la Malmaison, Hermosa, 
and Paul Joseph ; though there are many other 
fine kinds. 

Pinka, 

Carnations and picotees are most admired, but 
the double crimson Indian pink is very pretty and 
easily raised. The pinks do best in a soil of three 
parts loam, one part cow manure, and sandy 
peat one part, with a little old plaster, sifted. 
Pinks do not bear a great deal of moisture. They 
are raised either from layers or pipings, or from 
seed. Pipins;s are superfluous shoots cut off and 
potted in compost surrounded by moist sand. The 
seeds may be sown in spring, in similar pots or 
pans, or in open beds. In the Northern States 
they need potiing for the winter as early as Oc- 
tober. 

Geraniums. 

These require a strong loam for soil ; the top of 
a pasture will do, with a little sand and charcoal. 
Geraniums require a good deal of light and air, 
and should not be crowded. They bloom in spring 
and summer, not often flowering in winter even in 
pots. Horseshoe or scarlet geranium is very pop- 
ular; so are the rose, oak, and nutmeg geraniums 
They all bear pruning very well. Large-flowered 
geraniums (pelargoniums) are beset by the green 
fly. Once in a week or two in warm weather they 
should be smoked, to get rid of the flies, and sy- 
ringed every day or two. 

Verbenas. 

These repay care well: having variety of color, 
blooming freely, and being easily cultivated. It 
is easy to raise new varieties from seed. All 
colors but blue ard a handsome yellow have been 
produced. They .re often raised from cuttings. 

The soil for ve.benas should be about two parts 
loam, two leaf mould, and a little sand. Cuttings 
of young shoots may be taken from old plants 
early in February. After rooting for a few weeks 
in sandy loam, they may be potted: bedded out 
when warm weather comes, and repotted in Sep- 
tember. You may take cuttings from choice 
plants in August, root them for two weeks, then 
pot, and repot them when the roots touch the 
sides of the pot. This is, hy the way, proper as 
a rule with any plants. 

Verbenas are native to dry, hilly ground, and 
ne«d but moderate watering. Favorites are, Giant 
of Battles, Admiral Dundas, General Simpson, Ce- 
lestial, Detiunce, Lord Raglan, Glory of America. 

Heliotrope. 
This gives a delightful fragrance, and is not 



hard to cultivate. It may be managed just as the 
verbena, but should be repotted often, and allowed 
to grow large, being trimtued for shape only. 

What is called the lemon verbena is another 
plant, a half-hardy shrub, grown for the sweet 
scent of its leaves. It should be kept in a cellar 
all winter and planted out in the spring. 

Of biennial and perennial flowering plants there 
are many of great beauty for the garden, of which 
we have no room to give more than the names. 
They require little care beyond loosening the 
earth round them in the spring. The spring is 
the time for transplanting them. In the summer 
prutie away weak stems; in the fall cover them 
with coarse manure; if evergreen, shelter with 
cedar or pine boughs. They may be propagated 
by division of the root early in the spring or after 
the summer bloom is over. The following are 
choice kinds: Lily of the Valley, Larkspur (Del- 
phinum Formosum), Phlo.x {Phlox Driiiinnoiidii 
is a beautiful annual), Canterbury Bell, Foxglove, 
Hemerocallis, Iris or Flag, Everlasting Pea, Spi- 
raea (several varieties are very beautiful). Sweet 
William, Alyssum. 

If one has a greenhouse, large or small, he may 
enjoy also, with good management, in winter as 
well as summer, the following: Camellias, Orange 
and Lemon trees, Daphne, Azalea, Oleander, 
Erica, Fuchsia, Salvia, Tropajolum (common nas- 
turtium is TropKolum majus), Abutilon, Cactus, 
Calla, Cuphaea, Acha;nia, Maranta, Pittosporum, 
Jasmines (white and yellow, very sweet). Calceo- 
laria, Chinese Primrose, Laurestinus, AVax-plant, 
Begonia, Chrj'santhemums (good garden bloom- 
ers in autumn), and the various bulbous plants, 
namel}', Oxalis, Hyacinths, Tulips (grown beauti- 
fully in beds), Crocuses, Snowdrops, Jonquils, Nar- 
cissus. The Tuberose, and the Gladiolus are uni- 
versally admired. The latter is gaining recently 
especially in favor. There are twenty or thirty 
varieties, which may be bought for three or four 
dollars a dozen. When grown from seed they 
bloom the third year. Finest varieties of Gladi- 
olus are, Penelope, Brenchleyensis, Count de 
Morny, Vesta, Calypso. 

Though not here exactly in place, we may name 
the periwinkles, larger and smaller, as beautiful 
in leaf and flower, for the border of a bed or about 
the fence of a garden ; and Ivy as the most per- 
manently beautiful of vines for a wall. The Par- 
lor Ivy is a great grower, in baskets or elsewhere, 
and a pretty plant; not a true ivy, however, nei- 
ther is the Kenilworth Ivy. 

Animals. 

These are either hardy or half-hardy. The for- 
mer may be sown in the fall to bloom the next 
summer, or early in spring. The latter are sown 
early in spring to bloom in the summer. These 
are also either for the hot-bed onlj', or for the 
garden. Many plants which are annual in the 
open air, in a temperate climate, may become per- 
ennial in a conservatory. 

Tubercms annuals, kept through the winter to 
plant out again, are the Four- o-clock, Scarlfe* 
Bean, etc. 

The following must be sown where t'nej a;e to 
remain: Annual Larkspurs, Poppy, Mignonette, 
Lupin, Sweet Pea. They may be started in pots, 
however. 

In sowing annuals, let the depth be according 
to the size of the seed ; very shallow for the small 
kinds. Thin out the weakest as they come up. 
August or April will do to sow the hardy kinds; 
the beginning of May for tne other sorts. In the 
fall pull up the old stalks. 

Besides those named above, desirable annuals 



90 



EURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 



are, Asters, Coreopsis, Sweet Alyssum, Escholt- 
zia, Portiilacca (a fine bloomer in a good place), 
Canna Indica, Zinnia, and Cypress Vine. The 
last should have a light frame for it to climb on. 

Lilies and tiger-lilies have, in the above outline 
of garden-culture, been overlooked. They can 
only be named as having great beauty and variety. 
Dahlias are going out of fashion ; they are not 
fragrant, and not superior in beauty in proportion 
to the pair.s formerly taken with them. 

For artifici;il heating, the structures in use are : 
the Ptove, where the temperature is fnun 70° to 
120° Pahr., with copi(jus moisture; the Hot house 
being a more common name for the same; the 
Green-house, of glass, kept at from 40° to 70°, 
for care and rearing of plants; and the Conser- 
vatory, used more for their display when in per- 
fection. A Pit is an excavation of six or eight 
feet in depth, covered with a glass roof. This is 
very useful, and not costly. 

Or^ a small scale, all that can be done in a 
green-house may be accomplished in a parlor or 
chamber, with a Ward Case or a Walton Case. 
The Hanging Basket and the Aquarium are also 
delightful sources of enjoyment to those who ac- 
quire skill in their management. 
Insects. 

Red spider is killed by water ; syringing will dis- 
pose of it. Mealy bug and scale are to be searched 
for and destroyed by hand; but sponging, espe- 
cially with soap-suds, may suffice. The green fly 
is best gotten rid of by smoking. Put the plant 
under a barrel in which tobacco is burning; or 
barn tobacco-leaves or smoking tobacco under 
the plant in its place. 

Soil for Windoto Gardening. 

Loam, or common garden earth, brown or black, 
got from old pastures, left to crumble; peat, or 
black earth from damp woods or meadows; leaf- 
mould, the top soil of old woods; manure, well 
rotted by time, as in an old hot-bed; and common 
or silver sand, free from salt; these, in different 
proportions will do for all plants. For potting, 
good authority (C. S. Rand, Parlor and Garden) 
recomuicnils two parts leaf-mould, one part ma- 
nure, one-half part loam, one-half part peat, and 
one part sand. 

Potted plants seldom need manure. Liquid 
manure or guano should, if used for them, be di- 
luted and not often applied. 



PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR GAR- 
DENERS. 

1. Perform every operation in the proper sea- 
son. 

2. Perform every operation in the proper man- 
ner. 

This is to be acquired in part by practice, and 
partly also by reflection. For example, in dig- 



ging over a piece of ground, it is a common prac- 
tice with slovens to throw the weeds and stones 
on the dug ground, or on the adjoining allev or 
walk, with the intention of gathering them off 
afterwards. A better way is to have a wheel-bar- 
row or a large basket, in which to put the weeds 
and extraneous matters, as they are picked out of 
the ground. Some persons, in planting or weed- 
ing, whether in the open air, or in hot-houses, 
throw down all seeds, stones, and extraneous mat- 
ters on the paths or alleys, with a view to pick 
them up, or sweep or rake them together after- 
wards; it is better to carry a basket or other 
utensil, either common or subdivided, in which to 
hold in one part the plants to be planted, in 
another the extraneous matters, etc. 

3. Complete every part of an operation as you 
proceed. 

4. Finish one job before beginning another. 

5. In leaving off working at any job, leave the 
work and tools in an orderly manner. 

6. In leaving off work for the day, make a tem-> 
porary finish, and carry the tools to the tool- 
house. 

7. In passing to and from the work, or on any 
occasion, through any part of what is consi<lered 
under the charge of the gnrdener, keep a vigilant 
look out for weeds, decaj'ed leaves, or any other 
deformity, and remove them. 

8. In gathering a crop, remove at the same time 
the roots, leaves, stems, or whatever else is of no 
farther use, or may appear slovenly, decaying, or 
offensive. 

9. Let no crop of fruit or herbaceous vegetables 
go to waste on the spot. 

10. Cut down the flower-stalks on all plants. 

11. Keep every part of what is under your care 
perfect in its kin I. 

Attend in spring and autumn to walls and 
buildings, and get them repaired, jointed, glazed, 
and painted where wanted. Attend at all times to 
machines, implements, and tools, keeping them 
clean, sharp, and in perfect repair. See particu- 
larly that they are placed in their proper situa- 
tions in the tool-house. House every implement, 
utensil, or machine not in use, both in winter and 
summer. Allow no blanks in edgings, rows, sin- 
gle specimens, drills, beds, and even, where prac- 
ticable, in broadcast sown pieces. Keep edgings 
and edges cut to the utmost nicety. Keep the 
shapes of the wall trees filled with wood accord- 
ing to their kind, and let their training be in the 
first style of perfection. Keep all walks in per- 
fect form, whether raised or flat, free from weeds, 
dry, and well rolled. Keep all the lawns, by 
every means in your power, of a close texture, 
and dark green velvet appearance. Keep water 
clear and free from weeds, and let not ponds, 
lakes, or artificial rivers, rise to the brim in win- 
ter, nor sink very far under it in summer. 



HXJU-AI. and DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 



To make good Bread. 
Place in a large pan twenty-eight pounds of 
flour ; make a hole with the hand in the centre of 
it like a large basin, into which strain a pint of 
brewers' yeast; this must be tested, and if too 
bitter a little flour sprinkled into it, and then 
strained directly ; then pour in two quarts of wa- 
ter of the temperature of 100°, or blood heat, and 



stir the flour round from the bottom of the hole 
formed tiy the hand till that part </f the flour is 
quite thick and well mixed, thcuigh all the rest 
must remain unwetted ; then sprinkle a little flour 
over the moist part and cover it with a cloth; this 
is called sponr/e, and must be left to rise. Some 
leave it only half an hour, others all night. 
When the sponge is light, however, add four 



TO MANAGE A DAIEY. 



91 



quarts of water of the same temperature as above, 
and well knead the whole muss into a smooth 
dough. This is hard work if done well. Then 
cover the <tougJi and leave it for an hour. In 
cold weather both sponge and dough must be 
placed on the kitchen hearth, or in some room not 
too cold, or it will not rise well. Before the last 
water is put in two tablespoonsful of salt must lie 
sprinkled over the flour. Sometimes the flour will 
absorb another pint of water. 

After the dough has risen it should be made 
quickly into loaves; if much bundled then the 
bread will be heavy. It will require an hour and 
a half to bake, if made into four-pound loaves. 
The oven should be well heated before the dough 
is put into it. To try its heat, throw a little flour 
into it; if it brown direvtly, it will do. 

To make Butter. 

Let the cream be at the temperature of 55° to 
60°, by a Falirenheit thermometer: this is very 
important. If the weather be cold put boiling 
water into the churn for hnlf an hour before 
you want to use it ; when that is poured off strain 
in the cream through a butter cloth. When the 
butter is coming, which is easily ascertained by 
the sound, take ofi" the lid, and with .a small, flat 
board scrape down the sides of the churn, and do 
the same to the lid ; this prevents waste. AVhen 
the butter is come the butter-niilk is to be poured 
oflF and spring water put into the churn, and 
turned for iwo or three minutes; this is to be then 
poured away and fresh added, and again the han- 
dle turned for a minute or two. Should there be 
the least milkiness when this is poured from the 
churn, more must be put in. 

The butter is then to be placed on a board or 
marble slab and salted to taste ; then with a cream 
cloth, wrung out in spring water, press all the 
moisture from it. When dry and firm make it up 
into rolls with flat boards. The whole process 
should he completed in three-quarters of an hour. 

In hot weather pains must be taken to keep the 
cream from reaching too high a heat. If the 
dairy be not cool enough, keep the cream-pot in 
the coldest water j'ou can get ; make the butter 
early in the morning, and place cold water in the 
churn for a while before it is used. 

The cows should be milked near the dairy; car- 
rying the milk far prevents its rising well. In 
summer churn twice a week. Wash the churn 
well each time with soap or wood-ashes. 

To cure Hams. 

For each ham of twelve pound.s weight: Two 
pounds of common salt; 2 ounces of saltpetre; J 
pound of bay salt; ^ pound of coarse sugar. 

This should be reduced to the finest powder. 
Rub the hams well with it; female hands are not 
often heavy enough to do this thoroughly. Then 
place them in a deep pan, and add a wineglassful 
of good vinegar. Turn the hams every day ; for 
the first three or four days rub tliem well with the 
brine; after that time it will suflice to ladle it over 
the meat with a wooden or iron spoon. They should 
remain three weeks in the pickle. When taken 
from it wiiie them well, put them in bags of brown 
paper and then smoke them with wood smoke for 
three weeks. 



TO MANAGE A DAIRY. 
Directions to the Cow-Feeder. 
Go to the oow-stall at six o'clock in the 
morning, winter and summer; give each cow half 
a bushel of the mangel-wurt/.el, carrots, turnips, 
or potatoes, cut; at seven o'clock, the hour the 
dairy-maid comos to milk them, give each some 



hay, and let them feed till tbey are all milked. Ff 
any cow refuses hay, give her something she will 
eat, such as grains, carrots, etc., during the time 
she is milking, as it is absolutely necessary the 
cow should feed whilst milking. As soon as the 
woman has linished milking in the morning, turn 
the cows into the airing ground, and let there be 
plenty of fresh waier in the troughs; at nine 
o'clock give each cow three gallons of this mix- 
ture : to eight gallons of grain add four gallons 
of bran or pollard; when they have eaten that 
put some hay into the cribs; at twelve o'clock 
give each three gallons of the mixture as before; 
if any cow looks for- more give her another gal- 
lon ; on the contrary, if she will not eat what you 
gave her, take it out of the manger, for never 
at one time let a cow have more than she will eat 
up clean. Mind and keep the mangers clean, that 
they do not get sour. At two o'clock give each 
cow half a bushel of carrots, or turnips; look the 
turnips, etc., over well before giving them to 
the cows, as one rotten turnip will give a bad 
taste to the milk, and most likely spoil a whole 
dairy of butter. At four o'clock put the cows 
into the stall to be milked; feed them on hay as 
at milking-time in the morning, keeping in 
mind that the cow whilst milking must feed on 
something. At six o'clock give each cow three 
gallons of the mi.\ture as before. Rack them up 
at eight o'clock. Twice in a week put into each 
cow's feed at noon a quart of malt-dust. Corn or 
mill feed {ofi'al from grinding flour from wheat) is 
still better. One-half peck of corn, or a little more, 
mill-feed twice a day, mixed with chopped straw 
or hay, wet and m<t>ihed. 

Dii vctiuus lo the Dairy-Maid. 
Go to the cow-stall at 7 o'clock ; take with you 
cold water and a sponge, and wash each cow's 
udder clean before milking; dowse the udder well 
with cold water, winter and summer, as it braces 
and repels heats. Keep your hands and arms 
clean. Milk each cow as dry as you can, morning 
and evening, and when you milk each cow as you 
suppose dry, begin again with the cow you first 
milked and drip them each, for the principal rea- 
son of cows failing in their milk is from negli- 
gence in not milking the cow dry, particularly at 
the time the calf is taken from the cow. Suffer 
no one to milk the cow but yourself, and have no 
gossiping in the stall. Every Saturday night give 
in an exact account of the quantity each cow has 
given in the week. 

7'o make Oats prove Doubly Nutritious to Horses. 
Instead of grinding the oats, break them in a 
mill, and the same quantity will prove doublj' nu- 
tritious. Another method is to boil the corn and 
give the horses the liquor in which it has been 
boiled ; the result will be, that instead of six bush- 
els in a crude state, three bushels so prepared will 
be found to answer, and to keep the animals in 
superior vigor and condition. 

Cheap Method of Rearing Horned Cattle. 

After having expressed the oil from the linseed, 
make up the remaining husks or dross into round 
balls of the size of a fist, and afterwards dry them ; 
infuse and dissolve two or three of these balls in 
hot water, and add in the beginning a third or 
fourth part of fresh milk, but afterwards, when 
the calves are grown, mix only skim milk with 
the infusion. 

To rear Calves. 

The best method of rearing calves is to take 
them from the cows in three weeks or a month, and 
to give them nothing but a little fine hay until 



92 



RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 



they begin through necessity to pick a little : then 
cut some of the hay and mix it with bran or oats 
in a trough, and slice some turnips about the size 
of a dollar, which they will soon bj" licking learn 
to eat; after which give them turnips enough. 

To rear Calves without Milk, 
In two Or three days after they are calved take 
the calves from the cows, put them in a house by 
themselves, then give them a kind of water gruel, 
composed of about one-third barley and two- 
thirds of oats ground together very fine, then sift 
the mixture through a very fine sieve, put it into 
the quantity of water below mentioned, and boil 
it half an hour, when take it off the lire, and let it 
remain till it is milk-warm; then give each calf 
about a quart in the morning, and the same quan- 
tity in the evening, and increase it as the calf 
grows older. It requires very little trouble to 
make them drink it; after the calves have had 
this diet about a week or ten days, tie up a little 
bundle of hay and put it in the middle of the 
h(iuse, which they will by degrees come to eat; 
also put a little of the meal above mentioned in a 
small trough for them to eat occasionally ; keep 
them in this manner until they are of proper age 
to turn out to grass, before which they must be at 
least two months old. 

Another Method. 
Make an infusion of malt, or fresh wort as a 
substitute for milk; in summer it may be given 
to the calves cold, but in winter it must have the 
same degree of warmth as the milk just coming 
from the cow ; the quantity is the same as the milk 
commonly given at once to a oalf. and to be in- 
creased in proportion as lno c.ii j,ruws. 

To Fatten Poultry. 

An experiment has been tried of feeding geese 
with turnips cut in small pieces like dice, but 
less in size, and put into a trough of water; 
with this food alone the effect was that six geese, 
each when lean weighing only nine pounds, actu- 
ally gained twenty pounds each in about three 
weeks' fattening. 

Malt is an excellent food for geese and turkeys; 
grains are preferred for the sake of economy, un- 
less for immediate and rapid fattening; the grains 
should be boiled afresh. 

Other cheap articles for fattening are oatmeal 
and treacle; barley-meal and milk; boiled oats 
and ground malt. 

Corn before being given to fowls should always 
be crushed and soaked in water. The food will 
thus go further, and it will help digestion. Hens 
fed thus have been known to lay during the whole 
of the winter months. 

Turkeys are very tender while young, after- 
wards quite hardy. Put them in large and open 
coops; they may be well raised with hens, and 
ramble less so. When hatched some put a grain 
of black pepper down their throats as a sort of 
cordial. The best food for ducks when hatched 
is bread and milk; in a few days barley-meal, 
■wetted into balls as big as peas. 

To choose a Milch Cow. 
As to a choice of breeds for a private family, 
none (says Mr. Lawrence) probably combine 
so many advantages as the Suffolk dun cows. 
They excel both in quantity and quality of 
niilk ; they feed well after they become barren ; 
they are small-sized, and polled or hornless; the 
last a great convenience. The horns of cows 
which butt and gore others, should be immediately 
bmad tipped. There is a breed of polled York- 
fchire or Ilolderness cows, some of them of mid- 



dling size, great milkers, and well adapted to the 
use of families where a great quantity of milk is 
required, and where price is no object and food in 
plenty. If richer milk and a c(Jfliparison of the 
two famous breeds be desired, </ne of each may 
be selected, namely, the last mentioned and the 
other of the midland county, or long-horned spe- 
cies. Color is so far no object, that neither a g<iod 
cow nor a good horse can either be of a bad color; 
nevertheless, in an ornamental view, the sheeted 
and pied stock of the Yorkshire short-horns make 
a picturesque figure in the grounds. 

The Alderney cows yield rich milk upon less 
feed than larger stock, but are seldom large milk- 
ers, and are particularly scanty of produce in the 
winter season. They are, besides, worth little or 
nothing as barreners, not only on account of their 
small size, but their inaptitude to take on fat, and 
the ordinary quality of their beef. 

To determine the Economy of a Cow. 
The annual consumption of food per cow, if 
turned to grass, is from one acre to an acre and a 
half in summer, and from a ton to a ton and a 
half of hay in the winter. A cow may be allowed 
two pecks of carrots per day. The grass being 
cut and carried will economize it full one-third. 
The annual product of a good, fair dairy cow du- 
ring several months after calving, and either in 
summer or winter, if duly fed and kept in the lat- 
ter season, will be an average of seven (lounds of 
butter per week, from five to three gallons of miik 
per day. Afterwards a weekly average of three 
or four pounds of butter from barely half the 
quantity of milk. It depends on the constitution 
of the cow, how nearly she may be milked to the 
time of her calving, some giving good milk uptil 
within a week or two of that period, others re- 
quiring to be dried eight or nine weeks previously. 
I have heard (says Mr. Lawrence) of twenty 
pounds of butter, and even twenty-two pounds, 
made from the milk of one long-horned cow in 
seven days, but I have never been fortunate 
enough to obtain one that would produce more 
than twelve pounds per week, although I have 
had a Yorkshire cow which milked seven gallons 
per day, yet never made five pounds of butter in 
one week. On the average, three gallons of good 
milk will make one pound of butter. 

To fatten Hogs. 
The Shakers have proved that ground coin is 
one-third better than ungroun<l, and nineteen 
pounds of cooked meal are equal to fifty pounds 
raw. Boiled and slightly fermented vegetables 
are also very fattening to swine. 

To breed Pheasants. 
Eggs being provided, put them under a hen that 
has kept the nest three or four days, and if you 
set two or three hens on the same day you will 
have the advantage of shifting the good eggs. 
The hens having set their full time, such of the 
young pheasants as are already hatched put in a 
basket, with a piece of flannel, till the hen has 
done hatching. The brood nowccmjpul unlet 
a frame with a net over it, and a place for the hen, 
that she cannot get to the young pheasants, but 
that they may go to her, and feed them with 
boiled egg cut small, boiled milk and bread, alum 
curd, a little of each sort, and often. After 
two or three days they will be ac((uainted with 
the call of the hen that hatched them, may have 
their liberty to run on the grass plat, or else- 
where, ob.'ierving to shift them with the sun and 
out of the cold winds; they need not have their 
liberty in the morning till the sun is up, and they 
must be shut up with the hen in good time in tho 



POULTRY. 



93 



evening. Y»a mnst be very careful in order to 
guard against the distemper to which they are 
liable, in the choice of a situation for breeding the 
birds up, where no poultry, pht-asants, or turkeys, 
etc., have ever I>een kept, such as the warm side 
of a, field, orchard, or pleiisure-ground, or garden. 
UT even on a common, or a good green lane, under 
eircumstances of this kind, or by a wood side; 
but then it is proper for a man to keep with them 
under a temporary hovel, and to have two or three 
dogs chained at a proper distance, with a lamp or 
two at night. 

The birds going on as before mentioned should 
so continue till September or (if very early breil) 
the middle of .August. Before they begin to shift 
the long feathers in the tail, they are to be shut 
np in the basket with the hen regularly every 
night. For sui-h young pheasants as are chosen 
for breeding stock at home, and likewise to turn 
out in the following spring, provide a new piece 
of ground, large and roomy for two pens, where 
DO pheasant.-i, etc., have been kept, and there put 
the young birds in as they begin to shift their 
tails. Such of them as are intended to be turned 
out at a future time, or in another place, put into 
one pen netted over, and leave their wings as they 
are, and those wanted for breeding put in the 
other pen, cutting one wing of each bird. The 
gold and silver pheasants pen earlier, or they will 
be off. Cut the wing often, and when first penned 
feed all the young birds with barley-meal, dough, 
corn, plenty of green turnips, and alum curd, to 
make which take new milk, as much as the young 
birds require, and boil it with a lump of alum, so 
as not to make the curd hard and tough, but cus- 
tard-like. 

A little of this curd twice a- day, and ants' eggs 
after every time they have had a sufficient quan- 
tity of the other food. If they do not cat heartily, 
give them some ants' eggs to create an appetite, 
but by no means in such abundance as to be con- 
gidered their food. 

Not more than four hens should be allowed in 
the pens to one cock. Never put more eggs under 
a hen than she can well and closely cover, the 
eggs being fresh and carefully preserved. Short 
broods to be joined and shifted to one hen : com- 
mon hen pheasants in close pens, and with plenty 
of cover, will sometimes make their nests and 
hatch their own eggs : but they seldom succeed in 
rearing their brood, being so naturally shy ; 
whence should this method be desired, they must 
be left entirely to themselves, as they feel alarm 
even in being looked at. Eggs for setting are 
generally ready in ApriL Period of incubation 
the same in the pheasant as in the common hen. 
Pheasants, like the pea- fowl, will clear grounds 
of insects and reptiles, but will spoil all wall-trees 
within their reach, by pecking off every bud and 
leaf. 

Strict cleanliness to be observed, the meat not 
to be tainted with dung, and the water to be pure 
and often renewed. Food for grown pheasants, 
barley or wheat ; generally the same as for other 
poultry. In a cold spring, hemp seed, or other 
■warming seeds, are comfortable, and will forward 
the breeding stock. 

To manage Young Chickens. 
The chickens first hatched are to be taken from 
the hen, lest she be tempted to leave her task un- 
finished. They may be secured in a basket of 
Wool or soft hay, and kept in a moderate heat ; if 
the weather be cold, near the fire. They will re- 
quire no food for twenty-four hours, should it be 
necessary to keep them so long from the hen. 
The whole brood being hatched, place the hen 



under a coop abroad, upon a tfry spot, and, if pos- 
sible, not within reach of another hen, since the 
chickens will mix, and the hens are apt to maim 
and destroy those which do not belong to them. 
Nor sb'>uld they be placed near young fowls, 
which are likely to crash them, being always eager 
for their small meat. 

The first food should be split grits, afterwards 
tall wheat; all watery food, soaked bread or po- 
tatoes, beinsr improper; corn or mill screenings 
(before the wheat is ground) will do. Eggs boiled 
hard, or curds chopped small, arc very suitable as 
first food. Their water should be pure, and often 
renewed, and there are pans made in such forms, 
that the chickens may drink without getting into 
the water, which, by wet.ing their feet and fea- 
thers, numbs and injures them ; a basin in the mid- 
dle of a pan of water will answer the end; the 
water running around it. There is no nccssity 
for cooping the brood beyond two or three days, 
but they may be confined as occasion requires, or 
suffered to range, as they are much heni'fited by 
the foraging of the hen. They should not I'C let 
out too early in the morning, whilst the dew lies 
upon the ground, nor be suffered to range over wet 
grass, which is a common and fatal cause of dis- 
ea;^e in fowls. Another caution requisite is to 
guard them against unfavorable changes of the 
weather, particularly if rainy. Nearly all the dis- 
eases of fowls arise from cold moisture. 

For the period of the chickens' quitting the hen 
there is no general rule; when she begins to roost, 
if sufficiently forward, they will follow her; if 
otherwise, they should be secured in a proper 
place till the time arrives when they are to asso- 
ciate with the other young poultry, since the larger 
are sure to overran and drive from their food the 
younger broods. 

Access to a barn-yard for worms is good for 
them. A warm house for shelter in winter is very 
important for chickens. 

To hatch Chicken* in the Egyptian if ode. 

The mamaU or ovens of Egypt are scarcely 
above nine feet in height, but they have an extent 
in length and breadth which renders them remark- 
able, and yet they are more so in their internal 
structure. The centre of the building is a very 
narrow gallery, usually about the width of three 
feet, extending from one end of the buUding to 
the other, the height of which is from eight to 
nine feet ; the structure for the most part of brick. 
The entrance into the oven is through the gallery, 
which commands the whole extent of it. and facili- 
tates the several operations that are necessary to 
keep the eggs to the proper degree of heat. The 
oven has a door, not very wide, and only as high 
as it is broad: this door, and many others in use 
in the mamals, are commonly no more than round 
holes. 

The gallery is a corridor, with this difference 
from our common corridors, which have only one 
row of rooms, whereas that of the mamal haa 
always two rows of them on both sides : namely, 
one on the ground floor, and another above. 
Every one upon the ground floor has one above, 
perfectly equal, both in length and breadth. The 
rooms of each row on the ground floor, are all 
equal, in length, breadth, and height. Reaumur 
observes, •' We know of no other rooms in the world 
so low as these, being only three feet in height." 
Their breadth, which is in the same direction with 
the length of the gallery, is four or five feet : they 
are very narrow in proportion to their length, 
which is twelve or fifteen feeU 

Every one of these rooms has its door or round 
aperture, about a foot and a half in diameter, 



94 



RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 



opening into the gallery, the hole being wide 
endugh for a man to creep through. All the eggs 
to be hatched are firt-t ranged in these rooms. 
Four or five thousand eggs are put into each of 
them. Tliese are the real ovens, so that the whole 
edifice, which is denominated a chicl<en oven, is 
an assemblage of many ovens set together, side 
by side, opposite and over each other, and in the 
course of the process a part of the eggs are wanned 
in the ujiper rooms, after having been previously 
in the lower. 

Forty or fifty thousand eggs are hatched at once, 
or another account extends the number to eighty 
thousand. The eggs are sprea<l on mats, flocks 
or flax, in each room upon the ground floor, 
■where they contract their first and general warmth, 
during a certain number of days. 

The heat of the air in the inferior 'rooms, and 
consequently that of the eggs, would rise to an 
excessive degree, were the fire in the gutter inces- 
santly l<ept up. They keep it up on^y an hour in 
the morning, and an hour at night, and they style 
these heatings the dinner and supper of the chick- 
ens ; they receive, however, two more meals, that 
is, luncheon and afternoon meal, the ''.re being 
lighted four times a day. 

On the day on which they cease ':o light the 
fires. Some of the eggs of each infevior room are 
always conveyed into the room above. The eggs 
had been too much heaped in the former, and it 
is now time to extend and give them more room. 

The proper number of eggs from each inferior 
room having been removed into the room above, 
all the apertures of the rooms and of the gallery 
are closely and exactly stopped with bungs of tow, 
excepting, perhaps, half the apertures in the 
arches or ceilings of the upper rooms, which are 
left open in order to procure there a circulation 
of air. This precaution is sufiicient to preserve 
in the ovens, for many days together, the temper- 
ature which has been obtained; which indeed 
would be the case with ovens upon so considerable 
a scale in any country, more especially one so hot 
as Egypt. 

Three hundred and eighty-six ovens are kept 
in Egypt annually, during four or six months, 
allowing more time than is necessary to hatch 
eight successive broods of chickens, ducks and 
turkeys, making on the whole yearly three thou- 
sand and eighty-eight broods. The number in 
different hatchings is not always the same, from 
the occasional difiiculty of obtaining a sufficient 
number of eggs, which may be stated at a medium 
between the two extremes of forty and eighty 
thousand to each oven. 

The overseer contracts to return, in a living 
brood, to his employer, two-thirds of the number 
of eggs set in the ovens — all above being his own 
perquisite, in addition to his salary for the season, 
which is from eighty to forty crowns, exclusive of 
his board. According to report, the crop of poul- 
try thus artificially raised in Egypt was seldom, 
if ever, below that ratio, making the enormous 
annual amount of ninety-two million six hundred 
and forty thousand. 

The chickens are not sold from the stove by 
tale, but by the bushel or basket full ! 

Excellent Sybstitute for Candles. 
Procure meadow-rushes, such as they tie the 
hop shoots to the poles with. Cut .hem when they 
have attained their full sub.-?ance, but are still 
green. The rush, at this age, consists of a body 
of pith with a green skin on it. Cut off both ends 
of the rush and leave the prime part, which, on 
an average, may be about a foot and a half long. 
Then take off all the green skin except for about 



a fifth part of the way round the pith. Thus it 
is a piece of pith iiU but a little strip of skin in 
one part all the way up, which is necessary to 
hold the pith together. 

The rushes being thus prepared, the grease is 
melted, and put, in a melted state, into something 
that is as long as the rushes are. The rushes are 
put into the grease, soaked in it sufficiently, then 
taken out and laid in a bit of bark taken from a 
young tree, so as not to be too large. This bark 
is fixed up against the wall by a couple of straps 
put round it, and there it hangs for the purpose 
of holding the rushes. 

The rushes are carried about in the han<l; but 
to sit by, to work by, or to go to bed by, they are 
fixed in stands made for the purpose, some of 
which are high to stand on the ground, and some 
low to stand on a table. These stands have an 
iron part something like a pair of pliers to hold 
the rush in, and the rush is shifted forward from 
time to time, as it burns down to the thing that 
holds it. 

These rushes give a better light than a common 
small dip candle, and they cost next to nothing, 
though the laborer may with them have as much 
light as he pleases. 

Petroleum or kerosene is now cheaper than 
candles, and gives a beautiful light. 

7'o cnltirnte Ifustaid. 
A yard square of ground, sown with common 
mustard, the crop of which may be ground for 
use in a little miistard-mill as wanted, will save 
some money. The mustard will look brown in- 
stead of yellow, but the former color is as good 
as the latter; and, as to the taste, the real mus- 
tard has certainly a much better taste than that 
of the drugs and flour which sometimes go under 
the name of mustard. Let any one try it, and he 
will never use the latter again. The drugs, if 
taken freely, leave a burning at the pit of the 
stomach, which the real mustard does not. 

To cure Herrings, Pilchards, Mackerel, Sprats, etc. 

Reservoirs of any size, vats or casks, perfectly 
water-tight, should be about half filled with brine 
made by dissolving about twenty-eight parts of 
solid salt in seventy-two of fresh water. The fish, 
as fresh as possible, gutted or not must be plunged 
into this fully-saturated brine in such quantity as 
nearly to fill the reservoir; and, after remaining 
quite immersed for five or six daj s, they will be 
fit to be packed as usual, with large-grained solid 
salt, and exported to the hottest climates. As 
brine is always weakest at the upper part, in order 
to keep it of a uniform saturation, a wooden lat- 
ticework frame, of such size as to be easily let 
into the inside of the reservoir, is sunk an inch 
or two under the surface of the brine, for the pur- 
pose of suspending upon it lumps of one or two 
pounds, or larger, of solid salt, which effectually 
saturates whatever raoisture may exude from the 
fish : and thus the brine will be continued of the 
utmost strength so long as any part of the salt 
remains undissolved. The solidity of the lumps 
admits of their being applied several times, or 
whenever the reservoirs are replenished with fish; 
and the brine, although repeatedly used, does not 
putrefy ; nor do the fish, if kept under the surface, 
ever become rancid. 

All provisions are best preserved by this method, 
especially bacon, which, when thus sured, is not 
so liable to become rusty as when done by the 
usual method of rubbing with salt. 

Portable Ice-House. 
Take an iron-bound butt or puncheon and 
knock out the head ; then cut a very small hol9 



TO MAKE ICE. 



95 



in the bottom, about the size of a wine-cork. 
Pliice insiile of it a wooden tub, shaped like a 
churn, resting it upon two pieces of wood, which 
are to raise it from touching the bottom. Fill the 
epace rouiul the inner tub with pounded charcoal, 
and fit to the tub a cover with a convenient han- 
dle, having inside one or two small ho(dis, on 
which the bottles are to be hung during the ope- 
ration. Place on the lid a bag of pounded char- 
coal, about two feet square, and over all place 
another cover, which must cover the head of the 
outer cask. 

AVhen the apparatus is thus prepared let it be 
placed in a cold cellar, and buried in the earth 
above four-filths of its height; but, though cold, 
the cellar must be dry ; wet ground will not an- 
swer, and a sandy soil is the best. Fill the inner 
tub, or nearly so, with pounded ice; or, if pre- 
pared in winter, with snow well pressed down, and 
the apparatus will be complete. 

Whenever it is wished to make ices take off the 
upper cover, then the sack or bag of pounded 
charcoal, and suspend the vessel containing the 
liquid to be frozen to the hooks inside of the inner 
cover; then olo.-;e up the whole as before for half 
an hour, when the operation will be complete, 
provided care be taken to exclude external air. 

To produce he for Culinary Purposes. 
Fill a gallon stone bottle with hot spring water, 
leaving about a pint vacant, and put in two ounces 
of refined nitre; the buttle must then he sto[iped 
very close and let down into a deep well. After 
three or four hours it will be completely frozen, 
but the bottle must be broken to procure the ice. 
If the bottle is moved up and down so as to be 
sometimes in and sometimes out of the water, the 
consequent evaporation will hasten the process. 
The heating of the water assists the subsequent 
congelation ; and experience has proved that hot 
water in winter will freeze more rapidly than cold 
water just drawn from a spring. 

To make Ice. 

The following is a simple and speedy method 
of congealing water: 

Into a metal vase half filled with water pour 
very gently an equal quantity of ether, so that no 
mi.xture may take place of the two liquids. The 
vase is placed under the receiver of an air-pump, 
which is so fi.xed upon its support as to remain 
quite steady when the air is pumped out. 

At the first strokes of the piston the ether be- 
comes in a state of ebullition ; it is evaporated to- 
tally in less than a minute, and the water remains 
converted into ice. 

7*? vrocure Ice from a Powder. 
This is made by pulverizing and drying the 
shivery fragments of porphyritic trap, which will 
absorb one-fifth of its own weight of water. Two 
quarts of it, spread in a large dish, will, in a few 
minutes, in an exhausted receiver, freeze half of 
three quarters of a pound of Water, in a cup of 
porous earthenware. This is a cheap substitute 
for the still more powerful freezing mixtures men- 
tioned in chemical works. 

To char Peats at the Moss. 
I The best method of charring peats where they 
'are dug is, when the peats are properly dried, 
wheel to the outside of the moss a single horse- 
cart load of them. Level a spot of ground, about 
seven feet in diameter, near to a drain, and drive 
a stake of wood into the ground about five feet 
long; roll some dry heather or pol (the refuse of 
flax) rbuad the stake, and liy some also upon the 



ground where the peats are to be placed ; then set 
the peats upon and all round the stake, inclining to 
the centre, with a little dry heather or pol between 
each two floors of peat, until near the top or last 
course : then they are laid in a horizontal direc- 
tion ; and the stack, when finished, is in the form 
of a bee-hive. The next operation is to set tha 
stack on fire, which is done at the bottom all 
round. The fire will soon run up the post in tho 
centre, and, when the heather or pol is all con- 
sumed, the space forms a chimney, and occasions 
the stack to burn regularly. If the windward 
side should burn too fast, apply some wet turf. 
When the peats are thought to be sufficiently 
burnt, which is easily known from the appearance 
of the smoke, apply wet turf and water from the 
adjoining drain as fast as possible until the whole 
is extinguished. The charcoal may be removed 
upon the following day. 

To char Peats for Family Use. 

When charcoal is required for cookery, or any 
other purpose in the family, take a dozen or fifteen 
peats and put them upon the top of the kitchen 
fire upon edge; they will soon draw up the coal 
fire, and become red in a short time. After being 
turned about once or twice, and done with smok- 
ing, they are charred, and may be removed lo the 
stoves. If more char is wanted, put on another 
supply of peats. By following this plan the 
kitchen fire is kept up, and thus, with very little 
trouble, a supply of the best charred peat is ob- 
tained, perfectl}' free from smoke, and the vapor 
by no means so noxious as charcoal made from 
wood. Peats charred in this way may be used in 
a chafer in any room, or even in a nursery, with- 
out any danger arising from the vapor. It would 
also be found very fit for the warming of beds, 
and much better than live coals, which are in 
general used full of sulphur, and smell all over 
the house. 

Peats charred in a grate, and applied to the pur- 
pose of charcoal immediately, without being ex- 
tinguished, make the purest and best char, and 
freest of smoke. When peats are charred in a 
large quantity, and extinguished, any part of the 
peat that is not thoroughly burnt in the heart will 
imbibe moisture, and when used will smoke and 
have a disagreeable smell, which would at once 
hinder charred peat from being used in a gentle- 
man's family. 

To make a Cheap Fuel. 

Mi.x coal, charcoal, or sawdust, one part; sand, 
of any kind, two parts; marl or clay, one part; in 
quantity as thought proper. Make the mass up 
wet, into balls of a convenient size, and when the 
fire is suflSciently strong place these balls, accord- 
ing to its size, a little above the top bar, and they 
will produce a heat considerably more intense than 
common fuel, and insure a saving of one-half the 
quantity of coals. A fire then made up will re- 
quire no stirring, and will need no fresh food for 
ten hours. 

To clean Water-casks. 

Scour the inside well out with water and sand, 
and afterwards apply a quantity of charcoal dust. 
Another and better method is to rinse them with 
a pretty strong solution of oil of vitriol and water, 
which will entirely deprive them of their foulness. 

To preserve Eggs, 
Apply with a brush a solution of gnm arable to 
the shells, or immerse the eggs therein ; let them 
dry, and afterwards pack them in dry charcoal 
dust. This prevents their being affected by any 
alterations of temperature. 



96 



KUKAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 



Another Method. 
Mix t.,gether in a tub or vessel one bushel of 
quick-lime; thirty-two ounces of i^alt; eight ounces 
of cream of tartar, with as much water as will 
reduce the composition to a sufficient consistence 
to float an egg. Then put and keep the eggs 
therein, which will preserve them perfectly sound 
for two years at least. 

A Substitute for Milk and Cream. 
Beat up the whole of a fresh egg in a basin, 
and then pour boiling tea over it gradually, to 
prevent its curdling. It is difficult from the taste 
to distinguish the composition from rich cream. 

To cure Butter. 

Take two parts of the best common salt, one part 
of sugar, and one-half part of saltpetre ; beat them 
up and blend the whole together. Take one ounce 
of this coinpobition for every si.xteen ounces of 
butter, work it well into the mass, and close it up 
for use. 

Butter cured this way appears of a rich, mar- 
rowy consistence and fine color, and never ac- 
quires a brittle hardness, nor tastes salt. It will 
likewise keep good three j'ears, only observing 
that it must stand three weeks or a month before 
it is used. 
To remove the Turnij) Flavor from Milk and Butter. 

Dissolve a little nitre in spring-water, which 
keep in a bottle, and put a small teacupful into 
eight gallons of milk, when warm from the cow. 
To make Butter, Dumbarton Method. 

First scald the churn with boiling water to in- 
sure cleanliness; then, having put in the cream, 
work it till the butter is separated from the milk, 
and put the former into a clean vessel. Next draw 
a corn-sickle several times cross-ways through it, 
for the purpose of extracting any hairs or super- 
fluities which may adhere to it. Let the butter 
be put into spring-water during this operation, 
wh'ch will prevent its turning soft, and which will 
clear it likewise from any remnants of milk. Next 
mix with every stone of butter ten ounces of salt. 
Incorporate it well, otherwise the butter will not 
keep. In May and June each stone of butter will 
take one ounce more of salt, but after the middle 
of August one ounce less will suffice. When made 
put it into a well-seasoned kit, and shake a hand- 
ful of salt on the top, which will preserve it from 
mouldiness. In this way continue to make and 
salt the butter, placing one cake upon the other 
until the kit is full. Observe that the kit does 
not leak, as the liquor oozing through would oc- 
casion the butter to spoil. 

To make Cheshire Cheese. 

It is necessary in making the best cheese to put 
in the new milk without skimming, and if any 
overnight's milk be mixed with it, it must be 
brought to the same natural warmth ; into this 
put as much rennet as is just sufficient to come to 
the curd, and no more; for on this ju?t propor- 
tion the mildness of the cheese is said to depend; 
a piece dried of the size of a worn dime, and 
put into a teacupful of water with a little salt, 
about twelve hours before it is wanted, is suffi- 
cient for eighteen gallons of milk. The curd is 
next broken down, and, when separated from the 
whey, is put into a cheese-vat, and pressed very 
dry; it is next broken very small by squeezing it 
with the hands. New curd is mixed with about 
half its quantity of yesterday's, and which has 
been kept for that purpose. When the curds have 
been thus mixed, well pressed and closed with the 
hands in a cheese-vat, till they become one solid 
lump, it is put into a press for four or five hours. 



then taken out of the cheese-vat and turned, by 
means of a cloth put into the same for this pur- 
pose, and again -lut into the press fcir the night. 
It is then taken rut, well Siilted, and put into the 
press again till morning, when it is taken out and 
laid upon a flag or board till the s;ilt is quite 
melted, then it is wiped, put into a dry room, and 
turned every day, till it becomes dry enough foj 
the market. 

To correct Damaged Grain. 

Put the injured article into an oven, from 
which the bread has been just drawn. Spread 
it in a bed of from three to four inches in thick- 
ness, and stir it frequently with a shovel or rake 
to facilitate the disengagement of the vapor. In 
ten or fifteen minutes, according to its humidity, 
withdraw it; when perfectly cool and aired, it will 
be restored to its wholesome qualities. 
Another Method. 

Musty grain, totally unfit for use, and which 
can scarcely be gnumd, may be rendered perfectly 
sweet and sound by simply immersing it in boil- 
ing water, and letting it remain till the water be- 
comes cold. The quantity of water must be double 
that of the corn to be purified. The musty quality 
rarely penetrates through the husk of the wheat; 
atid in the very worst cases, it does not extend 
through the amylaceous matter which lies imme- 
diately under the skin. In the hot water, all the 
decayed or rotten grains swim on the surface, so 
that the remaining wheat is efTectually cleaned 
from all impurities, without any material loss. It 
is afterwards to be dried, stirring it occasionally 
on the kiln. 

To improve New Seconds Flour of bad quality. 

Mix common carbonate of magnesia well, in 
proportion of from twenty to forty grains to a 
pound of flour ; calcined magnesia will improve the 
bread, but not nearly to the same extent as the 
carbonate. It will improve the color of bread 
made from new seconds flour, while it impairs the 
color of bread from fine old and new flour. 

To preserve Flour. 
Attach a number of lofts to every mill, so that 
the flour, in place of being thrust into sacks, the 
moment it escapes from the friction of the stones, 
may be taken up by the machinery, and spread 
out to cool in the most careful manner. The vio- 
lent friction of the stones necessarily creates a 
great heat and steam ; and if flour is thrust into 
sacks in this state, a chemical action will make it 
moist, soft, and clammy. 

To preserve Wheat, 
Kiln dry it and put it in cubical cases of earth- 
enware, glazed on the outside, ami filled full as 
possible; cover them with a piece of the same ware 
made to fit close, and secured with a mixture of 
pitch, tar, and hemp cloth, till the whole be made 
air-tight. A case of this kind might be made which 
would hold four bushels or a quarter of wheat. 

To correct Moist Flour. 
In preparing the dough, let one-third of the 
flour be kept unmixed, till the dmin-h begins to 
rise, then add a little of the flour, ant! when it 
rises again add a little more, and so on for four or 
five hours, till the whole of the flour is used. In 
this manner the mixture, which occasions a glis- 
tening appearance in the dough, will be taken up, 
and the bread, as is already mentioned, will be 
highly improved. 

To remove Flies from Rooms. 
Take half a teaspoonful of black pepper, in 
powder, one teaspoonful of brown sugar, and one 



TO MAKE BREAD. 



97 



tablespoonful of cream; mix them well together, 
and place them in the room, on a plate where the 
flies are troublesome, and they will soon disappear. 
To make Excelleut Bread, 
Mix seven pounds of best flour with three 
pounds of pared boiled potatoes. Steam off the 
■water, and leave them a few minutes on the fire, 
mash them fine, and mix them whilst quite warm 
in the flour, with a spoonful or mure of salt. Put 
a quart of water, milk warm, with three large 
spoonsful of yeast, gradually to the potatoes and 
flour. Work it well into a smooth dough, and let 
it remain four hours before it is baked. 

To malce Bread with a very small quantity of Yeast. 
Put one bushel of flour into the trough, mix 
three-quarters of a pint of warm water, and one 
teaspoonful of thick yeast well together; pour a 
small quantity in a hole made in the centre of the 
flour large enough to contain two gallons of water; 
then stir with a stick, about two feet long, some 
of the flour, until it is as thick as pudding batter. 
Strew some of the dry flour over it, and let it rest 
for an hour, then pour about a quart more water, 
and having stirred it as before, leave it for two 
hours, and then add a gallon more of warm water. 
Stir in the flour again, and in about four hours 
more, mix up the dough, and cover it warm ; in 
about four hours more you may put it in the oven, 
and as light bread will be obtained as though a 
pint of yeast had been used. 

To prepare Bread in the 3fethod of the London 
Bakers. 

Sift a sack of flour into the kneading-trough ; 
add six pounds of salt, dissolve them separately 
in a pailful of water (cooled to 90° Fahr.) with 
two quarts of yeast. Stir it well, and strain it 
through a cloth or sieve; afterwards mix it with 
the flour into a dough, next cover it up with cloths 
and shut down the trough-lid close to retain the 
heat. In two hours more mix in another pailful 
of warm water with the sponge, and again cover 
it up for two hours. After this knead it for more 
than an hour, with three pailsful of warm water. 
Return the dough to the trough, sprinkle it with 
dry flour, and in four hours' time knead it well for 
about half an hour, when it will be fit to mould 
into loaves. 

To prepare Household Bread. 

Mix four ounces of salt, three quarts of water, 
a pint of yeast, and a peck of seconds flour, in a 
trough. When properly fermented, knead and 
divide it into loaves. Sometimes a portion of jye- 
meal, rice, flour, or boiled potatoes, are mixed 
with the flour previous to the kneading; the two 
former serve to bind the bread, the latter cause it 
to be open and spongy. 

To produce one-third more Bread from a given 
Quantity of Wheat. 

Boil a bushel of the coarsest bran in seven gal- 
lons of water for one hour ; keep stirring it, that 
it may not stick to the bottom; then poul- it off 
into a trough or tub full of holes, over which lay 
a coarse cloth or sieve. On the top of the whole 
put a wooden cover, with a weight sufficiently 
heavy to press out the liquor from the bran, which 
will sink to the bottom of the tub in a thick pulp. 
This liquor will contain the essential oil of the 
grain, and when kneaded in with a proper propor- 
tion of flour it will yield one-third more than the 
tame quantity would made with water in the usual 
way. 

To make French Bread. 

Put a pint of milk into three quarts of water. 
In winter let it be scalding hot, but in summer 
7 



little more than milk warm. Put in salt sufficient. 
Take a pint and a half of good ale yeast, free 
from bitterness, and lay it in a gallon of water tho 
night before. Pour off the yeast into the milk 
and water, and then break in rather more than a 
quarter of a pound of butter. Work it well till it 
is dissolved; then beat up two eggs in a basin, 
and stir them in. Mix about a peck and a half 
of flour with the liquor, and in winter make tho 
dough pretty stiff, but more slack in summer; 
mix it well, and the less it is worked the better. 
Stir the liquor into flour, as for pie-crust, and 
after the dough is made cover it with a cloth, and 
let it lie to rise while the oven is heating. When 
the loaves have lain in a quick oven about a quar- 
ter of an hour, turn them on the other side for 
about a quarter of an hour longer. Then take 
them out, and chip them with a knife, which will 
make them look spongy, and of a fine yellow, 
whereas rasping takes off this fine color, and ren- 
ders their look less inviting. 

To make tcholeaome Mixed Bread. 

Take of rice 3 pounds; boil it in a sufficient 
quantity of water till reduced to a soft pulp, then 
rub it with 6 pounds of mealy potatoes, cooked 
by steam, and, when well blended, add 6 pounds 
of flour. Make the whole into a dough with water, 
and ferment with yeast, in the usual manner. 
To make Bran Bread. 

To four pounds of best household flour put two 
tablespoonsful of small beer yeast and a half pint 
of warm water. Let it stand two hours in a warm 
place. Add half a pound of bran and a teaspoon- 
ful of salt; make the dough with skim-milk or 
warm water; cover it up and let it stand an hour. 
Put the loaves into warm dishes, and let them 
stand twenty minutes before they go into the oven. 
Another Method. 

Mix with half a peck of flour, containing the 
whole of the bran, a quarter of a pint of small- 
beer yeast, and a quart of lukewarm water; stir 
it well with a wooden spoon until it becomes a 
thick batter, then put a napkin over the dough 
and set it about three feet from the fire, until it 
rises well. Add, if requisite, a little more warm 
water, strew over it a tablespoonful of salt, and 
make the whole into a stiff paste. Put it to the 
fire, and when it rises again kneed it into the 
dough. If baked in tins the loaves will be im- 
proved. 

To make Leaven Bread. 

Take about two pounds of dough of the last 
making, which has been raised by barm ; keep it 
in a wooden vessel covered well with flour. This 
will become leaven when sufiiciently sour. Work 
this quantity into a peck of flour with warm water. 
Cover the dough close with a cloth or flannel, and 
keep it in a warm place ; further mix it next morn- 
ing with two or three bushels of flour, mixed up 
with warm water and a little salt. When tha 
dough is thoroughly made cover it as before. As 
soon as it rises knead it well into loaves. Ob- 
serve in this process, that the more leaven is put 
to the flour the lighter the bread will be, and the 
fresher the leaven the less sour it will taste. 

To make Four Quartern Loaves for Family Use. 

Procure a peck of flour, with which mix a hand- 
ful of salt to three quarts of water, and add half a 
pint of good fresh yeast. Work the whole well 
together, and set it to rise at a moderatn distance 
from the fire from two to three hours. Then di- 
vide it into four equal parts, put it into tins, and 
send it to the baker's. 

The London bakers, to give their flour a faoti- 



98 



KURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY, 



tious whiteness, boil alum in the water; but such 
means will not be resorted to in any private family. 

To make Cheap Bread. 
Take pumpkins and boil them in water until it 
ie quite thick, and with the decoction mix flour 
80 as to make dough. This makes an excellent 
bread. The proportion is increiised at least one- 
fourth, and it keeps good a length of time. 

Another Method. 
Birkenmayer, a brewer of Constance, has suc- 
ceeded in manufacturing bread from the farina- 
■ oeous residue of beer. Ten pounds of this species 
of paste, one pound of yeast, five pounds of ordi- 
nary meal, and a handful of salt produce twelve 
pounds of black bread, both savory and nourishing. 

To make Bread of Iceland Moss and Flour. 
This vegetable may be used alone or with flour 
in the making of bread. Boil seven pounds of 
lichen meal in 100 pints of water, and afterwards 
mix the same with 69 pounds of flour, and when 
baked the product will be IfiO pounds of good 
household bread; whereas, without this addition, 
the flour would not produce more than 79 pounds 
of bread. To prepare it, use 1 pound of lichen 
meal, in the form of paste, to about oj pounds of 
flour. 

To make Bread on Mr. Cobbett'a Plan. 
Suppose the quantity to be a bushel of flour. Put 
this flour into a trough that people have for the 
purpose, or it may be in a clean smooth tub of any 
shape, if not too deep and sufliciently large. Make 
a pretty deep hole in the middle of this heap of 
flour. Take (for a bushel) a pint of good fresh 
yeast; mix it and stir it well up in a pint of soft 
water, milk warm. Pour this into the hole in the 
heap of flour. Then take a spoon and work it 
round the outside of this body of moisture, so as 
to bring into it by degrees flour enough to make 
it form a thin batter, which must be stirred about 
well for a minute or two. Then take a handful 
of flour and scatter it thinly over the head of this 
batter, so as to hide it; then cover the whole over 
with a cloth to keep it warm ; and this covering, 
as well as the situation of the trough, as to distance 
from the fire, must depend on the nature of the 
place and state of the weather, as to heat and cold. 
When the batter has risen enough to make cracks 
in the flour, begin to form tke whole mass into 
dough, thus: Begin round the hole containing the 
batter, working the flour into the batter, and pour- 
ing in as it is wanted to make the flour mix with 
the batter, soft water, milk warm, or milk. Before 
beginning this, scatter the salt over the heap, at 
the rate of half a pound to a bushel of flour. 
When the whole is sufliciently moist, knead it 
well. This is a grand part of the business ; for, 
unless the dough be well worked, there will be 
little round lumps of flour in the loaves; and be- 
sides the original batter, which is to give fermen- 
tation to the whole, will not be duly mixed. It 
must be rolled over, pressed out, folded up, and 
pressed out again, until it be completely mixed, 
and formed into a stiff and tough dough. 

When the dough is made it is to be formed into 
a lump in the middle of the trough, and, with a 
little dry flour thinly scattered over it, covered 
over again to be kept warm and to ferment, and 
in this state, if all be done rightly, it will not 
have to remain more than about fifteen or twenty 
minutes. 

The oven should be hot by the time that the 
dough has remained in the lump about twenty 
minutes. When both are ready take out the fire 
and wipe the oven clean, and at nearly the same 



moment take the dough out upon the lid of the 
baking trough, or some proper place, cut it up into 
pieces and make it up into loaves, kneading it 
again in these separate parcels, shaking a little 
flour over the board to prevent the dough adhering 
to it. The loaves should be put into the oven as 
quickly as possible after they are formed ; when 
in the oven lid or door should be fastened up very 
closely, and if all be properly managed loaves of 
about the size of quartern loaves will be suffi- 
ciently baked in about two hours. But they usually 
take down the lid and look at the bread in order 
to see how it is going on. 

To detect Adidteration in Bread. 
Run into the crumb of a loaf one day old the 
blade of a knife considerably heated, and if adul- 
terated with alum it will show its unwholesome 
adherences on the surface, and it may further be 
detected by the smell. Bone-dust or plaster of 
Paris may be discovered by slicing the soft part 
of a loaf thin and soaking it in a large quantity 
of water in an earthen vessel placed over a slow 
fire three or four hours. Then having poured off 
the water and pap the obnoxious matter will be 
found at the bottom. 

To preserve Housen from Vermin. 
Bugs, in particular, may readily be destroyed 
by dissolving half a drachm of corrosive subli- 
mate in a quarter of an ounce of spirit of salts, 
mixing it with one quart of spirit of turpentine. 
Shake these well together, dip a brush in it and 
wash those places where bugs are supposed to re- 
sort, and this will remove them with greater cer- 
tainty than any other mode now practised. 

To make Hominy. 

Indian corn is now generally made into hominy 
by a kind of mill or machine. In the country, 
however, it is often made by soaking the corn for 
a short time, merely enough to soften and loosen 
the outer hull of the grain, so that it can be 
broken otT by beating it in a mortar. 

To make a mortar large enough a log of wood 
is chosen, on top of which a large fire is lit, and 
allowed to burn out a sufficiently deep cavity ; or 
else with a saw and "hatchet an edge or shoulder 
is cut on four sides of the log, against which shin- 
gles are fastened upright, projecting above the 
top of the log far enough to make a receptacle. 

After beating, as above mentioned, the grain is 
put into water, when the loosened hulls can easily 
be separated. Some add lye to the water for the 
preparatory soaking, because it softens the hull 
sooner, but it injures the flavor of the hominy. 



MANAGEMENT OF BEES. 
To work Bees in Glass Hives. 

To produce the finest virgin honey without the 
cruel practice of destroying the bees, and having 
the opportunity of seeing them at their labors, a 
double-topped straw hive has been invented by 
Mr. John Molton, and is so constructed as to sup- 
port four glasseSj, which may be removed with 
safety, and the bees kept warmer and more secure 
than in any other hives. 

Hive a swarm in the lower part of the hive in 
the usual way. The board at the top must be 
kept close by taking care to secure the openings; 
this is done by turning the top board by means 
of a thumb screw, so that when first hived the 
holes of both boards shall not correspond, and by 
thus turning the upper board it will prevent the 
bees from passing through while hiving. At 
night bring the hive into the bee-house, or where 
it is intended to stand ; in about two days after 
place on the glasses (which should be clean) over 



BEES AND BEE-HIVES. 



99 



their respective openings, and stop them round 
with mortar, after which turn the board to admit 
the bees to ascend for the purpose of working; 
cover the ghisses with the small upper hive, and 
do not look at them for a few days. Indeed, no- 
thing will then be necessary but to ascertain when 
they are filled, which is known by the cell being 
sealed over, which may be expected in about 
twenty days after a swarm has been hived. 

When the honey is to be taken and all the 
glasses removed, it will be requisite first to turn 
the board to exclude the bees; then with a thin 
knife loosen them from the adapter; leave them 
thus for about an hour; then carry the glasses in- 
verted a short distance from the hive into the 
phade, or raise the glasses with a small wedge, and 
what few bees remain will readily leave and re- 
turn to their original hive. This, if effected early 
in the season, will afford the opportunity of im- 
mediately replacing the same, or another set of 
glasses to be again filled. 

Observe, if wanted at any time to take only one 
or two of the glasses with honey, do not turn the 
board, as by so doing the combs are disunited, 
and the bees thouiselves will then empty the re- 
maining glasses (although afterwards re-fill them), 
which might occasion a loss of time in the best 
part of the season for working; to simplify 
which, only loosen such glasses as are wished to 
be removed with a thin knife, set them on a 
divider, and replace others in their stead. The 
middle of a fine day is the best time to remove 
glasses. 

It will not be advisable to take any honey from 
the hive after the end of July, as the remaining 
part of the season might not prove favorable to 
their gathering enough for their winter support; 
therefore, it will be necessary about this time, or 
early in August, to remove all the glasses and 
turn the board, to finally shut them up. 

Those glasses only partly filled with combs 
should be carefully set aside, to be placed on again 
the following April; if, however, the stock will 
require feeding, leave one or more of the glasses 
with honey for that purpose, which is by far the 
best mode. 

Thus much for the swarm which is left till the 
following April — the time to commence again 
working the glasses, as hives are now full of combs 
and brood; should the season prove favorable, 
work the glasses twice or more, and equal success 
will attend every subsequent corresponding year, 
but the first season a swarm cannot be expected to 
fill the glasses more than once, which will pro- 
duce eight pounds of the finest honey. This 
method of management will not prevent the bees 
from swarming. 

The honey thus obtained being fresh from the 
hive, will be of the finest quality, pure, perfectly 
free from the young brood, of remarkably fine 
fragrance, clear in color, and very far superior to 
any produced from common hives; it may also 
be taken at pleasure without injury to the bees, 
especially without being obliged to resort at any 
time to the painful and execrable process of smoth- 
ering these industrious and valuable insects. 

To work Bees iti Strata Hives. 

The double cottage straw hive will answer many 
jiuijioses in the keeping of bees, as either a glass 
(ir a :-mall ^traw hive may be worked on the top 
of it, which gives it an advantage over the com- 
mon hive, although the method of management 
ia simple and the price easy. 

Prepare this hive for a swarm by spreading mor- 
tar round the crown of it, to carry the adapter to 
support a glass or small straw hive, as it may be 



worked with either. Hive the swarm as usual, 
taking care to secure the opening at the top; after 
removing it to its appointed place let the swarm 
work for ten days, then clear the opening at top, 
and afiix either a glass or a small straw hive; 
the bees will then ascend for working. Stop the 
upper hive around with mortar to the adapter, 
and darken it with a common hive ; in the course 
of from fifteen to twenty days examine it, and if 
full take the honey as here directed : Pass a knife 
or wire between the adapter and small hive to 
separate the combs, after which remove the small 
hive of h(iney on a divider (a brass plate about 
twelve inches square) ; it will then be immedi 
ately necessary to place a small hive on the 
adapter, or stop the opening till another hive is 
to be worked. Carry the small hive now on the 
divider a short distance away, or rather into a 
darkened room ; invert it and place over it a small, 
empty hive of the same size; keep them steady, 
and^ by tapping round the bottom hive the bees 
in a few minutes will ascend to the hive above; 
carry them to within about two yards of their 
original stock, shake them out, and they will enter 
again as usual. 

To work Bees in a Box Hive. 

This elegant box hive consists of three divi- 
sions, and is so ingeniously constructed that the 
finest honej' may he taken without destroying the 
bees; you may work a glass hive on the top, and 
inspect the whole of their curious and interesting 
labors without disturbing them. 

When a swarm is placed in this hive shut the 
slider of the adapter; tie a small cord round to 
secure the parts ; hive the swarm in the usual 
manner; at night bring it into the bee-house or 
place appointed ; open the entrance at bottom and 
remove the cord ; if a glass hive is worked on the 
top place it on the same evening, stop it round, 
then draw back the slider to clear the grate, leave 
it a few minutes, and the bees will ascend for 
working. Then raise the two upper divisions to 
be able to remove the bottom division, and by the 
compression the bees are obliged to work in the 
glass hive, which should be darkened with its 
proper cover and left for a few days without being 
looked at; it will be necessary to replace the un- 
employed division at the bottom four or five days 
previous to the removal of the glass of honey : in 
removing which shut the slider and leave it in 
this state for one hour; then follow those plain 
directions laid down for the removal of glass 
hives. 

If more honey is wanted from this hive than 
the glass affords, examine the divisions early in 
September; if the three are full, viz., the two 
upper hives of honey and the bottom of combs, 
and not otherwise, proceed to remove the fillets 
of the top division and pass the brass divider be- 
tween those parts, where it should remain for an 
hour; then raise the division with a wedge and 
draw back the slider of the adapter to let the bees 
out, and when clear, which will be in a few min- 
utes, remove this division and place the adapter 
to the next division, and by withdrawing the 
divider it will fit close down ; when the combs of 
honey are taken out from this division it should 
be replaced at the bottom; consequently, every 
year or once in two years gives them, as it were, 
a fresh division or part of a hive to rebuild in, 
which keeps the bees constantly at work and the 
combs in a good state of preservation. 
To work Bees in a Hexagon Box Hive and Straw 
Hive. 

This box hive is admirably constructed with 
slider and grating, having large glass windows. 



100 



EURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 



and supporting a glass hive on the top, that, when 
well supplied with bees, affords the pleasing 
opportunity of viewing the progress of their 
labors, and exhibits a very interesting and beau- 
tiful appearance. 

To hive a swarm it is only necessary to shut the 
slider over the grating, and then proceed as before 
directed. (When a glass hive is to be worked 
follow the instructions given with the superior 
box hive.) This hive is the best calculated to 
work bees from other hives, especially when they 
are in a state of decay, particuhirly the common 
hive. It is effected merely by withdrawing the 
slider clear of the grate and placing the common 
hive over it in the evening, taking care to stop 
the entr.ince of the former with mortar. The bees 
will of course then enter at bottom, and when 
they have worked the bottom hive nearly full, 
which is ascertained by means of the windows, 
carefully lift them up and place them under ano- 
ther hexagon hive; consequently this colony con- 
sists of three hives, and it will not be safe to 
remove the upper hive unless the bees have worked 
combs into the bottom hive, which, if effected at 
the end of the season, the common hive may be 
safely taken with its contents. 

To work Bees in the Common Hive. 

This hive being in such general use in this 
country for many years, requires but little obser- 
vation, except on some essential points, which, to 
benefit the cultivator, ought to be attended to. 
First, care should be taken to have the hive made 
of clean and good straw, and manufactured of a 
suitable thickness. Some hives are so thin and 
loose as to require many days of the most valu- 
able time of the swarm to render the hive fit for 
their use. 

Secondly, a hive should be chosen in proportion 
to the size of the swarm; and when a good hive 
is obtained, and a swarm placed in it, which 
should fill it to within a rim or two of the bottom, 
shelter it from cold winds and rain; for, if once 
the wet penetrates a hive it affects the combs, and 
the bees getting a distaste for their home, will 
work very slowly, and often desert it altogether; 
whereas, if they have a hive to their liking leave 
them unmolested, and they will soon furnish it 
with combs and honey. It is not material in what 
aspect the stock stands, provided the sun shines 
on the hive once in the course of the day. Well 
peopled hives, kept dry, will thrive in most situ- 
ations. 

One of those fatal accidents to which this hive 
is subject, occurs through covering it with a hackle 
or turf, by which their great enemy, the mouse, 
is enticed, who will make a nest on the top, and 
ultimately eat its way through the crown of the 
hive, and destroy both combs and bees. 

About August the robbing commences by bees 
and wasps, which is but little regarded ; an im- 
portant benefit will be derived by destroying the 
queen wasp, seen about April, which is the mo- 
ther of thousands; much therefore depends on 
the preservation of those hives which are to stand 
the winter. To protect them apply the guard in- 
vented by Mr. Espinasse, which is calculated to 
prove highly beneficial in its effects. 

In September attention should be directed to 
weigh the stocks; none of those of less than from 
fifteen to twenty pounds in weight can safely be 
relied on to stand the winter without feeding; and 
stop all hives down to the board with mortar. 
To establish an Apiary. 

The best time to establish an apiary is about 
February, as the stocks have passed through the 
winter in safety. The combs are then empty of 



brood, light of honey, and the removal safe and 
easy. Stocks should be selected by a competent 
judge, as the weight alone cannot always be re- 
lied on ; but such as weigh twelve pounds and 
upwards — the number of bees must also be ob- 
served, and that they are well combed to near the 
bottom — these may be safely chosen. 

When they are brought home set them in the 
bee-house, being particularly careful to keep them 
dry. The next day plaster the hive to the board, 
leaving an entrance the size of the little finger. 

If this season has passed, purchase the first and 
early swarms; for late ones or casts are notwDrth 
keeping, unless twt) or three have been united. 

To remove stocks, the evening is the best time; 
the hive should be raised by wedges some hours 
previous, unless the floor be also moveable with 
the hive — otherwise many bees will remain on 
the floor at the time, and prove very troublesome. 
But when the door is moveable, plaster the hive 
with mortar to the board; pin a card pierced with 
holes before the entrance, securing the hive to the 
board firmly; in this way it would travel any dis- 
tance. 

Swarms purchased should be brought home the 
same evening; for if delayed for a day or two, 
combs will be worked, and subject to be broken in 
removing. 

To cultivate Bee-Flowers. 

Bees are most fond of those places where their 
favorite flowers are to be found ; therefore bee- 
keepers should encourage the growth of such 
shrubs and flowers as are known to supply honey 
and wax in the greatest abundance; in most situ- 
ations bees do not fly far for food, generally not 
more than half a mile; they may be observed to 
return with great precipitation to the hive when 
rain or a storm approaches. The following are 
the most favorable for pasturage, and those which 
blossom early are the most desirable : 



Shrubs, etc. 
Gray willow. 
Tulip poplar. 
Persimmon. 
Gooseberry, 
Raspberry. 
Apricot and all other 

fruit-trees. 
American linden. 
Locust. 
Broom. 
Alder. 



Flowers, 
Mignonette. 
Lemon thyme. 
Garden and wild thyme 
Buckwheat. 
Winter savory. 
Hyssop. 
Mustard. 
Turnips. 
Cabbage. 
White clover. 
Scarlet and other beans. 



when 
left for 
seed. 



Mignonette, borage, and lemon thyme are the 
principal, as they continue very long in bloom, 
and afford the finest honey. Rosemary is also a 
great favorite, but seldom supplies much honey in 
this country, unless the weather proves very hot 
and dry when it is in blossom, yet it is worth cul- 
tivating, especially in a southern aspect, being one 
of the principal aromatic plants from which the 
bees in the neighborhood of Narbonne collect their 
honey, which is esteemed the finest in Europe. 
Fields of beans, white clover, and buckwheat are 
of great benefit. Rivers or streams of water are 
also very beneficial, as bees make use of a great 
deal of water. 

To swarm Bees. 

Swarming depends on the increase of bees, and 
a queen being ready to lead them. Their breed- 
ing begins sooner or later, according to the for- 
wardness of the spring, the fruitfulness of the 
queen, and the populousness of the hive. When 
bees carry in farina or pellets on their thighs, it 
denotes they have commenced breeding, which 
may be as early as February, and not finish till 



BEES. 



101 



OctoVer; and when their numbers are much in- 
creased they show indications of swarming, by 
their clustering in great quantities below the rest- 
iiig-board. They never rise but on a fine day, 
and sometimes will settle, and for some cause re- 
turn to the stock, (irobably for want of a queen 
being with them. Some hives will cast three times, 
but mostly only twice. The second cast may be 
expected within three or four days, and never later 
than ten days after the first. Should a stock over- 
swarm itself it will perish, unless strengthened ; 
this may be ascertained by observing the quantity 
of bees afterwards seen to enter. It is necessary 
in the swarming season, from April to July, par- 
ticularly in May and June, to observe the hives 
on a fine day ; in general the bees issue forth about 
noon — from nine to two o'clock, or about three in 
the afternoon. 

To hiae Bees. 
Bee-keepers should have square hives by them, 
prepared to hive the bees as soon as they are set- 
tled ; for should the sun shine hot upon the swarm 
it may take another flight, and may possibly be 
lost entirely. The manner of hiving them must 
be regulated by the nature of the place on which 
they settle. The custom of preparing hives va- 
ries ; a ole.an new hive only requires the loose straw 
to be rubbed off with a cloth ; if any dressing be 
used, fennel dipped in ale and sugar will best an- 
swer the purpose. Having ready a cloth whereon 
to place the hive, and a wedge to raise it; if the 
swarm should settle on a branch, shake the best 
part of it into the hive, place it on the cloth on the 
ground, and continue to disturb the swarm where 
it is settled, and the hive being left underneath, 
they will all go in, or cut the branch off, and 
gently place it in the hive. Should the bees set- 
tle on the ground, place the hive over them; and 
though bees are not apt to sting at this time, the 
Living should be performed quietly. Avoid talk- 
ing anil breathing on them, and if any of them 
are crushed, they will resent it; therefore, to pre- 
vent aicidcnt, invariably use the bee-dress, which 
will give confidence. All swarms are to be shel- 
tered and left near to where they settle till the 
evening ; thence to be removed very gently to the 
appointed place. 

Til unite Swnrmn, and reinforce Stocks. 
It is essential when there are weak swarms of 
bees, that they should be strengthened. The idea, 
Bo prevalent, of the greatest number of hives pro- 
ducing the most honey and wax, is erroneous; for 
a great part of the bees is necessarily employed in 
rearing the young, and therefore the number of 
those who are occupied in collecting honey is not 
near so great as has been imagined : for every 
swarm, the least as well as the greatest, is pro- 
vided with a queen, equal in fecundity to the 
queen of the larger stock, and as the brood she 
brings continually demands the labor and attend- 
ance of nearly half the bees, this circumstance 
renders the other moiety, from the smallness of 
their number, unable to accumulate a large quan- 
tity of honey in the short time it mostly abounds, 
and therefore honey cannot be obtained in glass 
hives or otherwise, but from a strongly-peopled 
hive. 

Have the swarms or casts in the usual way, 
and at about eight o'clock the same evening spread 
a cloth on the ground, near to the hive required to 
be reinforced ; bring the new swarm, and strike it 
down rather hard, flat on the ground. The bees 
will then fall in a cluster ; quickly place over 
them the stock to be reinforced ; in ten minutes 
they will have united and become as one family, 
to be removed the same evening to its former 
dituation. 



Or, each cast or swarm may be hived separately. 
In the evening, turn the crown of the hive into a 
pail, and set the other hive exactly over it; in the 
morning the bees from the bottom hive will have 
ascended. 

The system of uniting, so very important, is 
but little practised, and has been overlooked by 
uiany cultivators ; but it is absolutely necessary 
to have the hives well peopled and completely 
sheltered from wet, which are the principal and 
main objects to be particularly attended to in the 
art of bee-keeping; and the advantages of uniting 
swarms will be found particularly beneficial on. 
working the glasses with the newly invented 
double-topped hives. 

To feed Bees. 

With the aid of feeding it is perfectly easy to 
bring any hive of bees through the winter; but 
to ensure the success of a very light stock, it is 
essential to keep it also very warm and dry. Feed- 
ing is absolutely necessary when more honey has 
been taken than the hive can afford, by means of 
small hives or glasses. Such stocks as are in- 
tended to be kept through the winter should weigh 
twenty pounds or upwards at the end of Septem- 
ber ; but casts and late swarms seldom attain this 
weight, unless two or more should have been 
united. The composition for feeding consists of 
moist sugar and new beer, the proportion of one 
pound of sugar to a pint of beer, Simmered to the 
consistency of treacle: to be inserted into the 
hives by means of small troughs, at night, and 
removed the next morning early. Should a hive 
be very poor and weak, it is better to feed in 
larger quantities each time. 

Another Method. V 

Have a thick wooden hoop, about six inches 
deep, to set upon the board when the hive is taken 
up, and set honey-combs with the natural honey 
in them, or filied with sugar a little moistened, 
and set the hive upon it. A piece of an old hive 
will m.ake a good hoop. Old empty combs should 
be carefully kept covered up with a piece of thin 
linen or muslin, in a very clean place for feeding 
the bees. Weak hives should be removed at a dis- 
tance from the rest, when they must be fed; if 
near the strong will rob them. Remove them in 
the following manner: Take up the board with 
the hive, tie a cloth firm over it, and with a hand- 
barrow carry it gently between two where it is in- 
tended to be placed. Troughs of pithy wood, fillel 
with moistened sugar or honey, and thrust in at 
the aperture of the hive, is a good method of feed- 
ing. Be sure when raising a hive from the board, 
to fix it down again with plaster lime. 

Be not hasty in concluding a hive is dead though 
the bees seem inactive. Expose them atmidday, 
turned upon a white sheet, where the sun is most 
powerful, for half an hour; then house them in a 
warm place, where neither noise, bad smells, nor 
light can annoy thera. 

If wanted to purchase a hive defer it till May. 
Set careful persons to watch at several stalls that 
they may reckon, by watch time, every loaded bee 
that comes in for ten or fifteen minutes. That 
which has mo.st laborers should be the choice. All 
the refuse honey, after draining the best in jars, 
should be kept in a clean place for feeding the 
bees. 

Improved Machine for feeding Bees. 

Prepare a board a little larger than the bottom 
of tbe hive, in the centre of which make an open- 
ing about ten inches diameter; then form a frame 
of half inch deal, to consist of four sides, each 
about twelve inches by three inches; make the 
angles firm with small wooden blocks, to which 



102 



RUEAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 



affix tlie before-mentioned lao,ard. A door should 
then be made in a side of the frame sufficiently 
large to admit a deep plate, or small dish, to con- 
tain the food. By the use of this machine the 
bees are fed quietly, and protected from the cold 
weather and the intrusiim of other bees. It is 
scarcely necessary to observe further, that the 
door of the machine should face such part of the 
bee-house as best suits convenience. The dish 
of food to be placed under should be covered with 
a piece of thick paper the size of the plate or dish, 
pierced in holes through which the bees will feed ; 
and a quantity of short pieces of straw also put 
into the dish will prevent the bees from daubing 
themselves. They should be fed at night, and 
the dish only taken away early on the following 
morning, to do this the face and hands should be 
covered. The autumn and early part of the 
spring are times proper to examine if any hives 
require feeding; but always commence before the 
stock is in absolute want of food, otherwise the 
bees will be so poor and weak as to be unable to 
come down. 

To maiia/je Honey. 
To judge of the best honey, it should be of a 
bright pale color, thick, and a little aromatic. To 
obtain it from the combs in its pure state, it must 
be left to run from them without pressing. The 
color shows whether it is fine or inferior. If 
wanted to press some in the comb, choose the 
fairest and such as have not been broken; wrap 
each comb in white paper, such as lines the blue 
cover of loaf sugar. Set it edgeways as it stood 
in the hive, and it may be preserved many months. 
The combs meant to be drained, must be cut in 
slices. Lay them on a hair search, supported by 
a rack over the jar, in which the honey is to re- 
main ; for the less it is stirred after draining the 
better it keeps. Fill the jar to the brim, as a 
little scum must be taken off when it has settled. 
A bladder, well washed in lukewarm water, ought 
to be laid over the double fold of white paper with 
which it is covered. 

To take the Honey without destroying the Bees. 
The following easy method of taking the honey 
without destroying the bees, is generally practised 
in France. In the dusk of the evening, when the 
beos are quietly lodged, approach the hive, and 
turn it gently over. Having steadily placed it in 
a small pit, previously dug to receive it, with its 
bottom upwards, cover it with a clean new hive, 
which has been properly prepared, with a few 
sticks across the inside of it, and rubbed with aro- 
matic herbs. Having carefully adjusted the mouth 
of each hive to the other, so that no aperture re- 
mains between them, take a small stick and beat 
. gently round the sides of the lower hive for about 
ten minutes or a quarter of an hour, in which 
time the bees will leave their cells in the lower 
hive, ascend, and adhere to the upper one. Then 
gently lift the new hive, with all its little tenants, 
and place it on the stand from which the other 
hive was taken. This should be done some time 
in the week preceding midsummer day, that the 
bees may have time, before the summer flowers 
are faded, to lay in a new stock of honey, which 
they will not fail to do for their subsistence through 
winter. 

To manage Bees generally. 
The best situation for bees is to the north, with 
a range of hills wooded on the summit, and to- 
ward the base, enriched with heather, skirted to 
the east with a stream from the rocks. To con- 
fine this rivulet, the bee-master should sow the 
sandy beech with the seed of furze, and cover it 
with a light surface of earth. The furze would 



soon vegetate; and blooming, in the course of 
three years, overpay his labor by providing the 
bees with pasture on soil otherwise barren, and 
the margin of the brook would gradually rise to 
restrain its encroachment on fertile lands. Sup- 
pose a white clover field to the south of the hills, 
and south from the field a large ganlen, where 
hardy winter greens have been allowed to flower 
as early food for the bees. AVhite mustard should 
also be sown very early in patches near the hive; 
but not nearer than one yard. A few dwarf 
flowers may come within two feet, but tall grown 
ones would assist insects to get up. To the west 
it would be desirable to have a shrubbery, a wood, 
a broom common, or heather moor. 

The stations for the hives must be six yards 
asunder, and never nearer than three yards. The 
board on which they are placed ought to be of one 
piece; or, if joined, the under side of the joining 
should be lined with a thinner board fixed closely 
with wooden pins. The edges of this rounded 
standard should project four inches all round from 
the hive. Place it on three wooden pillars sixteen 
inches long, ten inches above the ground ; but six 
inches of its length should be firmly thrust into 
the earth; in all, its length to be sixteen inches. 
The pillar in front should be an inch shorter than 
the other two, and the three pillars should be 
within twelve or fourteen inches of the outer edge 
of the board to, exclude rats and mice. For the 
same reason no tall-growing plant, no wall, nor 
any means for ascent should be within three or 
four feet of the hive. In fine weather the en- 
trance to the hive must be four inches long and 
an inch and a half in depth. 

Fowls do not eat bees, but are useful to them 
by destroying worms. Ducks sometimes eat them 
and are killed thereby. 

In the beginning of the fine season, when the 
bees '>an get food, or have stores remaining, the 
bee-master has nothing to do but to keep the 
ground about the hives clear from weeds and 
from whatever might enable vermin to climb 
there. Yet as a thriving stock inclines very soon 
to swarm, the hives must be frequently looked 
after, from eight in the morning till five in the 
afternoon. The symptoms are generally thus :^ 
The little city seems crowded with inhabitants; 
they are continually in motion during the day; 
and after working-time they make loud noises. 
The drones may be seen flying about in the heat 
of the day, and the working bees go with a reel- 
ing motion and busy hum. When the bees come 
regularly out of the hives let no noise, no inter- 
ruption incommode them ; but if thej' fly long, as 
if they were unsettled, some tinkling noise or the 
loud report of a gun will make the fugitives repair 
to the nearest lodgings. If there is an empty 
hive with combs and some h(mey in it they will 
readily go there. If a new hive is used, remember 
to smooth it well within and singe ofl' loose straws. 
Perpendicular sticks should never be employed. 
Four cross sticks at equal distances will support 
the combs. Old hives do very well for late swarms 
that are not to be preserved through the winter; 
but box hives are best for them, as the bees work 
fastest there. They are not, however, fit for being 
kept through the cold seasons. 

The first spontaneous swarming is only to be 
anticipated by finding the royal cells sealed up. 

It is to be observed that great haste in forcing 
a swarm into the hive may disperse them. Give 
them time to settle undisturbed, though keep a 
steady eye on their motions; but whenever they 
gather into a cluster lose no time in placing the 
hive over them. If the swarm rest on anything 
that can be brought to the ground, spread a clean 



BEES. 



103 



linen oloth ; lay two sticks on it, two feet asunder ; 
lay the bod> on which the swarm have fixed gen- 
tly en the sticks, covering it with the hive by a 
motion the least perceptible, and taking care that 
the edges of the hive rest upon tlie sticks. Cover 
hive and all with a cloth, fur the sun might allure 
the bees to rise again. When they have gone into 
the hive, cover it with its own board and carry it 
cautiously to its station. Bees are apt to leave 
their hive even after they begin to work, so they 
must be watched till evening and throughout the 
ensuing day. AVhenever they are sure to remain, 
fix the hive to its board with a little lime round 
the edges, and crown it with green sods to keep 
out too great heat or rain. 

If a hive divides into two swarms it is a sign 
that each swarm has a queen. Put each into old 
hives or boxes ; but they must be kept separate. 
If a cluster of bees about the size of a small plum 
is seen together, the queen will generally be 
found there. Separate them, and with a drinking 
glass turned down you may seize the queen. Put 
her and a score or two of her subjects into a box 
full of holes, large enough to admit air, and yet 
not to allow the bees to escape. Feed her with 
honey combs, and keep her in reserve in case of 
the death of a queen in one of the hives. When 
a hive ceases to work it is a sure sign the queen 
is no more. Then the bee-master may wait an 
hour and not see a loaded bee enter the habitation. 
But if the spare queen be taken late in the even- 
ing, wetting her wings to prevent her escape, and 
introduce her to the desponding society, they will 
receive her gladly and begin to work. 

If the bees of a hive fight among themselves, 
he assured there are two queens : and they will de- 
stroy each other if one is not taken away to keep. 

When bees are to swarm a second or more times, 
they do not come out in clusters, but they make 
a sound called bellings, which may be heard, 
ceasing for a little, and renewed again and again. 
If there are difi"erent tones it is certain there are 
several young queens in the hive. It is only by 
putting the ear close to it that the sound can be 
heard distinctly. 

To keep large Hives for Winter, 
They must not be more than three years old 
atid well stocked with bees. A hive for preserving 
should weigh from thirty to forty pounds. Place 
them in October where they are to remain, ob- 
serving the usual precautions against vermin or 
winds, and giving them if possible a distance of 
six or eight yards asunder, that they may not rob 
each other. Set the hive after sunset Plaster 
the edge firmly round with plaster lime, all except 
the entrance. Fit a piece of hard wood to the 
aperture, cut two holes a quarter of an inch square, 
and fix the board as a daor with plaster lime. 
Cover the hive with drawn straw tied together at 
the top, and fix it with straw ropes around. Cut 
the straw a quarter of an inch below the board, 
for a few lengths may conduct vermin into the 
torpid community. Once in four or five weeks 
raise the hive from the board after sunset. Scrape 
the board clean and brush away dead bees. Ob- 
serve when turning them up if they move their 
wings ; if not, bring them into a warmer situation, 
free from noise, and the light excluded. Keep 
them there till the extreme rigor of the season is 
past, and then return them to their old situation 
after sunset. 

Sunshine in snow is destructive to bees if they 
get out. Put a planting of twigs across the holes 
to give air and yet confine the inmates. Never 
confine them more than eight or ten days, and ex- 
cept in snow in the sunshine, their own sagacity 



will direct when it is safe to go out. It is abso- 
lutely necessary for their health to have leave for 
going in and out in tolerably mild weathor. 

To manage Bee-Hives of Mr. Thorley'a Construc- 
tion. 

The bottom part is an octangular bee-box, made 
of deal boards about an inch in thickness, the 
cover of which is externally seventeen inches in 
diameter but internally only fifteen inches, and 
its height ten. In the middle of the cover of this 
octangular box is a hole, which may be opened or 
shut at pleasure by means of a slider. In one of 
the panels is a pane of glass, covered with a 
wooden door. The entrance at the bottom of the 
box is about three and a half inches broad and 
half an inch high. Two slips of deal, about half 
an inch square, cross each other in the centre of 
the box, and are fastened to the panel by means 
of small screws : to these slips the bees fasten 
their combs. In this octangular box the bees arc 
hived after swarming in the usual manner, and 
then suffered to continue till they have built their 
combs and filled them with honey, which may be 
known by opening the door and viewing their 
works through the glass pane, or by the weight 
of the hive. AVhen the bee-master finds his la- 
borious insects have filled their habitation, he is 
to place a common bee-hive of straw, made either 
flat on the top or in the common form, on the 
octangular box, and drawing out the slider a com- 
munication will be opened between the box and 
the straw hive; in consequence of which the bees 
will fill this hive also with the product of their 
labors. 

When the straw-hive is well filled the slider 
may be pushed in, and the hive taken away and 
another placed in its room, with the slider drawn 
out. This new hive will also be filled in the same 
manner. 

Mr. Thorley assured the Society of Arts that 
be had taken three successive hives filled with 
honey and wax from a single hive during the 
same summer, and that the food still remaining in 
the octangular box was suflBcient for the support 
of the bees during the winter. He says that if 
this method were pursued in every part of the 
kingdom, instead of the cruel method of destroy- 
ing these useful insects, he is persuaded, from 
long experience, that wax would be collected in 
such plenty that candles made with it might be 
sold as cheap as those of tallow arc sold at 
present. 

Mr. Thorley has also added another part to his 
bee-hive, consisting of a glass reservoir eighteen 
inches high, eight inches in diameter at the bottom 
and in the greatest part thirteen ; this receiver 
has a hole at the top about one inch in diameter, 
through which a square piece of deal is extended 
nearly to the bottom of the vessel, having two 
cross bars, to which the bees fasten their combs. 
Into the other end of this square piece is screwed 
a piece of brass, which serves as a handle to the 
receiver or glass hive. When the bees have filled 
their straw hive, which must have a hole in the 
centre, covered with a piece of tin, Mr. Thorley 
places the glass receiver upon the top of the straw 
hive and draws out the piece of tin. The bees, 
now finding their habitation enlarged, pursue 
their labors with such alacrity that they fill their 
glass hives likewise with their stores, the whole 
progress of their works. It will, however, be ne- 
cessary to cover the glass with an empty hive of 
straw, or at least with a cloth, lest too much light 
prevent their working. In this way Mr. Thorley 
in a good season has had a glass hive filled in 
thirty days, containing thirty-eight pounds of fine 



104 



FARRIERY. 



honey. When the glass is completely filled slide 
a tin plate between the hive or box, so as to cover 
the passage, and in half an hour the glass may 
be taken away with safety. The few bees that 
remain will readily go to their companions. 

Mr. Thorley has added a glass window to his 
straw hives, in order to observe the progress of 
the bees, and this contrivance is useful, especially 
if one hive is to be removed whilst the season 
continues favorable for their collecting of honey, 
for when the combs are filled with honej' the cells 
are sealed up, and the bees forsake them, and re- 
side mostly in the hives in which their works are 
chiefly carried on. Observing also that the bees 
were apt to extend their combs through the pas- 
sage or communication into the upper hive, which 
rendered it necessary to divide the comb when the 
upper hive was taken away, be puts in the pas- 
sage a wire screen or netting, the meshes of which 
are large enough for a loaded bee to pass easily 
through them, and thus he prevents the junction 
of the combs from one bo.x to the other, and 
consequently obviates the necessity of cutting 
them and of spilling some honey, which, running 
down among a crowd of bees, incommoded them 
much. 

Langstroth's patent hive is now much recom- 
mended. In it each comb has a separate frame. 
You can cut out the queen cells in the spring and 
thus prevent swarming. A hive ought not to be 
used for more than eight years. But the bees 
need not be destroyed ; you may drive them from 
one hive to another by rappimj on the occupied 
one. 

To manage Bees on Mr, Cohbett's plan. 

The best hives are those made of clean, un- 
blighted rye-straw. A swarm should always be 
put into a new hive, and the sticks should be new 
that are put into the hive for the bees to work on, 
for if the hive be old it is not so wholesome, and a 
thousand to one but it contains the embryos of 
moths and other insects injurious to bees. Over 
the hive itself there should be a cap of thatch, 
made also of clean rye-straw, and it should not 
only be new when first put on the hive, but a new 
one should be made to supply the place of the 
former one everj' three or four months, for when 
the straw begins to get rotten, as it soon does, in- 
sects breed in it, its smell is bad, and its effect on 
the bees is dangerous. 

The hives should be placed on a bench, the legs 
of which mice and rats cannot creep up. Tin 
round the legs is best. But even this will not keep 
down ants, which are mortal enemies to bees. To 



keep them away if they infest the hive, take a 
green stick and twist it round the leg of the bench, 
and at a few inches from it, and cover this stick- 
with tar. This will keep away the ants. 

Besides the hive and its cap there should be a 
sort of shed, with top, back and ends, to give ad- 
ditional protection in winter, though in summer 
hives may be kept too hot, and in that case the 
bees become sickly and the produce light. Th« 
situation of the hive is to face the southeast, or 
at any rate to be sheltered from the north and the 
west. From the north always, and from the west 
in winter. If it be a very dry season in summer 
it contributes greatly to the success of the bees to 
place clear water near their home in a thing that 
they can conveniently drink out of, for if they 
have to go a great way for drink they have not 
much time for work. 

It is supposed that bees live only a year ; at 
any rate it is best never to keep the same stall or 
family over two years, except it be wanted to in- 
crease the number of hives. The swarm of this 
summer should be always taken in the autumn of 
the next year. If you save the bees when the 
honey is taken, they must be fed, and if saved 
they will die of old age before the next fall, and 
though young ones will supply the place of the 
dead, this is nothing like a good swarm put up 
during the summer. 

A good stall of bees, that is to say the produce 
of one, is always worth about two bushels of good 
wheat. The cost is nothing to the laborer. He 
must be a stupid countryman, indeed, who cannot 
make a bee-hire, and a lazy one, indeed, if he 
will not if he can. In short, there is nothing 
but care demanded, and there are very few situ- 
ations in the country where a laboring man 
may not have half a dozen stalls of bees to 
take every year. The main things are to keep 
away insects, mice and birds, and especially a 
little bird called the bee-bird, and to keep all 
clean and fresh as to the hives and coverings. 
Never put a swarm into an old hive. If wasps 
or hornets annoy you, watch them home in the 
day time, and in the night kill them by fire or by 
boiling water. 

The new Italian bee is more industrious than 
the common bee. It has, too, .a larger proboscis, 
and can suck the red clover. It is more docile 
than the common bee. A new queen can be best 
introduced into a hive in a small cage of wire 
gauze, with about a hundred bees of her own kind, 
or else she may be put in while unhatched in the 
royal cell. 



FA^RRIEI^Y. 



[Attention is called to valuable articles upon Rinderpest and Trichinae, on pages 467, 46S, 469, which could not b« 
finished in time to insert here, owing to delay in receiving the latest European iuformation (May 15, 1866;.] 



The Teeth of a Horse. 

At five years of age the horse has forty teeth — 
twenty-four molar or jaw teeth, twelve incisor or 
front teeth and four tusks or canine teeth between 
till- molars and incisors, but usually wanting in 
the mare. 

At birth only the two nippers or middle inci- 
sors appear. 

At (me year old the incisors are all visible of 
the first or milk set. 

Before three years the permanent nippers have 
oome through. 

At four years old the permanent dividers next 
to the nippers are out. 



At five the mouth is perfect, the second set of 
teeth having been completed. 

At six the hollow under the nippers, called the 
mark, has disappeared from the nippers, and di- 
minished in the dividers. 

At seven the mark has disappeared from the 
dividers, and the next teeth, or corners, are level, 
though showing the mark. 

At eight the mark has gone from the corners, 
and the horse is miA to be aged. After this time, 
indeed good authorities say after five years, the 
age of a horse can unly be conjectured. But the 
teeth gradually change their/ocm, the incisors be- 
coming round, oval, and then triangular. Dealers 



HORSES AND CATTLE. 



105 



sometimes bishop the teeth of old horses ; that is, 
ecoop them oul, to imitate the mark: but this can 
be Unown by the absence of the white edge of 
enamel which always surrounds the real mark, 
by the shnpe of the teeth, and other marks of age 
about the animal. 

When a Horse i» Unsound. 

Any of the following defects constitute unsound- 
ness in a horse : 

Lameness, of all kinds and degrees. Diseases 
of any of the internal organs. Cough of all kinds, 
as lonij IIS it exists. Colds or catarrhs, while they 
last. Roaring ; broken wind ; thick wind ; grease ; 
mange ; farcy and glanders ; megrims or staggers ; 
founder; convex feet; contracted feet; spavins 
and ringbones; enlargements of the sinews or 
ligaments ; cataracts and other defects of the eyes, 
impairing sight. 

The following may or may not occasion un- 
Bouuiiness, according to the state or degree in 
which they exist: Corns, splints, thrushes, bog- 
epavins, throughpins, wind-galls, crib- biting. 
Curbs are unsoundness unless the horse has 
worked with them for some months without in- 
oonvenience. 

Cutting, (larticularly speedy cutting, constitutes 
unsoundness when it cannot be reme<lied by care 
and skill. Quidding, when a confirmed habit, in- 
jures the soundness of a horse. 

Defects, called blemishes, are : Scars, from bro- 
ken knees; capped hocks, splints, bog-spavins, 
and throughpins ; loss of hair, from blisters or 
scars; enlargements from blows or cutting; specks 
or streaks on the corner of the eye. 

Vices are : Restiveness, shying, bolting, run- 
ning away, kicking, rearing, weaving or moving 
the head from side to side, stringhalt, quidding, 
slipping the halter. 

Wounds in Horses or Cattle. 

When horses, cattle, or any of our domestic an- 
imals are wounded, the treatment may be very 
Simple, and much the same as in the human race. 
It is extremely improper to follow a practice that 
is common in many parts of the country among 
farriers, cow-doctors, and even shepherds — that 
of applying to the wound, or putting into the sore 
part, common salt, powder of blue vitriol, or tar, 
or cloths dipped in spirits, as brandy, rum, etc., 
or turpentine, or any other stimulant articles; for 
all such very much increase the pain, and, by irri- 
tating the sore, may increase the iuflauiuiation, 
even tp the length of inducing mortification. 
Though the treatment may be varied according 
to circumstances, yet, in most cases, it may be 
sufficient to take notice of the following particu- 
lars : It will be proper to wash away any foulness 
or dirt about the part, and to examine particularly 
its condition. 

To stop the Bleeding. 

Should any large bloodvessel be cut, and dis- 
charging copiously, it will be right to stop it, by 
some lint nr sponge, with moderate compression 
or bandaging, at the same time, and not taking it 
off for two or three days. Should the pressure 
fail of effect, caustic applications, such as the lunar 
caustic, or even the actual cautery, the point of a 
thick wire, suSieiently heated, may be tried; or, 
if a surgeon be at hand, the vessel vany be taken 
up by the crooked needle, with waxed thread, and 
then tied. 

Adhesive Plaster and Setoing. 

Where there is no danger of excessive bleeding, 
and a mere division of the parts, or a deep gash 
or cut, it will be right to adjust the parts, and keep 
them together by a strip of any common adhesive 
piaster; or, when this will not do by itself, the 



lips of the wound, especially if it be a clean out, 
may be closed by one or more stitches, with a 
moderately coarse needle and thread, which in 
each stitch may be tied, and the ends left of a 
proper length, so that they can be afterwards re- 
moved, when the parts adhere. It is advised to 
tie the threads, because sometimes the wounded 
part swells so much that it is ditiicult to get them 
cut and drawn out, without giving pain and doing 
some mischief. 

Bandages. 

If the part will allow a roller or bandage to bo 
used, to keep the lips of it together, this may 
likewise be employed; for, by supporting the sides 
of the wound, it would lessen any pain which the 
stitches occasion. With this treatment the wound 
heals often in a short time, or in a few days, rarely 
exceeding five or six, and sooner in the young and 
healthy than in the old and relaxed, and sooner 
in tiie quiet and motionless than in the restless 
and active. 

Should the wound be large and inflammation, 
with the discharge of matter, likely to take place, 
it may still be proper, by gentle means, to bring 
the divided parts near to each other, and to retain 
them in their natural situation by means of a 
bandage. This should not be made too tight, but 
merely to support the part. In this way, and by 
avoiding stimulant applications, the wound will 
heal more readily than otherwise, and the chance 
of any blemishes following will be diminished. 
Washes of spirits, brandy, and the like, Friar'g 
balsam, spirit of wine and camphor, turpentine, 
or any other such irritating applications, aro 
highly improper, and sometimes makes a fresh, 
clean wound (that would readily heal almost of 
itself) inflame and perhaps mortify, or become a 
bad sore. 

Sores and Bruises. 

Over the whole sore, or where the part is bruised 
or where there is a tendency to suppuration, a 
poultice should be applied and kept on by suitable 
bandages. The poultice may be made of any kind 
of meal, fine bran, bruised linseed, or of mashed 
turnips, carrots, etc. The following has been 
found useful as a common poultice : " Fine bran, 
1 quart; pour on a sufficient quantity of boiling 
water to make a thin paste; to this add of linseed 
powder enough to give it a proper consistence." 
The poultice may be kept on for a week or ten 
days, or even longer, if necessary, changing it 
once or twice a day, and cleaning the wound, when 
the poultice is removed, by washing it by means 
of a soft rag or linen cloth, with water not more 
than blood warm (some sponges are too rough for 
this purpose); or, where the wound is deep, the 
water may be injected into it by a syringe, in 
order to clean it from the bottom. 

Ointment. 
In the course of a few days, when the wound, 
by care and proper management with the poul- 
tices, begins to put on a healthy appearance, and 
seems to be clean and of a reddish color, not 
black or bloody, then there may be applied an 
ointment made of tallow, linseed oil, beeswax, 
and hogs' lard, in such proportions as to make it 
of a consistence somewhat firmer than butter. 
The ointment should be spread on some soft clean 
tow, and when applied to the sore it ought never 
to be tied hard upon it (which is done too fre- 
quently and very improperly), but only fixed by 
a bandage of a proper length and breadth (for a 
mere cord is olten improper), so close and se- 
curely as to keep it from slipping off. This a| pli- 
cation may be changed once a day, or, when nearly 
well and discharging but little, once in two days. 



106 



FARRIEET. 



Green Ointment for Woundi. 
Put into a well-glazed earthen vessel 2 ounces 
of beeswax; melt it over a clear fire, and add 2 
ounces of resin ; when that is melted, put in half 
a pound of hogs' lard; to this put 4 ounces of 
turpentine ; keep stirring all the time with a clean 
stick or wooden spatula. When all is well mixed, 
stir in 1 ounce of finely powdered verdigris. Be 
careful it does not boil over. Strain it through a 
coarse cloth, and preserve it in a gallipot. This 
ointmont is very good for old and recent wounds, 
whtither in flesh or hoof; also galled backs, 
crocked heels, mallenders, sallenders, bites, broken 
knees, etc. 
Treatment, according to Appearance of the Part. 
When the wounded part begins to discharge a 
whitish, thick matter, and is observed to fill up, 
the general treatment and dressings to the sore 
now mentioned should be continued; and in the 
course of the cure the animal, when free of fever, 
may be allowed better provision, and may take 
gentle exercise. If the animal be feeble from the 
loss of blood originally, or from the long continu- 
ance of a feverish state, produced by the inflam- 
mation attending the wound, or from weakness 
arising from confinement, or connected with its 
constitution naturally, and if the wound appear to 
be in a stationary state, very pale and flabby on 
its edges, with a thin discbarge, then better food 
may be given to it; and if still no change should 
be observed, along with the better food, the wound 
may be treated somewhat differently from what 
has been already advised. The ointment may be 
made more stimulant, by adding to it some resin 
and less beeswax, or, what would be more stimu- 
lant still, some common turpentine; for it is only 
in very rare cases that oil of turpentine can be 
requisite. The efl'ects of an alteration in the mode 
of treatment should be particularly remarked, and 
stimulants should be laid aside, continued, or in- 
creased, according as may be judged proper. Be- 
fore changing the dressings applied to the wound, 
or before rendering them more stimulant and 
active by using heating applications, the effect of 
closer bandaging may be tried; for sometimes, by 
keeping the parts a little more firmly together, 
the cure is promoted. 

Food and Regimen. 
In case of severe wounds attention should be 
paid to the conditi(m of the animal in other re- 
spects. There being always when such happen a 
tendency to violent inflammation and fever, that 
may end fatally, means should be employed to 
moderate both. The apartment should be cool and 
airy, and so quiet that the animal should not be 
disturbed; the drink should not be warm, but 
rather cold, and given freely, though not in too 
large quantities at a time; the food should be 
sparingly given, and of a lighter quality than 
usual, and should be rather succulent and laxa- 
tive, than dry or apt to produce costiveness. 
Bleeding may be employed, either generally from 
a vein, or in some cases, when it can be done, by 
cupping from the hurt part, as in the case of a 
bruise (though this last will seldom be requisite 
or found convenient). Laxative medicines also 
ought to be given and repeated, as there may be 
occasion. 



These are swellings containing matter, that 
make their appearance in different parts of the 
body. The remedies are, to wash the swollen part 
with a quart of vinegar, in which are dissolved 
two ounces of sal ammoniac and half an ounce of 
sugar of lead. If the swelling does not abate in 
two or three days, apply the suppurating poultice. 



When the tumor becomes soft and points, open it 
with a lancet, and let out the matter. Then dress 
it with basilicon ointment. 

Anhnry or Wart. 
Tie a strong silk, or two or three horse-hairs, 
round the neck of the wart, tightening it gradually 
till it falls away. Then dip a piece of tow in alum- 
water and bind it on the spot for a whole day- 
Heal the sore with the green ointment. 

Bulla for Horses. 
These should always be made fresh fcr using, 
lest they become too hard. They should be about 
three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and from two 
and a half to four inches long. 

Inflamed Bladder. 

Make the animal drink largely of flaxseed tea, 
barley or rice water, or any mucilaginous liquid, 
and inject a portion of the same frequently. 
Bleeding is sometimes useful, and a dose of castor 
oil is never to be omitted. After the oil has ope- 
rated, give the following ball every sixth hour: 
Powdered nitre, half an ounce ; camphor, 1 
drachm; liquorice powder, 3 drachms; honey 
sufiicient to form the ball. Should these means 
not relieve the animal, omit the half, and give 1 
drachm of opium twice a day. 
Bog Spavin. 

This is an enlargement of the hock-joint, with 
fluid, common in young horses, from violent ex- 
ercise. 

Clip off the hair from the swelling, and rub all 
round outside of the swelling with a piece of hard 
brown soap, then apply to the swelling a blister 
made of the following 

Blistering Ointment. 

Hogs' lard, half an ounce ; beeswax, 3 drachms; 
Spanish flies, 2 drachms. Mix them all well, and 
spread it on white leather, and apply it to the 
spavin. 

Oil of cantharides, with four times its weight of 
olive oil, may be used, instead of the ointment. 
The blistered surface should be dressed with sim- 
ple cerate. 

Bone Spavin. 

This maybe treated like the former; it is, how- 
ever, generally incurable. The operation of firing 
(which should be done by a professeil hurier), 
and turning to grass, afford the only reasonable 
chances of relief. 

The lameness in this disease of the hock is pe- 
culiar ; the limb being drawn with great celerity. 
Bota. 

Several kinds of worms infest the bowels of 
horses. The hot infests the stomach and intes- 
tine; it is a smalt, reddish worm, with a large 
head, and may be frequently observed in the ilinig. 

The truncheon is short and thick, with a blaok- 
ish head, and is found in the maw, where, if suf- 
fered to remain, it sometimes pierces through, and 
thus is many a fine horse destroyed. 

The maw-worm is of a pale red color, resem- 
bling an earth-worm, from two to three inches 
long, occupying, also, the maw. 

Symptuma of Worms in Horses. 

Stamping forcibly on the ground with either of 
his fore-feet, and frequently striking at his belly 
with his hind ones. Belly projecting and hard — 
looking frequently behind him, and groaning as 
if in great pain. 

JiemedUsa for Worms. 

Keep the horse from all kinds of food for one 
day; at night give him a small quantity of warm 
bran mash, made as uSual, and directly after, a 



DISEASES OF HORSES. 



107 



ball made of 1 scruple of calomel, 1 scruple of 
turpeth mineral, and as much crumb of bread and 
honey as will form the mass. Next evening give 
him a pirt of cnstor, and half a pint of linseed 
oil. The animal is then to be fed as usual for two 
or three days, and the same plan again to be em- 
ployed. 

In the fall, when the horses are first taken from 
grass, bots may often be expelled by giving them 
brine (four or five ounces of salt to one quart of 
water) following a drench of sweetened milk. Oil 
of turpentine is also a powerful vermifuge; four 
ounces may be given in a pint of gruel, fasting 
previously. An almost certnin cure for bots is the 
nux vomica, called vulgarly dog-buttons. Rasp 
the whole of one of the nuts, and pour upon it a 
pint of boiling water. Let It cool to blood-heat, 
and then drench the horse with it; having, about 
half an hour before, bled him in the mouth, so 
that he would swallow the blood, which draws the 
worms into the stomach from the mucous mem- 
brane, into which they fasten themselves. 

Inflammation of the Bowels. 
This not very common, but when it does occur 
dangerous, disorder is of two kinds. The first or 
peritoneal inflammation begins with an appear- 
ance of dullness and uneasiness in the animal; 
appetite diminished or totally gone; constant 
pawing with the fore feet; he lies down, rises 
suddenly, looks round to his flanks — countenance 
strongly expressive of pain ; urine small, high 
colored, and voided with great pain ; pulse quick 
and small; legs and cars cold; profuse sweats; 
mortification and death. 

The second species of the disorder is when the 
inflammation attacks the internal coat of the in- 
testines, and is generally accompanied by a vio- 
lent purging and some fever — the symptoms of 
the laHer, however, are much less violent, nor 
does the animal appear to be in so much pain. 
Treatment, 
In the first or peritoneal inflammation, the only 
dependence is on early and large bleeding. In 
addition to this rub the whole belly well with the 
mustard embrocation, clothe the animal warmly 
(with fresh sheep-skins if possible), insert several 
rowels about the chest and belly, putting into them 
the blistering ointment. As the horse is generally 
costive give him a pint of castor oil, and inject 
clysters of warm flaxseed tea, give him warm 
water or thin gruel or flaxseed tea to drink, rub 
his legs with the hands well, and see that he has 
plenty of clean fresh litter. If in gix hours the 
disease is not relieved, bleed him again, and should 
the costiveness continue^, repeat the oil and clys- 
ters. If. after giving all these remedies n faithful 
and continued trial, the pain should continue, re- 
course may be had to the anodyne clyster. 

In the second species of this disorde.-, bleeding 
need not be resorted to unless the febrile symp- 
toms run high. Clothe the horse warmly, use the 
mustard embrocation freely, and omit the oil. 
Give him frequently, by means of a bottle (if he 
will not drink it), quantities of very thin gruel or 
flaxseed tea. If, in spite of this, the disease con- 
tinue, use the anodyne clyster; if that fail, the 
astringent draught. The pain occasioned by 
physicking, is to be relieved by large clj'sters of 
thin gruel or flaxseed, which produce copious 
evacuations and relief. 

Broken Wind. 
This is an incurable disease; all that can be 
done is to relieve the animal for a time so as to 
enable him to perform a day's work. To do this 
make the following : 



Paste-Ball for Broken- Winded Horses. 

Assafcetida, 2 ounces; powdered squills, 2 
drachms; linseed powder, 1 ounce ; honey, as much 
as will make the mass. Divide it into four halls, 
and give one, morning and evening. Much bene- 
fit may result from bleeding in this disorder at an 
early period of the complaint. His food should 
be carrots or turnips. The hay, oats, or whatever 
is given, should be in small quantities at a time, 
and always sprinkled with clean, soft water. 
Broken Knees. 

Apply a poultice of bread and milk or bread 
and warm water to reduce the inflammation, then 
dress the wound with basilicon. 
Burns or Scolds. 

If slight, apply cold lead water: if extensive, 
a liniment made of equal parts of linseed oil and 
lime water. If there is much fever, bleed. 

Canker. 

Cut away freely all the diseased parts, and if 
necessary draw the frogs, then apply the 
Liniment for Canker. 

Warm 6 ounces of tar, mix with it drop by drop 
1 oz. by measure of oil of vitriol, then add 1 oz. 
of oil of turpentine. Bind this firmly ou the part, 
destroying all the diseased protuberances with lu- 
nar caustic. When the wound looks healthy, dress 
it with the green ointment. 

Chapped Hocks. 

If the swelling proceed from a bruise or a blow, 
bathe it three or four times a day with salt and 
vinegar made warm. If it threaten abscess, apply 
the suppurating iioultice, and when matter is 
formed let it out, then use the green ointment. 
* Cold. 

Take a quart of blood from the neck, then give 
warm mashes with a scruple of nitre in them. 
Purge with castor and linseed oil, and keep the 
stable warm. 

Convulsions. 

Symptoms. — The horse raises his head higher 
than usual and pricks up or thrusts back his ears — 
neck stiff and immovable, skin tight. He stands 
in a straddling posture, pants and breathes with 
diflBculty. 

Cure. — Bleed him if his strength will permit it, 
and his pulse is high, eye red, etc., otherwise not. 
If 3'ou observe bots or any other kind of worms, 
pursue the treatment recommended for them. 

Acute Cough. 

Take a quart of blood from the neck, and give 
the following 

Ball for Cough. 

Half an ounce of Venice soap, half an ounce of 
nitre, ten grains of tartar emetic, and ten grains 
of opium. Make these into a ball with honey, and 
give one every other night. Keep the horse warm 
and remedy costiveness by castor oil. • 

Coma. 

Let the farrier cut them out with a sharp knife. 
Should they show a disposition to grow again, 
touch them with oil of vitriol or caustic and dress 
them with green ointment. Be careful in shoeing 
not to let the shoe press on the corn. 

Curb. 
This is a swelling, from sprain, in the back and 
lower part of the hock. Cauterize the curb in a 
line down its middle or apply the blistering oint- 
ment; or iodine ointment. 

Cracked Heels. 
Poultice the parts with carrots or turnips boiled 



108 



FAERIERY. 



soft, three or four times, then anoint them with 
yellow basilicon mixed with a little green oint- 
ment. 

The Gripes. 

As soon as the disease is observed, give the 
draught below, and a clyster composed of 8 oz. 
common salt in six quarts of water gruel or warm 
water. If there is great pain with quick pulse, 
take away three quarts of blood. The belly should 
be well rubbed with the mustard or other stimu- 
lating embrocation. If no relief is obtained in 
two hours repeat the draught and embrocation, 
and should even this fail give him a pint of castor 
oil with one and a half ounces of laudanum. If 
castor oil cannot be had a pint and a quarter of 
linseed oil may be used. 

Draught for Gripes. 
Balsam copaiva 1 ounce, oil of juniper 1 drachm, 
spirit of nitrous ether half an ounce, mint water 

1 pint. Mix for one dose. 

Another. — Allspice, bruised, J pound; brandy, 

2 quarts. Dose, 2 to 4 ounces, in water, ale, or 
mint tea. 

Diahetes. 

This disorder, which consists in an involuntary 
discharge of the urine, which is pale and thin, fre- 
quently proves fatal. To treat it, give the follow- 
ing 

Ball for Diabetes. 

Pemvian bark 4 drachms, ginger 1 drachm, if 
costive after it, give a pint of castor oil. Repeat 
if necessary. 

Eyes. 

Inflammation of the eye is often cured by scari- 
fying with a lancet the insiile of the upper and 
lower brow, and the distended vessels of the eye 
itself. It is to be remembered that in treating an 
inflammation of this important organ, we should 
proceed precisely as if treating a human being 
laboring under the same complaint and keep the 
animal on short allowance, prevent costiveness, 
keep the stable cool and dark. 

Soreness or weakness of the eye is cured by 
bleeding from the neck and using the following 

Eife-water. 
To 1 quart of water put 3 drachms of the 
sugar of lead or two drachms of white vitriol. 
When dissolved let it settle and pour off the clear 
liquor fur use. A drop may be put into each eye 
three times a day with a feather. 

Film or Cataract. 
There is no remedy for this but an operation by 
a surgeon. There is a variety of washes, etc., 
recommended by various authors, but they are 
useless. 

Farcy. 
This disease commences in small hard knots, 
which soon become soft and ulcerous, generally 
gituated on the lymphatic vessels and extending 
upwards. It not unfrequently ends in the glan- 
ders. 

Cure for Farcy. 

Open the ulcers and touch the inside of the 
edges slightly with powdered verdigris, by 
means of a camel's hair pencil. At the same time 
give the following ball : White arsenic 8 grains, 
or corrosive sublimate 6 grains, powdered and 
mixed with flour or bread or any other vehicle 
that will form a ball with molasses. Keep the 
animal warm, mix chopyied carrots with his 
mashes. Intermit one day and give a similar ball 
■ — if it purge add 10 grains of opium to it. Attend 
constantly to the ulcers; wash them with warm 



soap-suds, and keep the animal by himself — if the 
disease gains the nostrils and head, and becomes 
glanders there is no remedy. 

Grease. 

This is a white ofi"ensive discharge from the 
skin of the heels. Wash the part well with warm 
soap-suds twice a day, and if the swelling be great 
apply a poultice to it, when the sores are cleansed 
touch them with a rag or feather dipped in a solu- 
tion of chloride of zinc, 1 grain to the ounce of 
water. 

Foundered Feet. 

This is known by the contraction of the hoof, 
which will appear considerably smaller than the 
sound one. The horse just touches the ground 
with the toe of the foundered foot on account of 
pain, and stands in such a tottering way that you 
may shove him over with your hand. 

Care. — Take off the shoe, bleed freely from the 
thigh vein, and purge two or three times. Keep 
the hair close trimmed and the parts clean. 

Hoof-hound. 

Cut down several lines from the coronet to 
the toe all round the hoof and fill the cuts with 
tallow and soap mixed. Take off the shoes and 
(if you can spare him) turn the animal into a wet 
meadow, where his feet will be kept moist. Never 
remove the sole nor burn the lines down, as this 
increases the evil. 

Lampas, 

This consists in a swelling of the first bar of the 
upper palate. It is cured by rubbing the swelling 
two or three times a day with half an ounce of 
alum and the same quantity of double refined sugar 
mixed with a little honey. In young horses it 
hardly amounts to a disease. 

Laxity. 
Never attempt to stop the discharge too suddenly 
or too scon; this common but erroneous practice 
has killed many fine horses. To begin the cure 
give him the following 

Mild Purging Ball. 
Rhubarb in powder 1 ounce; magnesia half an 
ounce ; calomel 1 scruple ; oil of aniseed 1 drachm. 
Mix up a ball with honey and liquorice powder. 
Next day give the horse 1 fluidounce of laud- 
anum in a pint of water. On the third day repeat 
the drench until the animal is well. 

Inflammation of the Lungs. 
Bleed the animal copiously as soon as the com- 
plaint is perceived, and repeat it in six hours if 
the fever, quickness of breathing, etc., do not 
abate. Blister his sides, rowel the chest, and give 
the following ball, which is to be taken morning 
and evening until the staling is considerably in- 
creased ; one a day will then be suflBcient. Grass 
or bran mashes should be the food. 

The Ball. 
Powdered nitre 6 drachms ; camphor 1 drachm; 
as much syrup and linseed oil as will form the 
ball ; or, a drachm of tartar emetic, 3 drachms of 
nitre and 1 drachm of digitalis. 

Malleiiders. 
This is a scabby eruption in the bend of the 
knee-joint, causing lameness. Wash the cracks 
well with warm soap-suds and a sponge, and then 
with the vulnerary water twice every day; wipe 
the parts dry and apply the citrine ointment, oi 
white lead cerate. 

Mange. 
This is a kind of itch. Wash with soap-suda 



DISEASES OF HORSES. 



109 



and purge with castor oil, and then apply strong 
Bulf hur ointment freelj' and repeatedly. Feed the 
horao well, and work him moderately. 

Molten Grease, or Dysentery. 
Bleed and purge moderately, feed regularly on 
a diminished allowance, and use back-raking and 
large injections. 

Pollevil. 
This is a swelling of the back of the head from 
a bruise. Bring the swelling to a head, as any 
other tumor, by the suppurating poultice, which 
ia made as follows: 

Suppurating Povltice. 
Take four handsful of bran and three middling 
sized turnips, boil them till soft, beat them well 
together; then boil them again in milk to a thick 
poultice, adding to it 2 ounces of linseed and half 
a pound of hog's lard. 

Qnittor. 

Quittor is a severe bruise of the coronet by the 
other foot, followed after by suppuration. Make 
an opening for the matter to descend from all the 
neighboring sinuses. Keep the parts well cleaned 
with warm soap-suds, then inject alum water into 
the sinuses. If there be a core, touch it with 
caustic ; when this is discharged dress with the 
green ointment. 

Bing Bone. 

If recent, blister the part ; if an old affection, 
recourse must be had to firing. 

Sand- Crack. 

Remove the shoe and ascertain carefully the 
extent of the injury ; if the crack be superficial, 
fill it with the composition below, and keeip the 
foot cool and moist. If the crack has extended 
to the sensible parts, and you can see any fungous 
flesh, with a small drawing knife remove the 
edges of the cracked horn that press upon it. 
Touch the fungus with caustic, dip a roll of tow 
or linen in tar and bind it firmly over it. The 
whole foot is to be kept in a bran poultice for a 
few days, or until the lameness is removed. A 
shoe miiy then be put on, so as not to press on the 
diseased part. The pledget of tow may now be 
removed, the crack filled with the composition, 
and the animal turned into some soft meadow. 
Composition for Sand-Crack. 

Beeswax 4 ounces; yellow rosin 2 ounces; com- 
mon turpentine 1 ounce; tallow or suet i ounce. 
To be melted together. 

Sit-fasti 

Are horny substances on the hack, under the 
eaddle. Take hold of them with a pair of pincers 
and cut them out radically ; leave no part behind, 
or they will grow again. Dress the wound with 
the green ointment. 

Sallendera 

Require the same treatment as mallenders, which 
•ee. They differ only in being at the bend of the 
hook-joint. 

Staggert. 

Three disorders often receive this name: mad 
ttaggers, or inflammation of the brain; megrims, 
or epilepsy, and stomach staggers, or palsy of the 
Btomach. In the first the animal is very violent; 
young horses are most frequently affected. Bleed- 
ing is the usual treatment. Megrims is attended 
by the signs of vertigo and confusion, lasting for 
a few minutes at a time. Moderate feeding and 
gentle purgation are recommended for it. Stomach 
ataggers generally proceeds from distension of the 
•tomach with indigestible food, especially when 



the horse is otherwise in a bad condition. The 
great object of treatment must be to empty the 
alimentary oiinal by the use of cordial purga- 
tives and clysters, as of salt and water, used re- 
peatedly. 

Drench for Staggers. 

Barbadoes aloes 6 drachms ; calomel 2 drachms ; 
oil of peppermint 20 drops; warm water 1 pint; 
tincture of cardamons 2 ounces. Mix for one 
dose. 

Another. 

Common salt 4 ounces ; ginger 2 drachms car- 
bonate of soda 1 ounce ; water 1 quart. 

Strains. 

In whatever part of the body this accident oc- 
curs, the treatment should be perfect rest, mode- 
rate bleeding and purging till the inflammation is 
reduced, when any stimulating embrocation may 
be used. 

StrangH7'7/, 

Take away a quart of blood and throw up a 
laxative clyster: then give one ounce of saltpetre 
and one fluidounce of sweet spirits of nitre in a 
pint of water. 

Strangles. 

This is known by a swelling between the jaw- 
bone and the root of the tongue. If a large tu- 
mor appear under the jaw, apply the suppurating 
poultice. When it is ripe open it, squeeze out the 
matter and apply a warm poultice. In a few days 
it will run off. Give warm bran mashes and gen- 
tle exercise. 

Thrush. 

Remove the shoe and pare off all the ragged 
parts so as to expose the diseased parts; after 
cleaning the frog nicely apply a solution of blue 
vitriol, and shortly after pour some melted tar 
ointment into the cleft of the frog, and cover its 
whole surface with tow soaked in the same, and 
on the tow a flat piece of wood about the width of 
the frog, one of its ends passing under the toe of 
the shoe, the other extending to the back part of 
the frog and bound down by cross pieces of wood, 
the ends of which are placed under the shoe. Re- 
peat the dressing every day. 

Vives. 

This is a disease most common to young horses, 
and consists in a long swelling of the parotid 
gland, beginning at the root of the ears and de- 
scending downwards. If it is painful and in- 
flamed, apply the poultice; if it suppurates, open 
the lump, let out the matter and dress with the 
green ointment. If it is hard and indolent apply 
strong mercurial ointment to disperse it and bleed 
moderately. 

Wind Galls. 

These swellings appear on each side of the back 
sinew, above the fetlock. It is dangerous to 
puncture them as is sometimes done, as it may 
produce an incurable lameness. Tight b.vndages 
and moistening the parts frequently with a strong 
solution of sal ammoniac in vinegar may do some 
good. 

Wounds. 

All the rules laid down in this book for the 
treatment of wounds in the human subject, apply 
strictly to horses. As in simple cuts, however, 
sticking plaster cannot be used, the edges of the 
wound should be neatly stitched together. Much 
can be done also by the judicious application of 
bandages. Farriers, generally, are in the habit of 
pursuing such absurd, cruel, and fatal practices 
in these cases, either by cutting off a part that 
appears to be partly torn from its connection, or 



110 



FARKIEEY. 



by using stimulating applications, that it becomes 
necessary to repeat again that all the rules laid 
down for the treatment of wounds in this work 
as applicable to man are equally so to the noble 
animal of which we are speaking. Read over 
these rules. Substitute the word "horse" for 
"patient" and you will be at no loss how to pro- 
ceed. 

Bleeding in General. 

Bleeding is often the most useful and efficacious 
means of curing diseases in horses, etc. In in- 
flammatory affections it is generally the first 
remedy resorted to, and its immediate salutary 
effects are often surprising. But it is often abused 
by being practised where it is not required, or 
■where the animal is too weak to bear it, or by 
being done too largely or too often in the same 
ease. It is a great error to suppose that all dis- 
eases or cases of diseases require bleeding. 

When it is necessary to lessen the whole quan- 
tity of blood in the system, open the jugular or 
neck vein. If the infiamniiition is local, bleed 
where it can be conveniently done, either from the 
part affected, or in its vicinity, as by opening the 
plate vein, superficial vein of the thigh, or tempo- 
ral arteries. 

In fevers of all kinds in the horse, and when 
inflammation attacks any important organ, as the 
brain, ej'es, lungs, stomach, intestines, liver, kid- 
neys, bladder, etc., bleeding is of the greatest use. 
It diminishes the quantity of blood in the body; 
and by this means prevents the bad consequences 
of inflammation. The quantity of blood to be 
taken varies according to the age, size, condition, 
and constitution of the horse, and urgency of the 
symptoms. 

From a large strong horse, four or six quarts 
will generally be requisite, and this may be re- 
peated in smaller quantities if symptoms demand 
it. The blood, in these diseases, must flow from 
a large orifice made in the vein. A horse should 
never be suffered to bleed upon the ground, but 
into a measure in order that the proper quantity 
may be taken. Young horses, also, while shed- 
ding their teeth, have sometimes much constitu- 
tional irritation, which bleeding relieves. But in 
these affections it is very rarely necessary to bleed 
to the same e.xtent as in fevers, etc. : two or three 
quarts generally suffice to be taken away. 
Fullness of Blood. 

Moderate bleeding, as from two to three or four 
quarts, is also used to remove fullness of habit, or 
plethora, attended with slight inflammatory sjmp- 
toms. In this case the eyes appear heavy, dull, 
red or inflamed, frequently closed as if asleep; the 
pulse small and oppressed; the heat of the body 
somewhat increased; the legs swell; the hair also 
rubs off. Horses that are removed from grass to 
a warm stable, and full fed on hay and corn, and 
not sufficiently e-xercised, are very subject to one 
or more of these symptoms. Regulating the quan- 
tity of food given to him, proper exercise, and oc- 
casional laxatives, as the following powder, will 
be commonly found sufficient after the first 
bleeding, and operation of an aloetic purge. In 
slight affections of this kind, a brisk purge will 
often alone be sufficient. 

Laxative and Diaphoretic Potoder. 

T.ake of nitre, cream of tartar, and flower of 
sulphur, of each, 4 ounces. 

Powder and mix them well together for use. 

One tablespoonful of this mi.xture may be given 
every night and morning, in as much scalded 
bran, or a feed of corn moistened with water, that 
the powders may adhere thereto. 

This powder will be found excellent for such 



horses as are kept on dry food, whether they b« 
in the stable, or travel on the road ; also for stal- 
lions in the spring of the year, as they not only 
keep the body cool and open,, but cause him to 
cast his coat, and make his skin appear as bright 
as silk. 

Purging. 

In obstinate grease and swellings of the legs, 
accompanied with lameness of the joints, dry 
coughs, worms, diseases of the skin, fiirey, apo- 
plexy or staggers, affections of the li^•er, and sev- 
eral other diseases treated of in this book, mercu- 
rial purges are of the greatest service. They, 
purge; destroy worms ; generally increiise the flow 
of urine; operate upon the skin, liver, and other 
viscera in a peculiar manner; cause a healthful 
action in these parts; and remove many chronio 
complaints incident to the horse. Great caution 
is necessary during their operation, lest the horse 
take cold. The water given him must be warm, 
and when exercised he should be properly clothed. 

Horses that are kept on dry food, and are full 
fed, with little or no exercise, require regular 
purging every six months. 

To prepare Horses for Physic. 

Previously to administering a purge, the body 
should be prepared. 

The proper method of preparing a horse for 
physic is to give him two or three mashes of the 
scalded bran and oats and warm water, for three 
or four days together. This will soften the faeces, 
and promote the operation of the medicine. But 
if a strong purge be given to a horse of costive 
habit, without preparation, it will probably occa^ 
sion a violent inflammation. 

Often the bran mashes will move the bowels 
sufficiently, without other physic. The mash is 
made by pouring boiling water on fresh sweet bran 
in a pail, so that the mixture, when stirred, may 
be of about the consistence of a soft poultice. 
Purgative Balls for Horses. 

Take of Barbadoes aloes, 7i ounces; Caetile 
soap, IJ ounces; powder ginger, IJ ounces; oil 
of aniseed, 5 drachms; syrup, a sufficient quan- 
tity to make 6 balls, each of which is a dose. 
Drink to check Over-jjurging. 

Take of prepared chalk, ginger, and aniseeds, 
in powder, each 1 ounce; essential oil of pepper- 
mint, 15 drops ; rectified spirit of wine, J an ounce. 

Mix the whole in a pint and a half of warm lin- 
seed gruel, and give it. 

AnotJier, 

Take of prepared chalk, 2 ounces; aniseeds, 
and caraway seeds, in powder, each, 1 ounce; 
opium, i a drachm. Mix, and give it in a pint of 
linseed gruel. 

Astringent Drink after Looseness. 

If the looseness continue, after the above drink 
has been administered for two or three days, the 
following astringent drink may be given : — 

Take of pomegranate shell, in powder, and pre- 
pared testaceous powder, each, 1 ounce ; Dover's 
powders, and ginger powdered, each 2 drachms. 
Mix, and give in a pint of warm gruel, and repeat 
twice a day. 

Cough Drink. 

Take of Barbadoes tar and gum ammoniac, 
each, 1 ounce. Incorporate them with the yolk 
of an egg, then add, nitre 1 ounce; ginger half 
an ounce; tincture of opium I ounce. Mix them 
together. 

Let this drink be gradually mixed in a pint of 
warm ale or linseed tea, and give it in the morn- 
ing fasting; let the horse stand without food for 
two hours after, then give him a mash of scalded 



DISEASES OF HORSES. 



Ill 



brnn and oats and warm water. Repeat every 
other morning, for three or four times. 
Fever Ball for Horses. 

Take of antimonial powder, tnrtarized anti- 
mony, and camphor, each 1 drachm; nitre and 
Castile soap, each 2 drachms ; Barbadoes aloes, 2 
drachms. Mix, and beat them into a ball with 
syrup of buckthorn. 

Let this ball be given to the horse about two 
hours after bleeding; and in six hours after giv- 
ing him the ball, let him have the following 
Purgative Drink. 

Take of Epsom salts, 4 ounces; nitre, i an 
ounce ; coarse sugar, two tablespoonsful. Dis- 
solve them in a quart of gruel; then add 10 
ounces of castor oil. Mix, and give it while new- 
milk warm. 

After the first ball is given the aloes may be 

left out, and then the ball and drink may be given 

once a day (one in the morning and the other in 

the evening), until a proper passage be obtained. 

Powerful Mixture for Fevers. 

If the fever still continue to increase it will be 
proper lo take a little more blood from him, and 
then to have recourse to the following lever 
powder: 

Take of tartar emetic, 1 ounce ; calcined harts- 
horn, 1 ounce. Mix, and grind them in a mortar 
to a fine powder; then put them in a bottle for 
use ; two drachms of these powders are a proper 
dose for a horse. 

A dose of this powder, with one ounce of nitre, 
may be given twice or three times a day in a pint 
of warm gruel, or be made into a ball with con- 
serve of roses. If the fever be violent, and the 
horse in a raging state, ^ an ounce of tincture of 
opium may be added to each dose of powders. 
Drink for an Inflammatory Fever. 

Take of tartar emetic, 1 drachm; camphor, 1 
drachm, rubbed into powder, with a few drops of 
spirit of wine. 

This drink is excellent for all kinds of inflam- 
matory fevers ; especially such as are attended 
with imminent danger. It may be given every 
four hours, or three times a day, in a pint of 
water-gruel. 

Purging/ Ball for Jaundice. 

Take of Barbadoes aloes, from 4 to 5 drachms ; 
white antimonial powder and Castile soap, each 
2 drachms; calomel, 1 drachm. Mix, and beat 
them into a ball with a suflicient quantity of syrup 
of buckthorn. 

The horse should have a couple of mashes the 
day before this ball is given, by way of prepara- 
tion, and the ball should be given fasting the 
morning following; let him fast for two hours 
after, then give him a mash of scalded bran and 
oats with warm water, and treat him in the same 
manner as for other physic. 

Restorative Balls after Jaundice. 

Take of gentian and caraway seeds, in powder,, 
of each 8 ounces; powdered ginger, 6 drachms; 
Castile soap, IJ ounces; and honey sufQcient to 
form into 6 balls. 

One of these balls should be given every other 
day for some time. 

Pectoral Balls for Broken Wind. 

Take of Barbadoes tar, Venice turpentine, and 
Castile soap, each 2 ounces; squills, in powder, 1 
ounce. Beat them well together; then add nitre, 
2 ounces ; aniseeds and caraway seeds, fresh pow- 
dered, each 1 ounce. Beat them into a mass with 
hiiney and liquorice powder, and divide into ten 
balls. 



Alterative Balls for Surfeit, Mange, etc. 

Take of precipitated sulphur of antimony, gen- 
tian root, and socotrine aloes, each 1 ounce in fina 
powder; nitre, 2 ounces; calomel, in powder, 2 
drachms. Mix, and make them into a mass for 
balls with honey or treacle. Each ball to weigh 
1 ounce and a half. 

These balls will be found sometimes useful in 
many diseases ; such as surfeit, hidebound, mange, 
grease or swelled legs, lameness of the joint-s, 
molten-grease, inflammation of the eyes; and, 
indeed, in all lingering and obstinate diseases. 
One ball may be given every other morning for a 
week together. 

Astringent Ball for Profuse Staling. 

Take of galls, in fine powder, 2 drachms; Pe- 
ruvian bark, ^ ounce. Make into a ball with 
honey or treacle. 

It will be proper to repeat this ball every morn- 
ing, and, if the disease is obstinate, every night 
and morning, and continue until the urine is di- 
minished to about its natural quantity. 

Restorative Balls for Profuse Staling. 
Take of gentian root, in powder, i an ounce; 
ginger, powdered, 2 drachms; alum, 1 drachm; 
treacle, sufficient to make into a ball. 

Mercurial Ball for Worms, 
Take of calomel and Castile soap, each 1 
drachm ; wormseed, in powder, i^ an ounce. Be >t 
them into a ball with syrup of buckthorn. 

This ball should be given at night, and the fol- 
lowing drink, or purging ball, the next morning: 

Drink for Worms. 
Take of Barbadoes aloes, from 3 to 6 drachma 
(according to their size and strength); wormseed 
and gentian, in powder, each i an ounce; caraway 
seeds, in powder, 1 ounce. Mix, and give in a 
pint of strong decoction of wormwood, and repeat 
in about four or five days ; but omit giving the 
mercurial ball after the first time. 

Purging Ball for the Worms 
Take of Barbadoes aloes, 8 drachms; ginger, 
Castile soap, and oil of savin, each 2 drachms; 
syrup of buckthorn, sufficient to make them into 
a ball. 

This purge is calculated for a strong horse ; but 
it may be made weaker by lessening the quantity 
of aloes to 6 or 7 drachms, which are, in general, 
sufficient after a mercurial ball. The horse should 
have mashes, warm water, and proper exercise. 

Stomach Drink after the Expulsion of the Worms, 
Take of aromatic spirit of ammonia and sweet 
spirit of nitre, each 1 ounce; gentian root, in 
powder, li ounces ; Peruvian bark and hiera picra, 
in powder, each i an ounce; horse-spice, 2 ounces. 
Mix the whole in three pints of ale, and divide 
into three parts, and give one every mornijg 
fasting. 

Two hours after give him a mash and warm 
water. The virtues of this drink deserve the 
highest commendation in restoring those horses 
which have been much reduced by some long- 
continued disease ; as in lowness of spirits, debility 
and relaxation of the solids, a loss of appetite, and 
for such also as are over-ridden, either in the field 
or on the road. 

Clyster for Convulsions. 
Take of linseed and valerian root, each 4 
ounces; boil them in 3 quarts of water to 4 pints; 
add Epsom salts, 4 ounces; assafoetida, ^ ounce; 
opium, 2 drachms. Dissolve the whole in the 
above while hot, and apply it new milk-warm. 



112 



FAEEIEKY. 



This is a most powerful clyster in all disorders 
of the intestines, that are attended with pain and 
convulsions or spasms in those parts, such as a 
violent attack of the colic, proceeding from an 
obstruction in the urinary passage. 

To cure Gripes in Horses, 

This disorder goes by different names in differ- 
ent districts of the country ; as fret, from the un- 
easiness attending it; bots, from its being thought 
to arise from these animals or worms, etc. The 
animal looks dull and rejects his food; becomes 
restless and uneasy, frequently pawing; voids his 
excrements in small qunntitics, and often tries to 
stale; looks round, as if towards his own flank or 
the seat of complaint; soon appears to get worse, 
often lying down, and sometimes suddenly rising 
up, or at times trying to roll, even in the stable, 
etc. As the disorder goes on the pain becomes 
more violent, he appears more restless still, kicks 
at his belly, groans, rolls often, or tumbles about, 
with other marks of great agitation ; becomes fe- 
verish, and has a cold moisture at the roots of his 
ears and about his flanks, and when he lies at rest 
a little space begins to perspire strongly, and to 
get covered with sweat more or less profuse. 

In most cases of ordinary gripes signs of flatu- 
lence, or of the presence of air confined in the 
bowels, occur and constitute a part of the disease, 
or increase it. The removal of it is, therefore, an 
object to which the attention of most grooms has 
been in a chief degree directed ; and as it can fre- 
quently be got rid of, and the disease cured, by 
exciting the powerful action of the intestines, cor- 
dial and stimulating medicines are had recourse 
to, and, no doubt, in many have afforded relief. 
Some farriers, indeed, without much care in dis- 
tinguishing cases, almost exclusively rely upon 
such, and employ theto too freely. This, however, 
should not be done; for it sometimes happens that 
disorders not unlike flatulent colic or gripes do 
occur, when tliere is neither pent-up air present 
nor any relaxation or want of energy and action 
in the intestines themselves, and stimulating -(ued- 
ieines might then do no good, but often much iu>s- 
chief. 

When the disorder is early discovered, or has 
newly come on, it will be proper to lose no time 
to get ready a clyster, and likewise a medicinal 
draught for removing the wind and abating the 
pain. After removing with the hand any excre- 
ment in the great gut that can be reached by it, a 
clyster, made of five or six quarts of water, or 
water-gruel, blood warm, and six or eight ounces 
of common salt, may be injected ; and one or other 
of the following draughts may be given, before or 
about the same time. 

Draught for the Same, 

Take of table-beer, a little warmed, 1} pints 
(English); common pepper or powdered ginger, 
1 teaspoonful; gin, whiskey, or rum, from 2 to 4 
ounces, or from 1 to 2 glassesful. These mixed 
together for one dose. 

Another. — Oil of turpentine, 1 ounce, and 
water-gruel, li pints (English). Mixed for a 
dose. 

Another. — Take of opium, 1 ounce; cloves, 
bruised, 2 ounces; ginger, 3 ounces; brandy, rum, 
or gin, 1 quart. Digest these in a corked bottle, 
shaking it every day, for 3 weeks; then strain 
through blotting paper. Dose, 2 ounces. 

These and the like preparations may be given 
either out of a liottle or drench-horn, one or two 
persons raising and keeping properly up the 
horse's head; while another, who administers the 
uedicino, pulls out and a little aside the tongue, 



with his left hand, and with the other pours in 
the draught. 

Further Treatment. 
Cordial drenches of the kinds recommended, 
with the clyster, will have the effect in ordinary 
cases to relieve the disorder; but shouM this not 
be the case, after waiting an hour or two (longer 
or shorter, according to the severity of the ailment 
or the period since its commencement), then the 
medicine should be repeated, but in a less dose 
than at first — perhaps one-half or two-thirds of 
the former quantity. The horse siiould be occa- 
sionally walked out, properly covered with clothes, 
lest the chill air bring on shivering and give rise 
to feverishness ; and his belly should be ni>w and 
then rubbed a considerable time at once — five or 
ten minutes — but with intervals of rest, so that he 
may have time to stale or dung. If the disorder 
does not j'ield to these remedies, then others must 
be employed of a more active nature. Some per- 
sons recommend castor oil, in the proportion of 
half a pint to a pint, with an ounce or two of 
laudanum, or tincture of opium, mixed with water- 
gruel, in the quantity of a pint or rather less. 
In case the horse has lain down, and continued 
so for some time, and is covered with sweat 
when he rises, two or more persons should bo 
employed to rub him dry, and he should also be 
kept well clothed. The stable should be airy, 
moderately cool, and his place in it roomy and 
well littered, to keep him from hurting himself 
should he roll about. 

White's Ball for Gripes. 

Draughts of liquid medicine operate more speed- 
ily than any other form ; but as the disorder may 
attack ahorse during a journey, where such cannot 
readily be procured, Mr. White has given a receipt 
for a ball for the convenience of those who travel; 
and if it be wrapped up closely in a piece of blad- 
der it may be kept a considerable time without 
losing its power. The ball is composed of the fol- 
lowing ingredients, viz., Castile soap, 3 drachms; 
camphor 2 drachms: ginger, 1 drachm and a half; 
and Venice turpentine, 6 drachms. To be made 
into a ball for one dose. 

Laudanum Draught. 

Laudanum may be used in cases of urgency, 
especially in the wet or lax gripes. Take a quart 
of beer, and make it a very little warmer than 
blood heat; then put a tablespoonful of powdered 
ginger into it, and a small wineglassful of lauda- 
num, just before it is given to the horse. This, in 
most cases, will give ease in a short time; but if 
the complaint is exceedingly violent, give about 
half the above quantity in fifteen or twenty min- 
utes. As soon as the pain seems to be abated, if 
the belly is costive, give the horse a purgative. 
In case of looseness no purgative must be given; 
the laudanum, which is of a binding nature, will 
correct it. 

When pain is occasioned by inflammation, it is 
seldom proper to employ opium or any medicine 
of that kind; but when it depends upon spasm 
or irritation, no medicines are so beneficial. In 
inflammation of the bowels, for example, opium 
might do injury, but in flatulent or spasmodic 
colic, or gripes, it seldom fails of success. 

Another Anodyne Medicine. 

When horses are affected with colic, or where 
the use of anodynes is requisite, the following 
preparation may be given, namely: opium, 1 
drachm, or 60 grains ; Castile soap, 2 drachms ; 
and powdered aniseed, ^ ounce, or 4 drachms. To 
be made into a ball with syrup, for one dose. 

In speaking of the medicines for gripes, or the 



DISEASES OF HORSES. 



113 



flatulent colic, sometimes termed fret, Mr. White 
mentions, domestic remedies may bo employed 
when proper medicines cannot be procured in 
time. For this purpose a draught may be readily 
made up of a pint of strong peppermint water, 
with about four ounces of gin, and any kind of 
spice. 

Another. — A pint of port wine, with spice or 
ginger. 

Another. — Half a pint of gin diluted with 4 
ounces of water and a little ginger. 

Another. — T;ike of Epsom salt, 6 ounces; Cas- 
tile soap, sliced, 2 ounces. Dissolve them in IJ 
pints of warm gruel; then add tincture of opium, 
\ ounce; oil of juniper, 2 drachms. Mix, and 
give them new-milk warm. 

This drink may be repeated every four or five 
hours till the symptoms begin to abate. 

The Same rohen on a Journey. 

Take of tincture of opium and oil of juniper, 
each, 2 drachms ; sweet spirit of nitre, tincture of 
ben/.oin, and aromatic spirit of ammonia, each ^ 
ounce. Mix them together in a bottle for one 
drink, and give it in a pint of warm gruel. 

For the colic, flatulency, and colicky pains of 
the intestines this drink will be found a valuable 
cordial. It may be repeated every two hours until 
the s3'U)ptoms abate. 

Another. — The complaint may be removed by 
warm beer and ginger, or a cordial ball, mixed 
with warm beer. 

It is necessary to repeat the caution given re- 
epecting the necessity of distinguishing the flatu- 
lent, or windy, or spasmodic colic from the in- 
flammatory one, and from that which depends on 
costiveness. It is always necessary to empty the 
bowels by means of clysters, and should the horse 
have appeared dull and heavy previous to the at- 
tack, it will be advisable to bleed. If costiveness 
attends it, give a laxative drench after the par- 
oxysm, which, will prevent its return. 

Diuretic Balls for Horset. 

Mix together 1 ounce of oil of juniper; 1 ounce 
of balsam of sulphur; 2 ounces of Venice tur- 
pentine; 4 ounces of sal prunella; 1 pound of 
black resin. 

Melt all together gently over a slow fire, in an 
iron pot, and make up into balls of the size of a 
nutmeg. 

Another. — Take of nitre, 3 pounds ; resin, 3 
pounds; soap, IJ pounds; juniper berries, 1 
pound ; oil of juniper 14 ounces. 

To be made up into balls of the common size, 
with spirits of turpentine. 

To cure Diseases in Horses' Feet. 
Every person may see, upon turning up the bot- 
tom of a horse's foot, an angular projection point- 
ing towards the toe, termed the frog and its bars, 
the remainder or hollow part being technically 
termed the sole, though the entire bottom of the 
foot might better receive this name. It is certain, 
however, that " the frog and sole " require pres- 
sure — a congenial kind of pressure without con- 
cussion — that shall cause the sensible, inside, or 
qtiick-sole to perform its functions of absorbing 
the serous particles secreted or deposited therein 
by the blood vessels. If the frog and its bars are 
permitted to remain in such a state as to reach 
the ground, wherever the sod happens to be soft 
or yielding the hollow part of the solo receives 
its due proportion of pressure laterally, and the 
whole sole or surface of the foot is thereby kept 
Sb health. 
8 



Prexieniion, 

Every veterinarian of sense will perceive the 
necessity of keeiiing the heels apart, yet nlthough 
the immedi.-ite cause of their contracting is so uni- 
versally known and recognized, the inj'idiciou* 
method (to call it by no harsher name) of paring 
awiiy the frog and sole, which prevents the bars 
from ever touching the ground, is still continued 
to an alarming extent. 

So much for prevention. When disease comes 
on, which may be accelerated by two other species 
of mismanagement, another course is usually fol- 
lowed not less injudicious than the first mentioned 
original cause of all the mischief. 

Horses' hoofs are of two distinct kinds or shape, 
the one being oval, hard, dark-colored and thick, 
the other round, palish, and thin in the wall, or 
crust of the hoof. The first has a diff'orent kind 
of frog from the latter, this being broad, thick 
and soft, whilst the oval hoof has a frog that is 
long, acute and hard. The rags, which hard 
work and frequent shoeing occasion on the horny 
hoof of the round foot, produce ragged frogs also, 
both being thus pared away to make a fair bot- 
tom to receive the shoe (burning hot!), the whole 
support is so far reduced, and the sensible sole 
coming much nearer the ground, becomes tender 
and liable to those painful concussions which 
bring on lameness — principally of the fore feet. 
Contraction of those kinds of heels which belong 
to the cart-horse, and pommice-foot, are the con- 
sequence. 

The oval foot pertains to the saddle-horse, the 
hunter, and bit of blood-kind whose bold project- 
ing frogs the farriers remove, and these being 
compelled to perform long and painful journeys 
ever starting or going ofl" with the same leading- 
leg, and continuing the same throughout, lame- 
ness is contracted in that foot, which none can ao 
count for, nor even find out whereabout it may ba 
seated. Applications of "the oyals " (thiit egre- 
gious compound of folly, ignorance and brutality), 
follow the first appearance of lameness, and are 
made alike to the shoulder, the leg, and the sole^ 
under the various pretences of rheumatism, «train 
in the shoulder, and founder. The real c. use, 
however, is not thought of, much less removed, 
but, on the contrary, the evil is usually augmented 
by removing the shoe and drawing the sole to the 
quick nearly in search of suppositious corns, sur- 
batings, etc.— -pretended remedies that were never 
known to cure, but which might have been all 
prevented by the simplest precautions imaginable. 
These are : 

1st. Let the frog and sole acquire their natural 
thickness. 

2d. Lead ofi" sometimes with one leg, sometimes 
with the other. 

3d. Stufi" the hollow of the hoofs (all four of 
them) with cow-dung, or tar ointmont, changing 
it entirely once a day. In every case it is advi- 
sable that he be worked moderately, for it is 
useless to talk to the owners of horses about 
giving the afilicted animal an entire holiday at 
grass. 

Should the proprietor of the beast be a sordid 
customer', the farrier can expect no fee for such 
simple advice as is here given, so he must procure 
a phialful of water, and putting therein -s little 
saltpetre and a little coloring matter, to bo either 
mixed with the stufiing, or to wash the sole clean 
daily, though the remedy will do as well (nearly) 
without such addition. A more efficacious aux- 
iliary will be found in procuring a patch of clay, 
to be kneaded on the ground, on which the ani- 
mal (which is worth so much trouble) may be al- 
lowed to stand, and if a small patch be made for 



114 



FARRIERY. 



each foot, the horse himself will prove their value 
(in most cases) hy feeling for them as it were, and 
showing hy his manner how gratified he is at the 
coldness they afford to his heated feet. Herein it 
must be observed that stuffing with clay is not re- 
commended, this being one of the numerous blun- 
ders of those farriers who, having found the 
benefit of any application or remedy, push it to a 
ridiculous extremity. 

Remedy for Lameness in Horses, 
Mr. Sewell, of the Veterinary College, stated 
his having discovered a method of curing horses 
which are lame in the fore-feet. It occurred to 
him that this lameness might originate in the 
nerves of the foot, near the hoof, and in conse- 
quence he immediately amputated about an inch 
of the diseased nerve, taliing the usual precaution 
of guarding the arteries and passing ligatures, 
etc. By this means the animal was instantly 
relieved from pain, and the lameness perfectly 
cured. 

To cure the Thrush in Horses' Feet. 
Simmer over the fire till it turns brown equal 
parts of honey, vinegar, and verdigris, and apply 
it with a feather or brush occasionally to the feet. 
The horse at the same time should stand hard, 
and all soft dung and straw be removed. 

Shoeing Horses in Wiuier. 

In Canada, where the winter is never of a less 
duration than five months, tjiey shoe their horses 
in the following manner, which serves for the 
whole winter: The smith fixes a small piece of 
steel on the fore part of each shoe, not tempered 
too hard, which turns up about a quarter of an 
Inch, in the shape of a horse's lancet ; the same to 
the hinder part of the shoe, turned up a little 
higher than the fore part, tempered in the same 
manner. In going up a hill the fore part gives a 
purchase that assists the horse, and in going down 
prevents him sliding forwards. 

Shoes having a number of downward points are 
still better, though more expensive. 

'To prevent the Feet of Horses from, Balling with 
Snow. 
If the frog in the hoofs of horses and the fetlock 
'be cleaned, and well rubbed with soft soap, pre- 
viously to their going out in snowy weather, it 
will effectually prevent their falling from what is 
termed balling with snow. A number of accidents 
might be prevented by this simple precaution. 

Oititment for the Mange. 

Take of common turpentine 1 pound ; quicksil- 
Ter, 4 ounces; hogs' lard, i a pound; flour of sul- 
phur, 4 ounces; train-oil, i a pint. 

Grind the .silver with the turpentine, in a mar- 
ble mortar, for five or six hours, until it completely 
disappears, and add a little oil of turpentine to 
make it rub easier ; then add the remainder, and 
work them all well together till united. 

This ointment must be well rubbed on every 
part affected, in the open air, if the sunshine and 
the weather be warm : but if it be winter, take 
theihorseto a blacksmith shop, where a large bar 
of iron miMt be heated, and held at a proper dis- 
tance over him, to warm the ointment. 

Liniment for the Mange. 

Take of white precipitate, 2 ounces ; strong 
mercurial ointment, 2 ounces; flowers of sulphur, 
J a pound; rape-oil, 2 quarts. 

First grind the white precipitate in a little oil ; 
afterwards add the remainder, taking care that 
they are well mixed. 

This liniment must foe well rubbed in with a 



hard brush, in the open air, provided (he day b« 
fine and the weather warm. If the horse draws 
in a team the inside of the collar must be washed, 
or the inside of the saddle, if a saddle-horse, for 
the disease is highly contagious. 

Eye-tcater, 

Take of camphor, 2 drachms, dissolved in 2 
ounces of rectified spirit of wine; Goulard's ex- 
tract, 1 ounce; rose-water, 1 quart. 

Shake all together in a bottle for use. 

Let the eye and the eyelids be well bathed three 
or four times a day, with a clean linen rag dipped 
in the eye-water. 

For Inflammation of the Lungs. 

Take of white antimonial powder, 2 drachms; 
nitre, i an ounce; Castile soap, 2 drachms j aro- 
matic confection, i an ounce. 

Beat them into a ball. 

This ball must be given to the horse as soon as 
it can be prepared, after he has been bled ; and 
continue it two or three times a daj' as long as the 
inflammation continues. About six hours after, 
give him a purging drink, and repeat it every 
night and morning until a passage is obtained, or 
the bowels are sufficiently opened. 

Embrocation for Sprains. 

Take of soap liniment and camphorated spirit 
of wine, of each, 8 ounces ; oil of turpentine, i an 
ounoe. 

Mix and shake when used. 

This evaporating and discutient embrocation is 
well calculated to remove pain and inflammation, 
which is generally effected in the course of a fort- 
night or three weeks. During that time the horse 
should not be allowed to go out of the stable or 
farm-yard. 

Bracing Mixture for Sprains. 

After the above embrocation the following 
bracing mixture must be rubbed on the part once 
a day : 

Take of Egyptiacum (liniment of verdigris), 2 
ounces; oil of turpentine, 1 ounce. 

Shake well together; then add camphorated 
spirit of wine and compound tincture of benzoin, 
each 2 ounces; vinegar, 11 ounces. 

Mix, and shake well together every time they 
are used. 

Paste to stop Bleeding. 

Take of fresh nettles 1 handful ; bruise them in 
a mortar; add blue vitriol, in powder, 4 ounces; 
wheaten flour, 2 ounces; wine vinegar, i ounce; 
oil of vitriol, i ounce. 

Beat them all together into a paste. 

Let the wound be filled up with this paste, and 
a proper pledget of tow laid over the mouth, in 
order to prevent it from falling out, and then 
bandage it on with a strong roller. This dressing 
must remain in the wound ten or twelve hours. 

Ointment for Scratched Heels. 

Take of hog's lard, 1 pound ; white lead, 4 
ounces; white vitriol, 1 ounce; sugar of lead, i 
ounce; olive oil, 3 ounces. 

Grind all the powders in a marble mortar with 
the oil, or on a marble slab ; then add the lard, 
and work the whole together till united. 

This is a neat composition, and very proper to 
keep in the stable during the winter. It will not 
only be found useful for greasy and scratched 
heels, but also for stubs and treads of every de- 
scription. A small quantity must be rubbed on 
the part affected every night and morning, in 
slight cases; but in treads, or wounds upon the 
heels, it will be best to spread the ointment on 
pledgets of tow, and secure them with bandages. 



DISEASES OF HORSES. 



115 



Ointment for Greasy Heels. 

Take of white ointment, 1 pound ; white vitriol, 
blue vitriol, and sugar of lead, in powder, each, i 
ounce. 

Mix well together. 

This ointment, when used, must be spread on 
strong brown paper, and applied over the part 
that greases, and bandaged on with listing. The 
horse may, after dressing, be turned into a dry- 
straw yard, and a few diuretic balls given to him ; 
one miiy be given every third day. Once dressing 
is, in general, sufficient to perform a cure ; if not, 
it may be repeated in a week after. 

Astringent Embrocation for Strains in Different 
Parts. 

Take of camphor 2 drachms, dissolved in J an 
ounce of strong rectified spirit of wine; nitre, 1 
ounce, dissolved in J a pint of wine vinegar; spi- 
rits of turpentine, 4 ounces ; white lead, or arme- 
nian bole, in powder, i an ounce ; aqua fortis, 1 
ounce. 

Mix, and shake them all together in a bottle for 
use. 

Mixture far Canker in the Month. 

Take of wine vinegar, i a pint; burnt alum and 
common salt, each 1 ounce; armenian bole, i an 
ounce. 

Mix, and shake them together in a bottle for use. 

It will be proper to dress the horse's mouth with 
this mixture, every morning and evening, in the 
following manner: Take a small cane, or a piece 
of whalebone, half a yard long, and tie a linen 
rag, or a little tow round one end; then dip it 
into the mixture, and pass it up his mouth, and 
gently remove it to all the affected parts; let him 
champ it well about in his mouth : after which let 
him fast an hour, then give him food as usual. 

Glanders. 
This disease is contagious, destructive, and sel- 
dom cured. It.is known by a discharge from one 
or both nostrils, and a swelling of the gland under 
the jaw; coming on rather slowly, and followed 
after a time hy ulceration. Catarrh or influenza 
may be mistaken for it; but this is a much more 
rapid disorder. Ozoeua is a disease attended with 
an offensive discharge ; in glanders the discharge 
is not offensive unless at an advanced stage. In 
doubtful cases, sometimes, the inoculation of a 
donkey with the matter is used as a test. Glan- 
ders may be communicated to a human being ; and 
is then also fatal and seldom cured. Every horse 
suspected of glanders should be kept carefully 
apart from all others. If the disorder is slow in 
its progress, and the animal can be prevented from 
giving it to others, he may be kept for moderate 
work, upon good feeding, in some instances, for 
several years. If hard worked, ill-fed or exposed, 
a glandered horse will run down very fast. 

Tetanus, or Lock-Jaw. 
This may follow punctured wounds of the foot, 
as in shoeing, or docking, nicking, or gelding; oc- 
curring two or three weeks after the accident or 
operation. Sometimes it has followed violent ex- 
ertion ; and it is not unfrequently produced by cold. 
If the stiffness of the muscles be confined to the 
head or neck, it is much more curable than when 
general. Two or three out of five out of all the 
cases are said to get well under good treatment. 
Mild purgatives, sheep-skin clothing, clysters con- 
taining from a quarter to half an ounce ot opium, 
repeated according to the symptoms, and nourish- 
ing injections, if the jaws cannot be opened so as 
to swallow, constitute the best means of manage- 
ment. 



Rupture in the Horse, 
Rupture or hernia is the protrusion of a bowel 
or some other part from its proper cavity. It is 
sometimes congenital, and may then be rsduced 
at the same time that castration is performed. 
At other times rupture may be produced by blows, 
kicks, or falls. A hernia is dang-^rous to lifis 
when it becomes strangulated or compressed by a 
stricture at the orifice of protrusion. Skilful 
surgical aid should always be obtained in any 
such case at once. But, sometimes, in the ab- 
sence of a veterinarian, any one may restore the 
gut by introducing the hand into the bowel and 
drawing it up ; the other hand, at the same time, 
making gentle pressure upon the swelling in the 
abdomen. "So violence should ever be used in at- 
tempting this: and the bowels should first be 
emptied by a cl3'ster, to which, sometimes, to re- 
lax the parts, half an ounce or an ounce of tobacco 
is added. Too large a quantity of the latter would 
be dangerously prostrating. 

Purging Ball — DoGS. 
Take of jalap, in powder, 1 scruple ; Barbadocs 
aloes, 1 drachm; ginger, in powder, 10 grains; 
conserve of hips, or syrup, enough to form a ball. 

Liniment for the Mange. 

Take of flowers of sulphur, 4 ounces ; white 
precipitate, 1 ounce ; strong mercurial ointment, 
1 ounce ; Cape aloes, in powder, i ounce ; neat's- 
foot oil, li pints. 

First rub the powders together in a mortar; 
then put in the ointment, and gradually add the 
oil ; it must be stirred when used. The affected 
part must be well anointed with this liniment, 
every third day, for three or four times. 

Mercurial Liniment for the Red Mange. 

Take of mild mercurial ointment, 4 ounces ; oil 
of turpentine, 3 ounces ; Cape aloes, in powder, -J 
ounce. 

Mix well together, and anoint the parts every 
third day for three or four times. Many sports- 
men have their dogs regularly dressed with this 
liniment two or three weeks before the hunting 
season commences ; it is supposed to improve 
their scent, and make them more fit for the chase. 

Mild Ointments for the Mange. 

Take of oil of vitriol, J an ounce; hog's lard, 
8 ounces. Mix, and anoint the dog every day for 
three or four times, or oftener if required. 

This ointment is used in surfeit, and slight cases 
of mange. 

Lotion for the Mange, 

Take of white hellebore root, bruised, 2 ounces; 
water, 3 pints, boil down to 2 pints and strain; 
sal ammoniac, 2 drachms; sublimate, 1 drachm; 
Cape aloes, half an ounce. 

Dissolve the sal ammoniac and other ingre- 
dients in the decoction. 

This lotion is sometimes used to cure the 
mange, when greasy applications are objected to. 

Distemper in Dogs. 

The following prescriptions are each about a 
dose for a full-grown pointer. They must, of 
course, be increased or diminished in proportion 
to the size and strength of the dog. 

Take of opium, 3 grains; tartar emetic, 5 grainy 
To bo given at night. 

Repeat the dose every third night, till the dog 
is recovered ; taking care to keep him in a warm 
place, and always feed with a warm liquid diet, 
such as broth, gruel, etc. 

If the nostrils should discharge, have them 
washed or syringed twice a day, with a lotion of 



116 



FAERIERT. 



alum or sagar of lead ; putting about half an ounce 
of either to a pint of water. 

Another. — For a Holf-Grotcn Pointer. 

Take of jalap powder, 25 grains ; calomel, 6 
grains. Made into a pill with a little gum-water. 
For a Full-Grown Pointer. 

Take of jalap powder, 30 grains; calomel, 8 
grains. Mixed as above. 

One of these doses, mixed with butter, or in a 
small piece of meat, should be given to the dog, 
every niTning, on an empty stomach. The food 
should be light, and easy to digest ; and the lotion, 
if requiied for the nostrils, should be observed 
here, as before mentioned. 

Distemper among Cattle. 

Examine your cow's mouth, though she appears 
very well; and if you find any pimple in it, or on 
the tongue, or if you perceive any within the skin 
ready to come out, immediately house her, keep 
her warm, and give her warm tar-water. To a 
large beast give a gallon ; to a small one three 
quarts. Give, it four times every day ; but not 
every time the quantity you first gave. Lessen 
the dose by degrees; but never give less than two 
quarts to a large beast, nor less than three pints 
to a small one ; and house her every night for some 
time, and give her warm gruel and malt mash. 

To make Tar- Water for Cows. 
Take one quart of tar, put to it 4 quarts of 
water, and stir it well ten or twelve minutes; 
let it stand a little while, and then pour it oflF for 
use. You must not put water to the same tar 
more than twice. Let the first dose be made of 
fresh tar. Continue to give it till the beast is 
■well. Don't let her go too soon abroad. 

For the Garget in Coios. 
This disorder is very frequent in cows after 
ceasing to be milked ; it affects the glands of the 
udder with hard swellings, and often arises from 
the animal not being clean milked. It may be re- 
moved by anointing the part three times a day 
with a little ointment, composed of camphor and 
blue ointment. Hnlf a drachm or more of calo- 
mel may be given in warm beer, from a horn or 
bottle, for three or four mornings, if the disorder 
is violent 

To cure the Redwater in Cattle. 
Take 1 ounce of armenian bole, half an ounce 
of dragon's blood, 2 ounces of Castile soap, and 1 
draehm of alum. Dissolve these in a quart of hot 
ale or beer, and let it stand until it is blood-warm ; 
give this as one dose, and if it should have the 
desired efi"ect, give the same quantity in about 
twelve hours after. This is an excellent medicine 
for changing the water, and acts as a purgative; 
every farmer that keeps any number of cattle, 
should always have doses of it by him. 
To cure the Scouring in Cattle. 
The following composition has been found to 
succeed in many sases *?hich were apparently 
drawing to a fatal termination. 

Take of powdered rhubarb, 2 drachms ; casti^r 
oil, 1 ounce; prepared chalk, 1 teaspoonful. 

Mix well together in a pint of warm milk. If 
the first dose does not answer, repeat it in thirty- 
eix or forty-eight hours. If the calf will suck, it 
■will be proper to allow him to do it. 

Cure for Cattle swelled trith Green Food. 
When any of your cattle happen to get swelled 
with an over-feed of clover, frosty turnips, orsuch 
like, instead of the usual method of stabbing in 
the side, apply a dose of train oil, which, after re- 
peated trials, has been found completely success- 



ful. The quantity of oil must vary according to 
the age or size of the animal. For a grown-up 
beast, of an ordinary size, the quantity recom- 
mended is about a pint, which must be adminis- 
tered to the animal with a bottle, taking care, at 
the same time, to rub the stomach well, in order 
to make it go down. After receiving this medi- 
cine, it must be made to walk about untU such 
time as the swelling begins to subside. 
Lung Fever. 

This affection is epidemic among horses as well 
as cattle; airy statdes and great cleanliness are 
important. There is no specific remedy. The 
same may be said of typhoid fever; known by 
great uneasiness, scouring, and nervous twitch- 
ings, with fever. 

Treatment of Cattle and FoieU. 

The experiment has often been tried of the 
benefit derived to horses from being well combed 
and kept clean. It has been found that a horse 
neglected as to cleanliness will not be so well con- 
ditioned, either for fatness or strength, though he 
gets abundance of corn ; at least, it is certiiin that 
it would be worth trying. This everybody knows, 
that the most neglected of the horse race are kept 
cleaner than the cleanest of the horned cattle, 
particularly those shut up in houses. 

" I have two hints to give," says a contempo- 
rary writer; "as the expense can be nothing and 
the advantage may be great; I read in a descrip- 
tion of Norway, that when the cows drink at the 
hot springs they give more milk than those that 
drink cold water. Cows drink so much at a time 
that there is no doubt, when the water is nearly 
at freezing, they must feel sensibly cooled all 
over, which will naturally affect their produce of 
milk. I would therefore propose the experiment 
of warming the water for milch cows in cold 
weather." 

The next proposal is that the corn given to fowls 
should be crushed and soaked in water; this helps 
the digestion, and hens will lay in winter when 
so fed that they would not otherwise. 

In a time of scarcity, and when the food of man 
is dear, such experiments as proposed are well 
worth making; and the practice proposed with 
the fowls ought to become general, as it costs 
nothing. 

To cure the Measles in Swine. 

It sometimes happens, though seldom, that 
swine have the measles; while they are in this 
state their flesh is very unwholesome food, having 
been ascertained to produce tape-worm in those 
who feed upon it, especially if not well cooked. 
This disorder is not easily discovered while the 
animal is alive, and can only be known by its not 
thriving or fattening as the others. After the 
animal is killed and cut up its fat is full of little 
kernels about the size of the roe or eggs of a 
snlmon. When this is the case, put into the food 
of each hog, once or twice a week, as much crude 
pounded antimony as will lie on a shilling. A 
small quantity of the flour of brimstone, also, 
may be given with their food when they are not 
thriving, which will be found of great service to 
them. But the best method of preventing disor- 
ders in swine is to keep their sties perfectly clean 
and dry, and to allow them air, exercise and plenty 
of clean straw. 

Kidney Worm. 

The sign of this is dragging of the hind legs; 
which, in the hog, never occurs otherwise unless 
from an injury. An experienced farmer asserts 
that arsenic will always cure it. Give as much 
as a dime will hold, in dough or any other vehicle. 
If once is not sufficient, the dose may be repeated- 



DISEASES OF SWINE. 



117 



Rupture in Swine. 

Where a number of swine are bred, it will fre- 
quently hiippen that some of the pigs will have 
■what is called a ' rupture,' i. e. a hole broken in 
the rim of the belly, where part of the guts coiues 
out and lodges betwixt the rim of the belly and 
the skin, having an appearance similar to a swell- 
ing in the testicles. The male pigs are more liable 
to this disorder than the females. It is cured by 
the following means: 

Geld the pig affected, and cause it to be held up 
■with its head downwards; flay back the skin from 
the swollen place, and from the situation in which 
the pig is held the guts will naturally return to 
their proper place. Sew up the hole with a needle, 
which must have a square point, and also a bend 
in it, as the disease often happens between the 
hinder legs, where a straight needle cannot be 
used. After this is done, replace the skin that 
■was flayed back and sew it up, when the opera- 
tion is finished. The pig should not have much 
food for a few days after the operation, until the 
■wound begins to heal. 

Sore Throat iti Swine. 

This is a swelling of the glands of the throat, 
attended by wheezing, and general weakness of 
the animal. Indigo is useful for it; a piece as 
large as a hickory nut mashed up in water and 
poured down. Once is generally' enough. 

Hog Cholera. 
Though usually incurable when it occurs, it 
may nenrly always be prevented by putting ashes 
in the trough with the food once a week. 

For the, Foot- Rot in Sheep. 

Take a piece of alum, a piece of green vitriol, 
and some white mercury — the alum must be in 
the largest proportion; dissolve them in water, 
au'l after the hoof is pared anoint it with a feather 
and bind on a rag over all the foot. 

Another. — Pound some green vitriol fine, and 
apply a little of it to the part of the foot affected, 
binding a rag over the foot as above. Let the 
sheep be kept in the house a few hours after this 
is done, and then turn them out to a dry pasture. 
This is the most common way of curing the foot- 
rot in Middlese.x. 

Another. — Others anoint the part with a feather 
dipped in aqua fortis or weak nitrous acid, which 
dries in at once. Many drovers that take sheep 
to market- towns, carry a little bottle of this about 
with them, which, by applying to the foot with a 
feather, helps a lame sheep by hardening its hoof 
and enabling it to travel better. Some may think 
aqua fortis is of too hot a nature, but such a des- 
perate disorder requires iin active cure, which, no 
doubt, is ever to be used cautiously. 

Aniither. — Spread some slacked quick-lime over 
a house floor pretty thick ; pare the sheep's feet 
well, and turn them into this house, where they 
may remain for a lew hours, after which turn them 
into a dry pasture. This treatment mny be re- 
peated two or three times, always observing to 
keep the house clean, and adding a little more 
quick-lime before putting them in. 

The foot must be often dressed, and the sheep 
kept as much as possible upon dry land. Those 
animals that are diseased should be kept sepamte 
from the flock, as the disorder is very infectious. 

Prevention and Cure of the Foot-Rot in Sheep. 

On suspected grounds, constant and careful ex- 
amination ought to take place; and when any fis- 
sures or cracks, attended with heat, make their 
aj'pearancc, apply oil of turpentine and common 
brandy. This, in general, produces a very bene- 



ficial effect, but where the disease has been long 
seated, and becomes, in a manner, confirmed — af- 
ter cleaning the foot, and paring away the infected 
parts, recourse is had to oaastics, of which tha 
best seem to be sulphuric acid and the nitrate of 
mercury. After this pledgets are applied, the 
foot bound up, and the animal kept in a clean, dry 
situation, until its recoverj' is effected. 

But it often happens, where the malady is ia- 
veterate, that the diseiise refuses to yield to any 
or all of the above prescriptions. 

The following mode of treatment, however, if 
carefully attended to, may be depended upon as a 
certain cure. Whenever the disease makes its ap- 
pearance, let the foot be carefully examined, and 
the diseased part well washed, and pared as close 
as possible, not to make it bleed; and let the floor 
of the house, where the sheep are confined, be 
strewn three or four inches thick with quick-lime 
hot from the kiln ; and let the sheep, after having 
their feet dressed in the manner above described, 
stand in it during the space of six or seven 
hours. 

In all cases, it is of great importance that the 
animal be afterwards exposed only to a moderate 
temperature — be invigorated with proper food — 
and kept in clean, easy, dry pasture; and the dis- 
ease will be effectually remedied in the course of 
a few days. 

To prevent Sheep from catching Cold after being 
Shorn. 

Sheep are sometimes exposed to cold winds and 
rains immediately after shearing, which exposure 
frequently hurts them. Those farmers who have 
access to the sea should plunge them into the salt 
water; those who have not that opportunity, and 
whose flocks are not very large, may mix salt with 
water and rub them all over, which will in a great 
measure prevent any mishap befalling the animal 
after having been stripped of its coat. 

It is very common in the months of June and 
July, for some kinds of sheep, especially the fine 
Leicester breed, which are commonly thin-skinned 
about the head, to be struck with a kind of fly, 
and by scratching the place with their feet, they 
make it sore and raw. To prevent this, take tar, 
train oil, and salt, boil them together, and when 
cold, put a little of it on the part affected. This 
application keeps off the flies, and likewise heals 
the sore. The salt should be in very small quan- 
tity, or powdered sulphur may be used instead of it. 

To prevent the Scab. 
Separating the wool, lay the before-mentioned 
ointment in a strip, from the neck down the back 
to the rump; another strip down each shoulder, 
and one down each hip ; it may not be unnecessary 
to put one along each side. Put very little of the 
ointment on, as too much of it may be attended 
with danger. 

To destroy Maggots in Sheep. 
Mix with 1 quart of spring water, a table spoon- 
ful of the spirits of turpentine, and as much of the 
sublimate powder as will lie upon a dime. Shako 
them well together, and cork it up in a bottle, with 
a quill through the cork, so that the liquid may 
come out of the bottle in small quantities at once. 
The bottle must always be well shaken when it is 
to be used. When the spot is observed where the 
maggots are, do not disturb them, but pour a little 
of the mixture upon the spot, as much as will wet 
the wool and the maggots. In a few minutes after 
the liquor is applied the maggots will all creep to 
the top of the wool, and in a short time drop off 
dead. The sheep must, however, be inspected mxt 
day, and if any of the maggots remain undestroyed. 



118 



FARRIERY. 



Bbake them off, or touch them with a little more 
of the mixture. 

A little train oil may be applied after the mag- 
gots are removed, as sometimes the skin will be 
hard by applying too much of the liquid. Besides, 
the fly is not so apt to strike when it finds the 
Bmell of the oil, which may prevent a second at- 
tack. 

This method of destroying maggots is superior 
to any other, and it prevents the animal from being 
disfigured by Clipping off the wool, which is a 
common practice in some countries. 

Cure for the Scab in Sheep. 

The simplest and most efficacious remedy for 
this disease, was communicated to the Society for 
the Encouragement of Arts, etc., by the late Sir 
Joseph Banks; and is as follows : 

Take 1 pound of quicksilver, ^ a pound of Venice 
turpentine, J a pint of oil of turpentine, 4 pounds 
of hog's lard. 

Let them be rubbed in a mortar till the quick- 
silver is thoroughly incorporated with the other 
ingredients. For the proper mode of doing which, 
it may be right to take the advice or even the as- 
aistiinoe of some apothecary, or other person used 
to make such mixtures. 

The method of using the ointment is this : Be- 
ginning at the head of the sheep, and proceeding 
from between the ears, along the back, to the end 
of the tail ; the wool is to be divided in a furrow, 
till the skin can he touched, and as the furrow is 
made, the finger, slightly dipped in the ointment, 
is to be drawn along the bottom of it, where it 
will leave a blue stain on the skin and adjoining 
wool. 

From this furrow, similar ones must be drawn 
down the shoulders and thighs to the legs, as far 
as they are woolly; and if the animal is much in- 
fected, two more should be drawn along each side, 
parallel to that on the back, .nnd one down each 
side, between the fore and hind legs. 

Immediately after being dressed, it is usual to 
turn the sheep among other stock, without any fear 
of the infection being communicated ; and there is 
scarcely an instance of a sheep suffering any injury 
from the application. In a few days the blotches 
dry up, the itching ceases, and the animal is com- 
pletely cured. It is generally, however, thought 
proper not to delay the operation beyond Michael- 
mas. 

The hippobosca ovina, called in Lincolnshire 
Sheep-fiigg, an animal well known to all shepherds, 
which lives among the wool, and is hurtful to the 
thriving of sheep, both by the pain its bite occa- 
sions, and the blood it sucks, is destroyed by this 
application, and the wool is not at all injured. 
Our wool-buyers purchase the fleeces on which 
the stain of the ointment is visible, rather in pre- 
ference to others, from an opinion, that the use of 
it having preserved the animal from being ve.xed, 
either with the scab or faggs, the wool is less lia- 
ble to the defects of joints or knots; a fault ob- 
served to proceed from very sudden stop in the 
thriving of the animal, either from want of food, 
or from disease. 

To cure the Water in the Heads of Sheeji. 
" Of all the various operations by which this dis- 
temper may be eradicated, I must, from experience, 
give the preference to one which will, perhaps, 
astonish such readers as form their opinions 
more from theory than practice. A number of 
medical men have already controverted the fact, 
and, with the utmost presumption, disputed my 
veracity to my face, after I had witnessed its effi- 
CiMjy in a thousand instances. It la no other than 



that of putting a sharpened wire np the nostril 
quite through the middle of the brain, and by that 
means perforating the bag which contains the fluid 
causing the disease. This is, of all other methods, 
the most certain to succeed : but it has this un- 
pleasant appendage annexed to it, if it do not curOj 
it is certain to kill. 

This method of cure is not only the most expe- 
dient, but it is in every shepherd's power, and one 
which he can scarcely perform amiss, if he attend 
to the following plain directions : 

The operation must be performed with a stiff 
steel wire, such as is used for knitting the coarsest 
stockings. It must be kept clean, and free of rust, 
oiled, and sharpened at the point. Care must be 
taken, however, that its point be only one eighth 
of an inch in length, for if it is tapered like a 
needle, it is apt to take a wrong direction in going 
up the nostrils, fix in the gristle below the brain, 
and torment the animal to no purpose. If blunt 
in the point, it often fails to penetrate the bladder, 
which is of considerable toughness, shoving it only 
a little to one side ; the snfest way, of course, is to 
have the point of the wire sharp and short. 

The shepherd must first feel with his thumbs 
for the soft part in the skull, which invariably 
marks the seat of this disease. If that is near the 
middle of the head above, where, in two cases out 
of three at least, it is sure to be, let him then fix 
the animal firm betwixt his knees, hold the head 
with one hand, laying his thumb upon the soft or 
diseased part, and with the other hand insert th^ 
wire through the nostril, on a parallel with the 
seat of the distemper, aiming directly at the point 
where his thumb is placed. The operation is per- 
formed in one second, for if he feels the point of 
the wire come in contact with his thumb, let him 
instantly set the animal to its feet, and if the 
weather is at all cold, let it stand in the house 
over-night. 

If the disease is seated exactly in that part 
where the divisions of the skull meet, and conse- 
quently in a right line with the top of the nose, 
he must probe both nostrils, when, should he miss 
the bulb on the one side, he will be sure to hit it 
on the other. If the seat of the disease cannot 
at all be found, and if the animal have all the 
symptoms of the malady the water is then en- 
closed among the ventricles in the middle of the 
brain, and must be treated as above. Nothing 
can be done in the last case save with the wire, 
but it is hard to cure when so affected. I have 
found, on dissection, the fluid contained in many 
little cells in the centre of the brain, and though 
the wire had penetrated some of these cells, it had 
missed others. 

By this simple operation alone I have cured 
hundreds, and though I never kept an exact re- 
gister, I think I have not known it to fail above 
once in four times as an average in all the in- 
stances which have come under my observation, 
and some of these I knew to be injudiciously 
performed, the disease not being seated in a point 
which the wire could reach. I have at times 
cured a dozen, and ten, in regular succession, 
without failing once, and I have again in some 
cold seasons of the year, killed three or four suc- 
cessively. 

Sir George M'Kenzie has insinuated in his book 
on sheep that I was the inventor of this mode of 
cure, but it is by no means the case. The prac- 
tice, I understand, has been in use amon^' shep- 
herds for ages past, but they were often obliged 
to perform it privately, their masters, like the pro- 
fessors about Edinburgh, always arguing thnt the 
piercing of the brain must necessarily prove fatal. 
Sir George has, however, misunderstood my ao- 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 



119 



oonnt in this matter in the Highland Society's 
Transactions; I did not mean to insinuate that it 
was with pleasure I discovered the art of curing 
'ihem in this way, but only m^' success in that art. 
i mentioned in these Transactions that when I 
was a shepherd boy, for a number of years I 
probed the skull of every sturdied sheep that I 
could lay my hands on, without any regard to 
whom they belonged, and likewise took every op- 
portunity of visiting my patients as often as pos- 
sible; and, as the country around me swarmed 
with them every spring and summer, my practice, 
of course, was of prodigious extent. It was sev- 
eral years before I was sensible of failing in one 
instance, which, however, it was often impossible 
to ascertain, they having left the spot sometimes 
before I could again go that way : but many a 
valuable young sheep I cured for different owners 
without ever acknowledging it, having no authority 
to try such experiments. 

The following symptoms, after the operation, 
may be depended on : If the animal becomes con- 
siderably sick, it is a good sign that it will re- 
cover. If it continues to grow sicker and abstains 
from feeding for the space of two days, it is 
likely to die, and if in a condition to be fit for 
family use ought to be killed forthwith. The 
flesh of the animal is nothing the worse for this 
di-sease ; on the contrary, it is universally sup- 
posed by the country people that their flesh is 
sweeter, more delicate and palatable than any 
other. This, I suppose, must be owing to their 
tender age, it being unusual to kill any sheep so 
young, save lambs. 

The first symptom of recovery is their bleat- 
ing. If once they begin to bleat occasionsilly, 
they are sure to recover, however stupid they may 
appear at that time. It seems that they are then 
becoming sensible of the want of society, the only 
thing which causes sheep to bleat, and which, for 
a long time previous to that they had totally dis- 
regarded. 

I must mention here that the most successful 
curer of this distemper I ever knew, performed 
the operation in a different manner from the one 
practised by me, and above recommended. In- 
stead of a wire he carried always a large corkinj;- 
pin in his bonnet, and, like me, tapped every stur- 
died sheep he found, but always above, putting 
the point of the pin through the skull at the place 
where it was most soft, in the same manner as the 
trocar is used. As this does not at all endanger 
the sheep's life, I frequently tried this plan pre- 
vious to that of probing with the wire; but, as 
far as I can recollect, I never cured one by that 
means. I remember once conversing with him 
on the subject, when he told me that he seldom or 
never failed in curing them upon their own farms, 
but that in sundry neighboring farms he rarely 
cured any. From this it would appear that on 
different soils the animals are differently affected. 
I am now convinced that he must generally have 
inserted the pin so far as to penetrate the bottom 
of the sac, which I never had the sense to try, 
and which, if we reason from analogy must prove 
as effective and less hazardous than the other, for 
it appears to me that in order to insure a recovery 
it is necessary that the bottom or lowest part of 
the sac be penetrated. 

Uniloubtedly the best mode of curing this dis- 
ease would be to extract the sac and all that it 
Contains entirely. There is little doubt but that if 
this were performed by gentle and skilful hands, 
it would prove the most effectual cure; but ns it 
is I can attest that it seldom proves successful. 
The shepherds have not skill and ingenuity suffi- 
cient 10 close the skuU properly up again, or 



in such a manner as is requisite to defend it 
from external injury; of course I would rather 
recommend the mode in which they cannot easily 
go wrong, and which I have seen prove most 
beneficial, when performed by men of like ac- 
quirements themselves." — Farmer's Magnziiie. 

To prevent the "Sturdy" or Water in the heads of 
Sheep. 

With regard to the causes inducing water in 
the head of sheep, there is but one opinion enter- 
tained among shepherds, which is that it is occa- 
sioned by a chilliness in the back of the animal, 
on account of its being exposed to the winds, and 
the sleety showers of winter. These cause it to 
acquire a kind of numbness and torpidity, which, 
if often repeated, are apt to terminate in an af- 
fection to giddiness, and finally in a water in the 
head. 

That the disease is occasioned solely by a chilli- 
ness in the back, appears from the following facts: 

1. It is always most general after a windy and 
sleety winter. 

2. It is always most destructive on farms that 
are ill sheltered, and on which the sheep are most 
exposed to those blasts and showers. 

3. It preys only on sheep rising their first year, 
the wool of whom separates above, leaving the back 
quite exposed to the wet and to the cold. 

4. If a piece of cloth or hide is sewed to the 
wool, so as to cover the back, such a sheep will not 
be affected with the disease. The experiment is a 
safe, a cheap, and an easy one ; and, exclusive of 
its good effects in preventing the fatal disease 
under consideration, it is more beneficial to a 
young sheep that is not over-high in condition, 
and administers more to its comfort during the 
winter than any other that I know of. It keeps 
the wool from opening, and the sheep always dry 
and warm on the back ; which, exposed to cold, 
either in man or beast, it is well known, affects the 
vitals materially. When thus shielded, the young 
sheep will feed straight in the wind on the worst 
days, without injury, and, indeed, without much 
regarding the weather. This covering keeps th(;ui 
from the rain, prevents them from being shelled 
and loaded with frozen snow, and from destruction 
by cold, by leanness, and the water in the head. ^ 
The expense attending it is so trifling, that it is 
scarcely worth mentioning. One pair of old blan- 
kets will furnish coats for forty sheep; and if 
these are carefully taken off on the return of 
spring, and laid aside, they will serve thu same 
purpose for two or three successive years. 

Practice of the Spanish Shepherds. 
The first care of the shepherd on coming to the 
spot where his sheep are to spend the summer, is 
to give to his ewes as much salt as they will eat. 
For this purpose he is provided with twenty-five 
quintals of salt for every thousand head, which is 
consumed in less than five months; but they eat 
none on their journey or in winter. The method 
of giving it to them is as follows : The shepherd 
places fifty or sixty flat stones about five steps 
distance from each other. He strews salt upon 
each stone, then leads his flock slowly through 
the stones, and every sheep eats at pleasure. This 
is frequently repeated, observing not to let them 
eat on those days in any spot where there is lime- 
stone. When they have eaten the salt they are 
led to some argillaceous spots, where, from the 
craving they have acquired, they devour every- 
thing they meet with, and return again to the salt 
with redoubled ardor. 

Cure of Dropsy in the Crops of Yottng Turkeys. 
" This kind of dropsy is announced by a dall 



120 



FARRIERY. 



look, paleness of the head, loss of appetite, and 
aversion to food. The birds allow themselves to be 
approached and seized with facility, and they are 
without strength. Very soon a slight swelling of 
the crop is added to these symptoms, which in ten 
days becomes very considerable. I have taken 
nearly a pint of water from one. By pressing 
upon tl\ ■ nrops of some of them a certain quantity 
of matter is discharged by the bill, but never 
enough entirely to ease the crop. All these symp- 
toms increase, and the bird dies at the end of fif- 
teen or eighteen daiys' illness. 

I souf t after the cause of this disorder, and it 
was easj ; find that it was occasioned by the 
stagnant water of which these animals had drunk ; 
in the course of the year the heat had been great, 
and there was little rain. The heat had hatched 
a vast swarm of small red worms, resembling 
ascarides. It is quite certain that these in- 
sects must have been swallowed by the tur- 
keys, and from this cause, and the bad quality 
of the water which they had drunk a great de- 
gree of inflammation in the crop would ensue, 
■with a stoppage of the passage which conducts 
to j.'ic gizzard. I divided the turkeys into two 
classes ; for those who were still sound I or- 
dered grain and good water ; with all that were 
diseased I practised the operation of tapping with 
a lancet, in the lowest part of the crop. I in- 
jected at the opening, by means of a small syringe, 
a slight decoction of Jesuit's bark, mixed with a 
little brandy; which was repeated twice in the 
course of the day. Next day the wound was bet- 
ter marked. I made again the same injection, 
and two hours after, I forced them to eat a little 
of the yolk of an egg, mixed with some crumbs of 
bread. At the end of three days the wound in 
the crop was closed; which I might have pre- 
vented, but finding a natural opening in the bill, 
I made them take, during eight days, in their 
drink the same substance which had been in- 
jected; and they were, by degrees, put on their 
''let. I need not add that clear water was 
\ instead of that of the standing pools. 

liimals had died before my arrival; 

luring the treatment, and the rest 

/ck, which might be about forty, either 

. ped the disease or were cured." — M. Liyneuu. 

To cure Colds of every description in Cattle. 

The first attempt should be to remove the cause, 
by giving to the animal a warm cordial drink ; 
which, acting as a stimulant on the stomach and 
intestines, will give fresh motion to these parts, 
and enable nature to resume her former course. 

Take of sweet fennel-seeds and cummin-seeds, 
each 2 ounces, in powder; long pepper, turmeric, 
ginger each 1 ounce, in powder. Mix for one drink. 

The method of giving this drink is as follows : 
Put it into a pitcher with 2 ounces of fresh butter 
and 2 tablespoonsful of treacle or coarse sugar; 
then pour one quart of boiling ale upon the whole; 
cover them down till new-milk warm, and then 
give the drink to the beast. 

In two hours after giving the drijik let the ani- 
mal have a good mash made of scalded bran, or 
gr 'I'nd malt, with a handful or two of ground 
uaLs or barley meal added to it, and warm water 
that day. In slight colds, during the summer, 
these drin'.'i may be given to cattle while in their 
pasture; and, where it can be made convenient, 
let them fast two hours after, and then graze as 
usual. It is also necessary to examine the sick 
animals every day, t<> watch thtni while they both 
dung and stale, and to see whether the body be of 
a proper heat and the nose or muzzle of a natural 
br««ie. 



If these be regular there is not much danger. 
If, however, feverish symptoms should appear 
(which frequently happens), the animal will be- 
come costive. In such cases give one of the fol- 
lowing : 

Purging Drink. 

Take of Glauber salts, 1 pound; ginger, in pow- 
der, 2 ounces ; treacle, 4 ounces. 

Put all the ingredients into a pitcher and pour 
3 pints of boiling water upon them. When new- 
milk warm give the whole for one dose. 

Another. 

Take of Epsom salts, 1 pound ; anise-seeds and 
ginger, in powder, each 2 ounces ; treacle, 4 
ounces. 

Let this be given in the Same manner as the 
preceding. 

In most cases these drinks will be sufiicient to 
purge a full-grown animal of this kind. By strict 
attention to the above method of application, a 
fever may be prevented, and the animal speedily 
restored. 

If the fever continue, after the intestines havB 
been evacuated (which is seldom the case), it will 
be proper to take some blood from the animal, and 
the quantity must be regulated according to the 
disease and habit of body. 

To cure the Yellows or Jaundice in Neat Cattle. 

As soon as the disease makes its first appear- 
ance, it may, for the most part, be removed by ad- 
ministering the following drink: 

Reduce to powder cummin-seeds, anise-seeds, 
and turmeric root, each 2 ounces ; grains of para- 
dise, and salt of tartar, each 1 ounce. 

Now slice 1 ounce of Castile soap, and mix it 
with 2 ounces of treacle ; put the whole into a 
pitcher, then pour a quart of boiling ale upon the 
ingredients, and cover them down till new-milk 
warm, then give the drink. It will often be pro- 
per to repeat this, two or three times, every other 
day, or oftener if required. If the beast be in good 
condition, take away from two to three quarts of 
blood; but the animal should not be turned out 
after bleeding that day, nor at night, but the 
morning following it may go to its pasture as 
usual. After this has had the desired effect, let 
the following be given : 

Take of balsam copaiva, 1 ounce ; salt of tartar, 
1 ounce; Castile soap, 2 ounces. Beat them to- 
gether in a marble mortar; and add of valerian 
root, in powder, 2 ounces ; ginger root and Peruvian 
bark, in powder, each 1 ounce; treacle, 2 ounces. 

Mix for one drink. 

Let this drink be given in a quart of warm gruel, 
and repeated if necessary every other day. It 
will be proper to keep the body sufficiently open 
through every stage of the disease ; for if costive- 
ness be permitted, the fever will increase, and if 
not timely removed, the disorder will terminate 
fatally. 

Frenzy, or Inflammation of the Brain, 

Is sometimes occasioned by wounds or contu- 
sions in the head, that are attended with violent 
inflammations of the vessels, and if not speedily 
relieved, may terminate in a gangrene or a morti- 
fication, which is very often the case, and that in a 
few days. 

Method of Cure. 

In the cure of this disease, the following method 
must be attended to : — First lessen the quantity of 
blood by bleeding, which may be repeated if re- 
quired, and by which the great efflux of blood 
upon the temporal arteries will be lessened and 
much retarded. The following purgative drink 



AGES OP ANIMALS. 



121 



win be found suitable for this disease, and like- 
wise for most fevers of an inflammatory nature. 

Take of Glauber salts, 1 pound; tartarized an- 
timony, 1 drachm; camphor, 2 drachms; treacle, 
4 ounces. 

Mi.v. and put the whole into a pitcher, and pour 
3 pints of boiling water upon them. 

When new-milk warm add laudanum, half an 
ounce, and give it all for one dose. 

This drink will in general operate briskly in the 
space of 20 or 24 hours ; if not, let one half of the 
quantity be given to the beast every night and 
morning, until the desired effect be obtained. 
To cure Hoven or Blown in Cattle. 

This complaint is in general occasioned by the 
animal feeding for a considerable time upon rich 
succulent food, so that the stomach becomes over- 
charged, iind they, through their greediness to eat, 
forget to lie down to ruminate or chew their cud. 
Thus the paunch or first stomach is rendered in- 
capable of expelling its contents ; a concoction and 
fermentation take place in the stomach, by which 
a large quantity of confined air is formed in the 
part that extends nearly to the anus, and for want 
of vent at that part, causes the animal to swell 
even to a state of suffocation, or a rupture of some 
part of the stomach or intestines ensues. As sud- 
den death is the consequence of this; the greatest 
caution is necessary in turning cattle into a fresh 
pasture, if the bite of grass be considerable ; nor 
should they be suffered to stop too long at a time 
in such pastures before they are removed into a 
fold yard, or some close where there is but little 
to eat, in order that the organs of rumination and 
digestion may have time to discharge their func- 
tions. 

If this be attended to several times, it will take 
away that greediness of disposition, and prevent 
this distressing complaint. 

Treatment. 

As soon as the beast is discovered to be either 
hoven or blown, by eating too great a quantity of 
succulent grasses, let a purging drink be given; 
this will, for the most part, check fermentation in 
the stomach, and in a very short time force a pas- 
gage through the intestines. 

Paunching. 

This is a method frequently resorted to in dan- 
gerous cases. The operation is performed in the 
following manner : — Take a sharp penknife and 
gently introduce it Into the paunch between the 
haunch bone and the last rib on the left side. This 
will instantly give vent to a large quantity of fetid 
air; a small tube of a sufficient length may then 
be introduced into the wound, and remain until 
the air is sufiiciently evacuated; afterwards, take 
out the tube, and lay a pitch plaster over the ori- 
fice. Wounds of this kind are soldum attended 
with danger ; where it has arisen, it has been oc- 
casioned by the injudicious operator introducing 
his knife into a wrong part. After the wind is ex- 
pelled, and the body has been reduced to its na- 
tural state, give an opiate drink. 

To cure Swimming in the Head. 
This disease mostly attacks animals that have 
been kept in a state of poverty and starvation du- 
ring the winter season ; and which have in the 
epring of the year been admitted into a fertile pas- 
ture j hence is produced a redundancy of blood 



and other fluids, pressing upon the contracted ves- 
sels, while the animal economy, on the other hand, 
is using its utmost endeavor to restore reduced na- 
ture to its original state. If it be not chocked in 
its infancy by bleeding, evacuating, etc., inflam- 
mation in all probability must take place; in which 
case the beast is attended with all the symptoms 
of one that is raving mad. 

The cure must first be attempted by taking from 
two to three or four quarts of blood from the ani- 
mal, according to size and strength ; two or three 
hours after, give a purging drink. 

Purging is generally necessary in this disease. 

Age of Cattle, etc. 

The age of the ox or cow is told chiefly by the 
teeth, and less perfectly by the horns. The tem- 
porary teeth are in part through at birth, and all 
the incisors are through in twenty days ; the first, 
second and third pairs of temporary molars are 
through in thirty days; the teeth have grown 
large enough to touch each other by the sixth 
month ; they gradually wear and fall in eighteen 
months; the fourth permanent molars are through 
at the fourth month; the fifth at the fifteenth; 
the sixth at two years. The temporary teeth be- 
gin to fall at twenty-one months, and are entirely 
replaced by the thirty-ninth to the forty-fifth 
month. The development is quite complete at 
from five to six years. At that time the border of 
the incisors has been worn away a little below the 
level of the grinders. At six years, the first grind- 
ers are beginning to wear, and are on a level with 
the incisors. At eight years, the wear of the first 
grinders is very apparent. At ten or eleven years, 
used surfaces of the teeth begin to bear a square 
mark surrounded by a white line; and this is pro- 
nounced on all the teeth by the twelfth year; be- 
tween the twelfth and the fourteenth year this 
mark takes a round form. The rings on the horns 
are less useful as guides. At ten or twelve months 
the first ring appears ; at twenty months to two 
years the second; at thirty to thirty-two months 
the third ring; at forty to forty-six months the 
fourth ring; at fifty-four to sixty months the fifth 
ring, and so on. But, at the filth year, the three 
first rings are indistinguishable, and at the eighth 
year all the rings. Besides, the dealers file the 
horns. 

Age of the Sheep. 

In the sheep, the temporary teeth begin to ap- 
pear in the first week, and fill the mouth at three 
months ; they are gradually worn, and fall at about 
fifteen or eighteen months. The fourth permanent 
grinders appear at three months, and the fifth pair 
at twenty to twenty-seven months. A common 
rule is, " two broad teeth every year." The wear 
of the teeth begins to be marked about six years. 

Age of the Pig. 
The age of the pig is known up to three years 
by the teeth; after that there is no certainty. 
The temporary teeth are complete in three or four 
months; about the sixth month the premolars be- 
tween the tusks and the first pair of molars ap- 
pear; in si.x to ten months the tusks and posterior 
incisors are replaced; in twelve months to two 
years the other incisors; the fourth permanent 
molars appear at sixth months; the fifth pair at 
ten months ; and the sixth and last at eighteen 
months. 



122 



MEDICINE. 



MEDICIISrE. 



General Rulet for ir filing Diseases. 
Rule 1. — In every complaint, whatever it may 
be called, if you find the pulse quick, hard, full, 
and strong, the head aching, tongue foul, skin hot, 
or those marks which denote it to be of an inflam- 
matory nature, remember the plan is to reduce ex- 
citement by purging, low diet, drinking plentifully 
of cold water and lemonade, rest, etc. 

Ride 2. — If, on the contrary, the pulse be small, 
Boft, feeble, and intermitting, the tongue dark, and 
great debility or weakness is evident, reverse the 
whole pbin; the diet must be generous and nou- 
rishing, the bowels opened with gentle laxatives, 
and the strength supported by bark, sulphate of 
quinine, wine, and tonics of various kinds. 

It is necessary, however, to be careful in distin- 
guishing the weakness which is here meant, from 
that state of debility which arises from excessive 
action, from the stuffing up of the vessels, and 
which requires the lancet. As a mistake might 
prove fatal, attention should be paid to the pulse, 
by which they can be known. In that state 
which requires tonics, the pulse is small, soft — 
sometimes like a thread, and quick. In the other, 
it is slower and full, giving considerable resist- 
ance to the pressure of the finger. 

Rule .3. — If, in addition to those symptoms men- 
tioned in the second rule, the tongue be covered 
with a black coat — foul, dark-looliing sores form 
about the gums and insides of the cheeks — the 
breath be offensive, etc., the same class of remedies 
is to be vigorously employed, with a free use of 
acids and other antiseptic articles. 

Ride 4. — Severe local pains, as in the head, 
side, etc., may require the use of the lancet, purg- 
ing, and blisters to the part. 

Ride 5. — Incessant and earnest entreaties on the 
p^rt of the sick for, or longing after, any particu- 
lar article of diet, if steadily persevered in, may 
be safely indulged, whether the use of it agrees or 
not with our preconceived ideas on the subject. 

Rule 6. — In all fevers, where the pulse is 
quick, full and strong, the skin burning to the 
touch, and there is no perspiration, apply gently 
cold water over the head and limbs of the patient, 
wipe him dry and cover him in bed. If, in con- 
sequence of this, a chill be experienced, and the 
pulse sink, give warm wine, etc., and omit the 
water for the future. Should a pleasant glow, 
over the whole frame, follow the affusion, and the 
patient feel relieved by it, repeat it as often as 
may be necessary. 

Rule 7. — Observe carefully, the effects of vari- 
ous articles of food, as well as physic, upon your 
own body, and choose those which experience 
proves to agree best with you. It is a vulgar, but 
true saying, that "What is one man's meat is 
another's poison." When, however, the stomach 
is out of order, do not conclude hastily that a par- 
ticular article is injurious; as, at such a time, 
everything may seem to disagree, and the simplest 
things are then the best. 

Rule 8. — Keep a sick room always well venti- 
lated. Plenty of fresh air is an important reme- 
dial agent in all diseases. 

It is not meant by this that the patient should 
be exposed to a direct current of air, which should 
be always avoided by well and sick. 



OF THE PULSE. 
The pulse is nothing more than the beating of 



an artery. Every time the heart contracts, a per. 
tion of blood is forced into the arteries, which di- 
late or swell to let it pass, and then immediately 
regain their former size, until by a second stroke 
of the same organ, a fresh column of blood is 
pushed through them, when a similar action is re- 
peated. This swelling and contracting of the ar- 
teries then constitutes the pulse, and consequently 
it may be found in every part of the body where 
those vessels run near enough to the surface to 
be felt. Physicians look for it at the wrist from 
motives of convenience. 

The strength and velocity of the pulse vary 
much in different persons, even in a state of per 
feet health. It averages about seventy beats a 
minute in adults. It is much more frequent in 
children than in adults; and in old men it grows 
more slow and feeble, owing to the decreased en- 
ergy of the heart. The pulse is increased both in 
strength and velocity by running, walking, riding, 
and jumping ; by eating, drinking, singing, speak- 
ing, and by joy, anger, etc. It is diminished, in 
like manner, by fear, want of nourishment, melan- 
choly, excessive evacuations, or by whatever tends 
to debilitate the system. 

In feeling the pulse, then, in sick persons, al- 
lowance should be made for these causes, or, what 
is better, we should wait until their temporary 
effects have ceased. 

A full, tense, and strong pulse is when the ar- 
rery swells boldly under the finger, and resists its 
pressure more or less; if, in addition to this, the 
pulsation be very rapid, it is called quick, full, 
and strong; if slow, the contrary. 

A hard, corded pulse is that in which the ar- 
tery feels like the string of a violin, or a piece of 
tightened cat-gut, giving considerable resistance 
to the pressure of the finger. 

The soft and intermitting pulses are easily 
known by their names. In cases of extreme de- 
bility, on the approach of death, and in some par- 
ticular diseases, the artery vibrates under the fin- 
ger like a thread. 

In feeling the pulse, three or four fingers should 
be laid on it at once. The most convenient spot 
to do this, as already mentioned, is the wrist, but 
it can be readily done in the temple, just before, 
and close to the ear, in the bend of the arm, at the 
under part of the lower end of the thing, among 
the hamstrings, and on the top of the foot. 

There are two kinds of large blood-vessels in 
the human body : arteries and veins. The arte- 
ries carry the blood from the heart to the ex- 
tremities of the body, where they are connected 
through the capillaries with the veins which bring 
it back again. An artery pulsates or beats; a 
vein does not. 



OF FEVER. 
Fever is by far the most common complaint to 
which the human body is subject. It may be 
briefly described as a combination of heat, loss 
of appetite, weakness, and inability to sleep. It 
makes its appearance in two ways: either sud- 
denly and violently, or gradually and gently, 
AVhen it comes on in the first manner, a cold 
shaking, attended with sickness at the stomach, 
or vomiting, marks its access; the cold is more 
severe than in the latter, as is also the pain in the 
head, and other symptoms. When its attack is 
gradual, a feeling of soreness over the whole 



FEVERS. 



123 



body such as is experienced after a hard day's 
Work by one not accustomed to it, shows its ap- 
proach. Nausea, pains in the head, chills, and 
more or less heat and thirst soon follow. 

As these symptoms vary infinitely in their de- 
grees of violence, the treatment to be pursued 
must differ accordingly. Thus the same direc- 
tions that are given for simple inflammatory 
fever must be adhered to, in one whose symptoms 
are lighter, though similar, only there is no ne- 
cessity for pushing them to so great an extent. 

Simple I»fiamvtatory Fever. 

Symptoms. — Chills, flushed face, skin hot, eyes 
red, pulse quick, full, strong, and regular, great 
thirst, tongue white, urine high-colored and small 
in quantity, bowels costive, breathing quick, etc. 

Causes. — Cold, violent exercise while exposed 
to the heat of the sun, intemperance, the indul- 
gence of unruly passions. 

Treatment. — Bleed the patient, if he be robust, 
at the very beginning of the attack. The quan- 
tity of blood to be taken should be regulated by 
the strength and age of the person, and the violence 
of the symptoms. In this country, where diseases 
are very acute, from twelve to fifteen ounces is an 
averagequantity for a robust man. If there be great 
pain in the bead, shave it and apply a blister, or 
cloths wrung out of iced vinegar and water, fre- 
quently renewed. The bowels are to be freely opened 
with Kpsom salts or citrate of magnesia, and the 
diet should consist of plenty of cold water, rice 
water, or lemonade. If the heat of the body be 
excessive and burning to the touch, and there is 
no iierspiration, let cold water be ai)plied with a 
sponge to his head and limbs, and then wipe him 
dry and cover him in bed. If there be intense 
pain in the head or side, apply a blister. The 
saline mixture, below, will be found useful through- 
out. An emetic, at the very onset, sometimes cuts 
short the disease. The room should be kept quiet, 
cool, and dark, every source of excitement being 
removed. 

Snliiie Mixture. — Carbonate of potassa, 2 
drachms; water, 6 ounces. When the salt is dis- 
solved, add by degrees portions of fresh lemon 
juice till it ceases to effervesce. A tablespoonfui 
may be taken every half hour. 

Intermittent, or Fever and Ague. 

(ff this fever, there are several varieties, which 
differ from each other onlj' in the length of time 
that elapses between their attacks. There is one 
called quotidian, in which it comes on every 
twenty-four hours; another named tertian, in 
which it arrives every forty-eight hours, and the 
third quartan, because the intermission lasts 
seventy- two hours. 

Si/mptotns. — The symptoms of fever and ague 
are, unfortunately, too well known among us, com- 
mencing with yawning, stretching and uneasi- 
ness; this is succeeded by slight chills or shiver- 
ings, that end in a violent or convulsive shaking 
of the whole body. This is the cold fit, and is 
immediately followed by the fever or hot fit. The 
pulse rises, the skin becomes hot, with pain in the 
head, tongue white, and all the marks of fever, 
terminnting in a profuse sweat, which gradually 
subsiding, leaves the patient in his natural state, 
though somewhat weakened. 

Treatment. — On the first alarm that is given by 
a chill, or any of those feelings indicative of its 
approach, take 50 or 60 drops of laudanum in a 
glass of warm wine, with a little sugar and a few 
drops of the essence of peppermint, get into bed, 
and cover yourself with several blankets; this 
seldom fails to cut short the disease. If the cold 



fit, however, has passed by, the next accession 
should be carefully watched, and the same remedy 
resorted to. If the inflammatory symptoms seem 
to require it, open the bowels with senna and 
salts ; when this is done, in the intervals use a 
quinine pill of one grain every hour; if it cannot 
be procured take as large doses Peruvi,in b:irk as 
the stomach will bear ; in addition to this, endeavor 
during the cold fit to bring on the hot one, as 
speedily as possible, by warm drinks, bladders or 
bottles filled with warm water applied to the soles 
of the feet and the stomach. Weak whiskey 
punch answers this purpose very well, it also is 
of use by inducing sweat when the hot stage is 
formed. If the disease resists this treatment, try 
six drops of Fowler's Solution of Arsenic three 
times a day, with the bark, gradually increasing 
it to nine or ten drops at each dose. As this is a 
powerful remedy, care must be t;iken to watch its 
effects ; if it produce sickness at the stomach, head- 
ache, or swelling of the face, it must be laid aside. 
To restore the tone of the system when getting 
better, remove to a healthy pure air, use gentle 
and daily exercise, with a generous diet, iron and 
bitters. If the liver or spleen become affected, 
recourse may sometimes be had to mercury. 

Much mischief is done by giving either the 
quinine or the bark too early in the disease, 
and before its inflammatory stage is passed. It 
should never be employed until the bowels have 
been well opened and the excitement reduced. 
liemittent Fever. 

This is a kind of fever which occasionally abates, 
but does not entirely cease, before a fresh attack 
comes on, so that the (latient is never comiiletely 
free from it. The most usual form of it is called 
bilious fever, or bilious remittent. 
Bilious Fever. 

Symptoms. — In this disease all the marks of 
great excitement and a superfluity of bile are 
visible; the skin is hot, the pulse tense and full, 
tongue white in the commencement, changing to 
brown, as the fever increases, breathing hurried 
and anxious, bowels very costive, and skin of a 
yellowish hue. In bad cases, there is great pain 
in the head, delirium, the patient picks at the bed 
clothes, a convulsive jerking of the tendons at the 
wrist, tongue black and furred, a deep yellow skin, 
vomiting, and hiccup. 

Causes. — A peculiar poisonous vapor from ponds, 
marshes, and decaying vegetable matter. 

Treatment. — This must be conducted on our 
general principles. As the inflammatory and 
bilious symptoms are the most prevalent at the 
commencement, bleed the patient if he be ro- 
bust. The next step is to open his bowels. Ten 
grains of calomel, combined with a portion of 
jalap, may be given in molasses, and repeated or 
followed by a saline purgative, until copious 
evacuations are produced. If the pain in the 
head be very great, shave it and apply a blister. 
Should the skin be very hot, and great thirst and 
restlessness prevail, apply cold water over the 
body, as directed in simple inflammatory fever. 
The diet should consist of rice-water, lemonade, 
etc., taking care to keep up a moderate discharge 
from the bowels by purgatives, during the whole 
of the disease. 

If, however, in spite of all endeavors to the con- 
trary, the complaint seems advancing, the patient 
should be brought carefully under the influence 
of quinine. As soon as symptoms of exhaustion 
or a typhoid state make their appearance, no mer- 
cury should be given internally ; on the contrary, 
bark, wine, acids, etc., are necessary to support 
the patient, who should be kept clean, cool, and 



124 



MEDICINE. 



comfortable, excluding all noise. The extreme irri- 
tability of the stomach, which is frequently found 
in bilious fever, may be overcome by the saline 
draught, in a state of effervescence (to be found 
on page 123), and in the latter stage of it, when 
the pulse flags, and the system appears sinking, 
the quinine mixture, below, has been found ex- 
tremely useful. Blisters and mustard poultices 
may also be applied in this case to the ankles, 
thighs, and wrists. The internal use of the qui- 
nine is an invaluable remedy in all such cases, 
and should never be omitted. 

There are in fact two distinct stages in this dis- 
ease that require two different plans of treatment. 
The first is bilious and inflammatory, and should 
be met by bleeding, vomiting, purging with calo- 
mel, blisters lo the head, and the affusion of cold 
water. 

The second is typhoid and bilious, and must be 
treated by wine, brandy, the quinine mixture, 
Sound porter, and the peculiar plan recommended 
in typhoid fever. 

Quinine Mixture. 

Sulphate of quinine 32 grains; elixir of vitriol 
1 drachm ; peppermint water 4 ounces. The dose 
is a teaspoonful every hour or two. 

Typhoid or Low Nervous Fever, 
Symptoms. — Languor, debility, dejection of mind, 
alternate flushes of heat and chills, bleeding at 
the nose, loathing of food, confusion of ideas. 
These are succeeded by vertigo, pain in the head, 
cough, frequent weak and sometimes intermitting 
pulse, the tongue dry and covered with a brown 
fur, the teeth and gums being encrusted with the 
same, the forehead is covrvil with sweat, while 
the hands are dry and glow with heat, the patient 
talks wildly. There is diarrhoea and swelling of 
the abdomen. 

Causes. — Grief, home-sickness, whatever tends to 
weaken the system, a poor diet, living in close, 
filthy apartments. Distinguish it from typhus fe- 
ver by the attack coming on more gradually, and 
by the greater mildness of the symptoms and the 
want of those marks mentioned in the former. 

Treatment. — If the bowels be costive give some 
gentle laxative, as rhubarb or castor oil. As soon 
as thii* has operated, or even before (if the weak- 
ness of the patient seem to require it), exhibit 
wine whey and beef-tea, always remembering that 
if the strength of the patient be not supported by 
these means, he may die of debility. Applying 
cold water gently over the body is a remedy in 
this disease, of great value. If delirium or insen- 
sibility come on, shave the head and apply a blis- 
ter tc it, or cloths wrong out. of iced vinegar and 
water. If a copious purging ensue it must be 
stopped, or it will prove fatal ; this may be done by 
the mixture No. 1, or by opium. Musk mixture. 
No 2, and the camphor mixture. No. 3, will also 
be found useful. Great reliance is sometimes 
placed upon the sulphate of quinine, wl:)ich may 
be taken in doses of two or three grains four 
times a day, dissolved in a little gum arable tea, or 
in pills. 

The order of remedies, then, in typhoid fever, is 
to open the bowels with the mildest laxatives, to 
use wine or sometimes brandy, to apply cold water 
over the body, to give milk, chicken water, jellies, 
tapioca, sago, etc.; to check purging, keep the room 
C(<ol and clean, use the quinine mixture, one or all 
of tlie different mixtures of camphor or musk, and 
if delirium come on to apply blisters to the head. 
Bleeding is, at best, a doubtful remedy in typhoid, 
and should never be allowed without being ordered 
by a physician ; nine times out of ten it is certain 
death to the patient. 



No. 1. Astringent Mixture. — Chalk mixture i 
ounces; tincture of kino 1 drachm ; lavender com- 
pound 1 drachm; laudanum 30 drops. Dose, a 
tablespoonful every two or three hours, as may be 
required. 

No. 2. Musk Mixture. — Musk 1 draehm ; gum 
arable, powdered, 1 drachm : loaf suga, the same ; 
water 6 ounces. Rub up the musk ami sugar, ad- 
ding the water very gradually. The drse is a ta- 
blespoonful every two hours. 

No. 3. Camphor Mixture. — Camphor 30 grains; 
powdered gum arable 2 drachms; loaf sugar 1^ 
drachms, peppermint water 6 ounces. Moisten 
the camphor with a few drops of spirits of wine, 
and rub it to a powder. The gum arahic and 
sugar beat to a paste, add the camphor, and pour 
in the water gradually. The dose is a tablespoon- 
ful every two or three hours. 

Typhus Fever. 
Symptoms. — Severe chills, astonishing and sud- 
den loss of strength, countenance livid and ex- 
pressive of stupor, the skin sometimes burning to 
the touch, at others the heat is moderate, the pulse 
is quick, small and rarely hard, violent pain in the 
head, redness of the eyes, low, muttering delirium, 
the tongue is covered with a dark brown or black- 
looking crust, blackish sores form about the gums, 
the breath is very offensive, and, in the latter 
stage, the urine also, which deposits a dark sedi- 
ment; in extremely bad cases blood is poured out 
under the skin, forming purple spots, and breaks 
out from the nose and different parts of the body, 
the pulse flutters and sinks, hiccup comes on, and 
death closes the horrid scene. 

Treatment. — As severe cases of this disease are 
apt to run their career with fatal rapidity, no time 
should be lost ; bleeding is not admissihle, the loss 
of a few ounces of blood being equivalent to a 
sentence of death. The first medicine given may 
be a wild ])urgative; castor oil will answer the 
purpose. If the heat of the patient's body be 
great, sponge him with vinegar and water. This 
practice produces the happiest results. As soon 
as he is wiped dry, and has taken the wine if 
chilled, give four drops of nitro-muriatic acid in 
a wine glass of the c<ild infusion of bark every 
four hours. AVine and water should generally be 
liberally given in this disease as soon as the ty- 
phus symptoms show themselves. Liquid food, 
as milk or beef tea, should be given at short 
intervals. The sulphate of quinine in the same 
doses as mentioned in typhoid is a valuable 
remedy. 

As a wash for the mouth, nothing is better than 
an ounce of alum dissolved in a pint of water. 
Rest at night tnust be procured by opium, if ne- 
cessary. If towards the end of the complaint 
there arise a gentle looseness, accompanied with 
a moisture on the skin, that seei'is likely to prove 
critical, it should not be meddled with ; hut other- 
wise it must be stopped by astringents. As this 
is a contagious disease, all unnecessary commu- 
"cation with the sick should be forbidden. The 
cTiamber should be kept cool, clean, and frequently 
sprinkled with vinegar, and all nuisances be im- 
mediately removed. Much advantage will result 
from taking the patient, on the very commence- 
ment of the attack, into a new and healthy atmo- 
sphere. 

Hectic Fever. 

This is never a primary disease, but is always 
found as a symptom of some other one, as con- 
sumption. 

Symptoms. — Night sweats, bowels costive at 
first, then loose, alternate chills and flushes, a cir- 
cumscribed spot on the cheeks, especially in the 



INFLAMMATION". 



125 



ofternoon, a peculiar delicacy of comyilexion, and 
eniaciatiovi to so great a degree that the patient 
Bometinies looks like a living skeleton. 

Treat meiit. — Remove the cause, if possible, by 
curing the disease of which it is a symptom j and 
support the strength of the patient. 

Inflammation of the Brain. 

Symptoms. — Intense pain in the head, the eyes 
incapable of bearing the light, delirium, face 
flushed, oppressiiin iit the breast, the pulse hard 
and veiy rapid, tongue at first of a fiery red, then 
yellow, brown or black. 

Causes. — Exposure to excessive heat of the sun, 
blows on the head, intense .application to study, 
intemperance. Distinguish it from inflammiitory 
fever by the pulse, which in the one is full, strong 
and regular, in the other hard, quick and corded, 
and by the raving delirium. From typhus by the 
two latter marks. 

Treatment. — Bleed the patient (as quickly as 
possible) until he nearly faints. Upon the reso- 
lute employment of the lancet in the onset we 
must place our chief dependence. The bowels 
should be freely opened with Epsom salts, the 
head shaved, and a blister or cloths dipped in iced 
vinegar and water, or pounded ice, be applied to 
it, and the room kept perfectly cool, dark and 
quiet. Rice-water, lemonade, or cold water is to 
be the only diet. Should the violence of the dis- 
ease not give way to these remedies, repeat the 
purging, blistering, etc., as often as may be ne- 
cessary. The most vigorous measures to reduce 
the inflammation are required, or death will be 
the consequence. Quietness of mind and body is 
also essential throughout the attack. 

Headache. 

Causes. — Some particular disorder of which it 
is a symptom. Indigestion, a foul stomach, tight 
cravats or shirt collars, exposure to the heat of 
the sun, a rushing of blood into the head, neu- 
ralgia, etc. 

Treatment. — This will vary according to the 
cause. If it arises from indigestion, that must be 
attended to. A foul stomach is one of the most 
usual causes of headache. In this case, from 
three to six grains of blue mass may be adminis- 
tered, which, at a day's or night's interval, should 
be followed by a purgative. If from the beating 
of the artery in the temples, and a sense of ful- 
ness in the head, we suspect it to originate from 
an undue determination to that part, bleed freely, 
or cup or leech, and apply cloths dipped in cold 
water to it. Long-continued and obstinate head- 
ache has been frequently benefited by a seton on 
the back of the neck. 

Inflammation of the Eye. 

Symptoms. — Pain, heat and swelling of the 
parts, which appear bloodshot, the tears hot and 
Bcalding, fever, intolerance of light; sometimes 
when the lids are affected the £dges become ulce- 
rated. 

Games. — External injuries, as blows, particles 
of sand, etc., getting into them, exposure to cold, 
a strong light, intemperance. 

Treatment. — If the complaint is caused by for- 
eign bodies, they must be removed with the point 
of a paint brush, or the end of a piece of wire cov- 
ered with lint, or washed out by injecting warm 
milk and water into the eye with a small syringe. 
If particles of iron stick in it they may be drawn 
out by a magnet. From whatever circumstance 
it may originate, the inflammation is to be sub- 
dued by taking blood from the neighborhood of 
the eye by a dozen or more leeches. The bowels 
ihould be freely opened with Epsom salts, and a 



cold lead-water poultice, enclosed in a piece of 
thin gauze, be laid over »he part. The room 
should be perfectly dark and the diet extremely 
low. Rose-water may be used as a lotion. If 
the pain is very severe, a small quantity of equal 
parts of laudanum and water may be dropped 
into the eye. If the eye-lids are ulcerated, touch 
them with the white vitriol ointment. Bathing 
the eye frequently with clear cold water is a re- 
freshing and useful practice. If the eye-ball be 
ulcerated over the pupil, lead-water must be 
avoided ; as, in that ease, it might cause opacity. 

There ^re many other diseases incident to the 
eyes, but none that can be managed bj' any but a 
physician or surgeon. When, therefore, any alter- 
ation in the structure of the eye is perceived, no 
time should be lost in having recourse to the one 
or the other. 

Inflammation of the Ear. 

Symptoms. — Pain in the ear, which at last either 
gradually ceases, or matter is discharged through 
the opening. 

Causes. — The accumulation of hard wax, in- 
sects getting into it, injuries from blows, etc. 

Treatment. — A little warm olive oil or glycerin, 
with an equal part of laudanum, dropped into the 
ear, and retained there by a piece of wool or cotton, 
will frequently procure almost instant relief. If it 
be caused by hard wax, inject warm soapsuds or salt 
water to soften it, and then, with care, endeavor 
to extract it, when the oil and laudanum may 
again be employed. In cases of great severity a 
blister may be applied behind the ear. A tempo- 
rary deafness frequently results from this com- 
plaint, and sometimes, when matter is formed, the 
bones of the organ are destroyed, and hearing ia 
lost forever. 

Bleeding from the Nose. 

Causes. — Fullness of blood, violent exercise, 
particular positions of the body, blows, etc. 

Treatment. — Keep the patient erect or sitting, 
with his head thrown a little backwards, take off 
his cravat, unbutton his shirt collar, and expose 
him freely to the cold air; apply ice or cold vin- 
egar and water to the back of his neck. If the 
pulse be full, bleed him from the arm. If these 
are not sufficient, moisten a plug of linen or cot- 
ton with brandy, roll it in powdered alum, and 
screw it up the nostril. A piece of catgut may 
also be passed through the nostril into the throat, 
drawn out at the mouth, and a bit of sponge be 
fastened to it and drawn back again, so as to make 
the sponge block up the posterior nostril. In doing 
this it is necessary to leave a piece of the catgut 
so as to be got hold of, in order to withdraw the 
sponge. It is seldom, however, that the first rem- 
edies will not answer the purpose. The patient 
should avoid removing the clots which form until 
the bleeding has entirely ceased. 
Polypus. 

The nose is subject to two species of this tumor, 
the pear-shaped or pendulous polypus, and a flat- 
tened, irregular excrescence, which is extremely 
painful and is of a cancerous nature. As soon as 
any affection of this kind is suspected, apply to a 
surgeon. 

Cancer of the Lip. 

This kind of cancer generally commences in a 
sm.all crack, which, after a "hile, becomes exqui- 
sitely painful. If closely examined, this crack is 
found to be seated in a small, hard tumor, which 
soon ulcerates, and, if not checked, extends the 
disorder to the throat, thereby endangering life. 

Treatment. — The knife is the only remedy for 
this, as well as every other species of cancer, and 
no time ghoald be lost in resorting to a surgeon. 



126 



MEDICINE. 



Mercurial Ulcers in the Sfouth, 
Large, dark-looking ulcers in the mouth are a 
common effect of the abuse of mercury. They may 
be known by the horrid smell of the breath, by the 
teeth being loosened from the gums, and by a cop- 
pery taste in the mouth. 

Treatment. — Omit all mercurial preparations, 
wash the mouth frequently with sage tea or brandy 
and water, and keep the bowels open with sulphur. 

Ulcers and Pimples on the Tongue, 

Small pimples are occasionally found on the 
tongue, which at last form ulcers. Sometimes 
they are occasioned by the mugh and projecting 
edge of a broken or decayed tooth : when this is 
the cause, the part must be rounded by a file or 
the tooth extr.Tcted, when the sore will heal with- 
out further trouble. Whitish-looking specks, 
which seem inclined to spread, are also met with 
on the inside of the cheeks and lips. They are 
easily removed by touching their surfaces with 
burnt alum. 

Cancer of the Toiigne. 

Cancer of the tongue commences like that of 
the lip, being a crack or fissure in a small, hard, 
deep-seated tumor on the side of the tongue. 

Treatment. — No time' should be lost in useless 
attempts to cure it by medicines. The only safety 
for the patient is in the knife, and that at an early 
period. 

Enlargement of the Uvula. 

The uvula is that little tongue-like appendage 
that hangs down from the middle of the fleshy 
curtain which divides the mouth from the throat. 
It is very subject to inflammation, the consequence 
of which is that it becomes so long that its point 
touches, and sometimes even lies along the tongue, 
which creates considerable uneasiness, and is now 
and then the cause of a constant cough, which 
finally ends in consumption. It is commonly 
called the falling of the palate. 

Treatment. — Strong gargles of vinegar and 
water, or a decoction of bjack-oak bark, or a wa- 
tery solution of alum, will frequently cure the 
complaint. It happens very frequently, however, 
that in consequence of repeated attacks it becomes 
permanently lengthened, and then the only re- 
source is to cut off the end of it. If you are near 
a physician apply to him ; if not, the operation is 
go simple that anj* man of common dexterity can 
perform it, particularly as little or no blood fol- 
lows the incision. All that is requisite is to seat 
the patient, seize the part with a hook, or a slender 
pair of pincers, draw it a little forward, and snap 
off its point with a pair of scissors. 

Swelling of the Tonsils, 

The tonsils are two glands situated in the throat, 
one on each side, which are very apt to swell from 
inflammation by colds. They sometimes become 
Bo large as to threaten suffocation. 

Treatment. — In the commencement this is the 
same as directed for inflammatory sore throat, 
which see. If it does not succeed, apply to a sur- 
geon to take them away. 

Inflammatory Sore Throat, 

Symptoms. — Chills and flushes of heat succeed- 
ing each other; fever; the inside of the mouth, 
the throat and tonsils much inflamed; swallowing 
is painful; hoarseness; heat and darting pains in 
the throat. 

Causes. — CoH; sitting in damp clothes; wet 
feet ; excessive exertions of voice. 

Distinguish it from diphtheria by the fever being 
i-nflammatory, the absence of ash-colored patches 
Bear the tonsils, etc. 



Treatment. — An emetic taken at a very early 
stage of this disorder will frequently prevent it 
from forming. The next step is to leech the pa- 
tient freely and give him a large dose of Epsom 
salts. A mustard poultice or blister to the throat 
is an invaluable application, and should never be 
neglected. The room should be kept cool and 
quiet, and the diet consist of barley or rice-water. 
The throat may be gargled several times in the 
day with alum and water; inhaling the steam of 
hot water from the spout of a tea pot is of use. 

Putrid Sore Throat or Diptheria, 

Symptoms. — Difiiculty of swallowing; respira- 
tion hurried; breath hot; skin dry and burning; 
a quick, weak and irregular pulse ; scarlet patches 
break out about the lips, and the inside of the 
mouth and throat is of a flery red color. About 
the second or third day, upon examining the 
throat, a number of specks or patches between 
an ash and a dark brown color are observed on 
the palate, uvula, tonsils, etc. ; a brown fur covers 
the tongue ; the lips are covered with little vesi- 
cles or bladders, which burst and give out a thin, 
acrid matter that produces ulceration wherever it 
touches. In bad cases the inside of the mouth 
and throat become black, and are covered with 
foul spreading ulcers, and all the symptoms that 
characterize low fever ensue. 

Distinguish it from scarlet fever by the fever 
being a typhus and not inflammatory, and by 
the peculiar sore throat, and from measles by 
the absence of cough, sneezing, watering of the 
eyes, etc. 

Treatment. — Bleeding in this disease is abso- 
lutely forbidden. The same may be said of active 
or strong purgatives. The bowels, however, 
should be kept open by mild laxatives or clysters. 

Emetics are used in the beginning with advan- 
tage, but the great and evident indication is to 
prevent and counteract the disposition to putres- 
cency, and to support the strength. For thif 
purpose the cold infusion of bark, or bark in sub- 
stance, with ten or twelve drops of muriatic acid 
and eight or nine drops of laudanum, should be 
taken frequently, and in large doses. Chlorate 
of potassa is a valuable article; it may be taken 
in solution, twenty grains for an adult every two 
hours, in a teaspoonful of water. To cleanse the 
throat, gargle frequently with vinegar or muri- 
atic acid and water or glycerin. The diet should 
consist of milk, arrow-root, jelly, panada, tapioca 
and gruel, and the drink of wine whey, wine and 
water, etc., increasing the quantity of the wine 
according to the weakness and age of the patient. 
The greatest cleanliness is to be observed in the 
chamber. As this disease is thought by some to 
be contagious, all unnecessary communication 
with the sick room should be prevented. 

Strictures in the Throat, 

Symptoms. — The first mark of an obstruction or 
stricture in the throat is a slight difficulty in 
swallowing solids, which continues increasing for 
months, or until the passage becomes so contracted 
that the smallest particle of food cannot pass, but 
having remained an instant in the strictured part 
is violently rejected. If the obstacle is not re- 
moved the patient starves. 

Treatment. — Meddle not with the complaint 
yourself, for you can do nothing to relieve it, but 
apply with all speed to a surgeon, and remember 
that life is at stake. 

Catarrh or Cold. 
Symptoms. — A dull pain in the head ; swelling 
and redness of the eyes ; the effusion of a thin, 



CONSUMPTION, ASTHMA, PLEURISY. 



127 



acrid mucus from the nose; hoarseness; cough; 
fever, etc. 

Treiilmeut. — If the symptoms be violent, bleed 
and give twenty drops of hartshorn in hnlf a pint 
of warm vinegar whey. Hoarhound and boneset 
tea, taken in large quantities, are very useful. 
The patient should be confined to his bed, and be 
freely purged. If there is great pain in the 
breast, apply a blister to it. To ease the cough 
take one teaspoonful of No. 1 every thirty min- 
utes, or till relief is obtained. 

The Influenza is nothing more than an aggra- 
vated and epidemic state of catarrh, and is to be 
cured bj' the same remedies. No cough or cold is 
too light to merit attention. Neglected colds lay 
the foundations for diseases that every year send 
thousands to the grave. 

No. 1. Coiiijh Mixture. — Paregoric ^ in ounce; 
syrup of squills 1 ounce; antimonial wine 2 
drachms; water 6 ounces. Dose is one teaspoon- 
ful every thirty minutes, or at longer intervals, 
till the cough abates. 

Asthma. 

Si/mptoms. — A tightness across the breast; fre- 
quent short breathing, attended with a wheezing, 
increased by exertion and when in bed. It comes 
on in fits or paroxysms. 

Treatmeut. — If the cough be violent and fre- 
quent, with great pain in the breast, and the pa- 
tient be young and robust, it may be necessary to 
bleed or cup him. In old people it should be re- 
sorted to with caution. The tincture* of lobelia is 
highly recommended in asthma. It should be 
taken in doses of a very few drops at first, and 
cautiously increased. If the pulse sinks under it, 
or nausea, giddiness, etc., is produced, it must be 
laid aside. In fact, it is hardly prudent to take 
this active and dangerous article, except under a 
physician's care. The dried roots of the thorn- 
apple and skunk-cabbage are sometimes smoked 
through a pipe for the same purpose, soaked in a 
solution of nitre and dried. Asthma is a disease 
that is seldom completely cured by art; nature, 
however, occasionally effects it. 

Pleurisi/. 

Si/mptoms. — A sharp pain or stitch in the side, 
increased upon breathing, inability to lie on the 
affected side, pulse hard, quick and corded, tongue 
white. 

Treatment. — Take away at once from twelve to 
fifteen ounces of blood, place a large blister over 
the side, and give a full dose of Epsom salts. 
Follow the bleeding by cups if relief is not ob- 
tained ; and afterwards a blister. All the remedies 
for the reduction of inflammation must be ac- 
tively employed. The patient should be confined 
to his bed, with the head and shoulders a little 
elevated, and if pain be severe, especially at night, 
10 grains of Dover's powder may be given. The 
diet should always consist of rice or barley-water, 
gruel, etc. 

Spitting of Blood. 

Si/mptomg. — Blood of a bright red color, often 
frothy, brought up by coughing. 

Cfiimes. — Consumption, a fulness of blood, rup- 
ture of a blood vessel from anj' cause. Distinguish 
it from vomiting of blood by its bright color, and 
being brought up with coughing. 

Trrntnieitt. — (jive the patient at once a table- 
epoonful of common salt, and direct him to swal- 
low it slowly. If the pulse be full, and he be ro- 
bust, bleed him. The sugar of lead has much 

* Take a suflRcient quantity of the leaves, etem and 
pods of the plant, put them into a bottle and fill it up 
With bntiidy or Bpirits, and let it remain for a few days. 



reputation in this complaint : two or three grains 
of it, with from a half to a whole grain of opium, 
may be taken every three or four hours, and in 
severe cases, where the blood flows rapidly, five or 
six grains, with two of opium, mri3' be taken at 
once. The most perfect rest should be strictly en- 
joined, and the diet should be cooling and simple. 
Consumption. 

Symptoms. — A short, dry cough, languor and 
gradual loss of strength, pulse small, quick, and 
soft, pain in the breast, expectoration of a frothy 
matter, that at last becomes solid and yellow, the 
breathing grows more anxious and hurried, the 
emaciation and pain increase, hectic fever, night 
sweats, and a looseness of the bowels come on, 
and the patient, unsuspicious of danger, dies. 

Causes. — Neglected colds, dissipation, heredi- 
tary tendency, etc. Distinguish it by the long- 
continued cough, pain in the breast, and great 
emaciation, by the substance thrown up contain- 
ing pus, in common language, matter. It is 
known by its being opaque, mixing with water, 
and heavier than it, so that if thrown into a vessel 
containing that fluid it sinks to the bottom. When 
thrown upon hot coals it yields an offensive odor. 

Treatment. — In a confirmed state of consump- 
tion, nothing that art has hitherto been able to do 
can afford us any solid hopes of a cure. Wren 
once the disease is firmly seated in the lungs all 
that is possible is to smooth the passage to the 
grave, and perhaps for a while to retard it. If, 
however, the disease is taken in its very bud, much 
may be done by a change of climate, a milk diet, 
cod-liver oil, moderate daily exercise on horse- 
back, and by carefully avoiding cold and all ex- 
citing causes. A removal to a warm climate 
should be the first step taken, if practicable; if 
not, a voyage to sea or a long journey on horse- 
back. A complete suit of flannel, worn next the 
skin, is an indispensable article for every one who 
is even inclined to this most fatal disorder. 
Palpitation of the Heart. 

The symptoms of this complaint must be ob- 
vious from its name. When it arises from organic 
disease of the heart or its vessels, nothing can be 
done to cure it. The patient should be ciircful to 
av-dd a full habit of body, and abstain from vio- 
lec . exercise and sexual indulgences. He should 
live low, and keep as quiet and composed as pos- 
sible. A fit of anger, or any imprudence, may 
cost him his life. There is a milder kind of this 
disease, resulting from debility, nervousness, indi- 
gestion, etc., which must be remedied by restoring 
the strength of the general system. It is also 
symptomatic of other diseases, and must be 
treated accordingly. 

Dropsy of the Chest. 

Symptiivis. — Great difficulty of breathing, which 
is increased by lying down, oppression and weight 
at the breast, countenance pale or livid, and ex- 
tremely anxious, great thirst, pulse irregular and 
intermitting, cough, violent palpitation of the 
heart, the patient can lie on one side only, or can- 
not lie dciwn at all, so that he is obliged to sleep sit- 
ting, frightful dreai is, a feeling of suffocation, etc. 

Treatment. — All that can be done te to follow 
the same plan that is laid down for the treatment 
of dropsy in general, which consists of purging 
and diuretics. When the water appears to be con- 
fined to one cavity of the chest, and the oppres- 
sion cannot be borne, some relief may be obtained 
by a surgical operation. 

Inflammation of the Stomach. 
Symptoms. — A fixed, burning pain in the sto- 
mach, small, very quick hard pulse, sudden and 



128 



MEDICINE. 



great weakness, the pain in the stomach increased 
on the sliglitest pressure, vomiting, hiccup. 

Causes. — Cultl suddenly applied to the body or 
stomach, drinking largely of cold water while very 
warm. The striking in of eruptions, poisons, 
gout, rheumatism. Distinguish it from inflam- 
mation of the bowels by the seat of the pain, 
which is just below the breast bone, in what is 
called the pit of the stomach, the burning heat 
and pain there, by the hiccup and vomiting. 

Treatmeiil. — The softness of the pulse is here 
no rule to go by, for it is caused by the disease. 
The rule is to bleed or leech over the pit of the 
stomach. From ten to twenty ounces may be 
taken in a full stream from a robust man at the 
beginning. As soon as he is bled, or while the 
blood is flowing, put him into a warm bath, and 
have a large blister prepared, which, after he has 
remained some time in the bath, should be applied 
directly over the stomach. A warm laxative 
clyster is now to be thrown up, and when the sto- 
mach will retain it, give him small quantities of 
arrow root jelly or gum arable tea from time to time, 
with a few drops of laudanum. The most rigid diet 
must be observed, and the patient kept very quiet. 

When the inflammation is reduced, and the sto- 
mach will bear it, a grain of solid opium may be 
given occasionally with advantage. If the disease 
has been brought on hy poison taken into the sto- 
mach, apply the remedies directed in such cases. 
If mortification ensues, death is the inevitable 
consequence. It is known to e.xist when from 
the state of torture we have just described there 
is a sudden change to one of perfect ease. 
Cramp in the Stomach. 

Symptoms. — Violent spasmodic pain in the 
stomach, which is so severe as nearly to oecasioa 
fainting. 

Treatment. — Give thirty to sixty drops of lauda- 
num, in a teaspoonful of ether, with a little hot 
wine. Apply a mustard plaster over the stomach, 
bladders or bottles filled with warm water to the 
soles of the feet, or put the patient into the warm 
bath. If the first dose of laudanum does not re- 
lieve the pain, repeat it. 

Hiccups. 

Symptoms. — A spasmodic affection of the stom- 
ach and diaphragm, producing the peculiar noise 
which gives rise to the name. 

Treatment. — -When hiccups occur at the close 
of any disease, they may be considered the har- 
bingers of death ; they, however, frequently arise 
from acidity in the stomach and other causes. A 
long draught of cold water, a sudden surprise or 
fright puts an end to them. A blister over the 
stomach may be applied for the same purpose. I 
have succeeded in relieving a violent case of hic- 
cups, that resisted every other remedy, by the oil 
of amber, in doses of five drops every ten minutes. 
It may be taken in a little mint-water. Camphor 
is also useful. 

Heartburn. 

This common and distressing affection is gene- 
rally connected with indigestion. To relieve it for 
the moment, magnesia, soda, or Seltzer water, or 
water acidulated with sulphuric acid, may be em- 
ployed. To cure the complaint requires the di- 
gestive powers to be strengthened by tonics, bit- 
ters, and the different preparations of iron, etc., 
as directed for indigestion. The application of a 
blister over the stumach may be of use. The white 
oxide of bismuth in six grain doses, three times 
a day, taken in milk, has been found of service. 

Indigestion, or Dyspepsia. 
\tom». — Want of appetite; low spirits j 



pains and fullness in the stomach; belching; a 
sour water rising in the mouth ; heartburn ; tho 
bowels irregular and generally costive; weak- 
ness and emaciation; pulse small and slow ; pain 
in the head; skin dry; great uneasiness after 
eating. 

Causes. — All those which induce debility; eat- 
ing too rapidly, without chewing the food ; exces- 
sive indulgence in the pleasures of the table, or 
intemperance in any way; a sedentary life, or 
want of exercise; a diseased liver. 

Treatmeut. — In every case of indigestion, the 
first thing the patient should do is to abstain from 
whatever may have tended to produce it. The diet 
should consist of animal food that is light, nour- 
ishing, and easily digested. Roasted beef or mut- 
ton is perhaps preferable to any other. Country air 
and constant exercise on horseback are invaluable 
remedies in this disease, which, as it is generally 
occasioned by a departure from natural habits and 
employments, must be relieved by a return to 
them. Flannel should be worn next the skin, and 
care taken to avoid cold or exposure to wet. A 
wine-glass of the infusion of bark and quassia 
(made by placing one ounce of powdered bark 
and one of ground quassia in a close vessel, to 
which is added a quart of boiling water ; to be 
kept simmering near the fire until the whole is re- 
duced to a pint), with ten or twelve drops of the 
elixir of vitriol, should be regularly taken, three 
times a day, for months. The bowels are to be 
kept open by some warm la.xative as rhubarb, and 
the whole frame braced by the daily use of the cold 
bath. AVeak spirits and water, or a single glass 
of sound old Madeira may be taken at dinner. 
Much benefit has been found to result from a 
long-continued use of the wine of iron (made by 
taking iron-filings 4 ounces, and pouring on it 
4 pints of Madeira wine ; let it stand for a 
month, shaking it frequently), a glass of which 
may be taken twice a day. If th£ complaint arise 
from a diseased liver, recourse must be had to tho 
plan laid down for its cure. 

An attack of temporary indigestion may be 
treated by abstinence, rest, and a teaspoonful of 
magnesia, if the bowels be costive, otherwise a quar- 
ter of a teaspoonful of the bicarbonate of soda. 
Vomiting of Blood. 

Symptoms. — A flow of dark blood from the 
stomach, preceded by a sense of weight and op- 
pression in that organ. The blood is generally 
mixed with particles of food, etc. 

Distinguish it from spitting of blood, by its 
dark color, and being mixed with food. 

Treatment. — If the accompanying symptoms be 
inflammatory, bleed or cup, and use some cooling 
purge ; if otherwise, try fifteen drops of the mu- 
riated tincture of iron, with si.\ of laudanum, in a 
glass of water, every hour till the bleeding ceases. 
If the cause be a diseased liver, or tumor in the 
neighborhood, treat it accordingly. 

Inflammation of the Liver. 

Symptoms. — A dull pain in the right side below 
the rib, which is more sensible on pressure; an 
inability to lie on the left side; pain in the right 
shoulder; a sallow complexion. Such are the 
symptoms of an acute attack of this disease. 
There is another species of it called chronic, in 
which its approaches are so gradual that it is a 
difBcult matter to determine its nature. It com- 
mences with all the symptoms of indigestion, and 
ends in jaundice or dropsy. 

Causes. — Long-continued fever and ague ; drunk- 
enness, or a free use of spirituous liquors is a very 
common cause; injuries from blcws, etc. 

Distinguish it from pleurisy by the pain not 



JAUNDICE, CHOLERA MORBUS. 



129 



beinc^ so severe, and by its extending to the top 
of tlie shoulder j by not being able to rest on the 
left aide. 

Treatment. — Bleed or cup the patient according 
to his age, strength, and the violence of the pa.n, 
and, if necessary, apply a blister over the part, 
which may be kept open by dressing it with the 
Bavin ointment. The buwels should be opened by 
Epsom salts or calomel and jalap. If this does 
not abate the symptoms in a few days, give a 
calomel pill of one-half grain every five hours, or 
rub a drachm of the strongest mercurial ointment 
into the side until the gums are found to be a 
little sore, when the frictions or pills must be dis- 
continued until the mouth is well, and then again 
resorted to as before. If an abscess points out- 
wardly, apply bread and milk poultices to the tu- 
mor, omit the mercury, use wine, bark, and a 
generous diet. As soon as matter is to be felt 
within it, open it at its lowest and most project- 
ing part with the point of a sharp lancet, and let 
out its contents very slowly, taking care not to 
close the wound till this is completely efifected. 
The nitromuriatic acid, in doses of four drops, 
three times a day, steadily persevered in, Avill 
sometimes produce a cure. A tea made of the 
root or leaves of the dandelion is sometimes me- 
dicinal in liver complaint. 

Jaimdice. 

Symptoms. — Languor ; loathing of food ; a bitter 
taste in the mouth; vomiting; the skin and eyes 
of a yellow color; the stools clayey, and the urine 
giving a yellow tinge to rags dipped in it. There 
is a full pain in the right side, under the last rib, 
which is increased by pressure. When the pain is 
severe, there is fever; the pulse hard and full, etc. 

6'((U8<?s.— An interruption to the regular passage 
of the bil», which is retained in or carried into the 
blood. It may be occasioned by gall-stones, a 
diseased liver, etc. Intemperance is a very com- 
mon cause, hence tipplers are more subject to it 
than others. 

Treatment. — If the pulse be full and hard, the 
pain great, and other inflammatory symptoms be 
present, blood is to be taken away as freely as the 
age and strength of the patient, and the violence 
of the pain, seems to demand. He should then be 
placed in a warm bath, and allowed to remain 
there some time ; when removed to bed, a grain or 
two of opium may be given every few hours until 
the pain is relieved. Bladders partly filled with 
warm water, or cloths wrung out of hot decoctions 
of herbs, may also be applied to the seat of the 
pain. If the stomach be so irritable as not to re- 
tain anything on it, try fomentations and the 
efi'ervescing mixture, or a blister to the part. As 
soon as some degree of ease is obtained by these 
means, purgatives must be employed, and steadily 
persevered in ; calomel and jalap or Epsom salts, 
in the ordinary doses, answer very well. If, how- 
ever, this cannot be done, and, from the pain being 
acute at one particular spot, there is reason to sup- 
pose that a gall-stone is lodged there, the follow- 
ing remedy may be tried, of which one-fifth or a 
little less may be taken every morning, drinking 
freely of chicken broth, flaxseed tea, or barley 
water after it. 

Ether 3 drachms; spirits of turpentine, 2 
drachms. Mix them. 

The diet ought to be vegetable, and should the 
disease have arisen from a neglected inflammation 
of the liver, it must be treated accordingly. (See 
Inflammation of the Liver.) Regular exercise (on 
horseback, if possible) should never be neglected 
by persons subject to this disease in its chronic 
form. 



Ague Cake, 
This is the vulgar appellation for an enlarged 
spleen, and expresses, with much brief meaning, 
the cause of the complaint, as it generally results 
from ill-treated or obstinate intermittents. It is, 
however, not productive of much uneaoines?, and 
frequently disappears of itself. The plan of treat- 
ment, if there is acute pain in the part, is to purge 
and blister. If it remains enlarged after this, 
mercury may be cai-efully resorted to, as directed 
in chronic inflammation of the liver. 

hijlammation of the Intestines, 
Symptoms. — Sharp pain in the bowels, which 
shoots round the navel, and which is increased by 
pressure, sudden loss of strength, vomiting of 
dark-colored, sometimes excrementitious matter, 
costiveness, small, quick, and hard pulse, high- 
colored urine. 

Distinguish it from colic, by the pain being in- 
creased by pressure, whereas in colic it is relieved 
by it. 

Tieotment. — This is another of those formidable 
diseases that require the most actively reducing 
measures in the onset. From ten to twenty 
ounces of blood ought to be taken away at once, 
and the patient placed in a warm bath, after which 
a large blister should be applied to the belly. 
Emollient and laxative clysters may be injected 
from time to time, and if the vomiting and irrita- 
bility of the stomach permit it to be retained, give 
a dose of castor oil. If this be rejected too, the 
oil mixture No. 1. This, however, though one of 
great importance, is a secondary consideration; 
to subdue the inflammation, by bleeding or leech- 
ing, being the great object. The diet should con- 
sist of barley or rice-water only. If in the latter 
stages of the disease, when the inflammation has 
somewhat subsided, an obstinate costiveness bo 
found to resist all the usual remedies, dashing 
cold water over the belly will sometimes succeed. 
Remember that this complaint frequently runs 
its course in a day or two, and that, unless treat- 
ment be promptly employed in the very beginning, 
mortification and death will ensue. If a strangu- 
lated rupture occasion the disease, the same, and, 
if possible, still stronger reasons exist for bleed- 
ing, previously to any attempts at reduction. 
When certain quantities are mentioned, it is al- 
ways to be understood that they are applicable to 
robust men. Common sense will dictate the ne- 
cessity of diminishing them, as the patient may 
fall more or less short of this description. If 
strangulated rupture be feared, surgical aid 
should be early obtained. 

No. 1. Oil Mixlwe. — The yolk of one egg; cas- 
tor oil, 2 ounces. Mix them well, and add laven- 
der compound, 2 drachms; sugar, 1 ounce; water, 
6 ounces. Mix them well. The dose is a tabla- 
spoonful every hour till it operates, or half the 
quantity at once ; the remainder, in divided doses, 
if no passage is obtained after a space of four 
hours. 

Cholera Morbus 
Symptoms. — A violent vomiting and purging of 
bile, preceded by a pain in the stomach and bow- 
els; quick, weak, and fluttering pulse; heat, thirst, 
cold sweats, hiccups, and sometimes death in a few 
hours. 

Treatment. — Bladders or bottles containing hot 
water should be applied to the feet, and flannel 
cloths wrung out of hot spirits, or a mustard 
plaster, be laid over the stomach. When it is 
supposed that the stomach is sufficiently cleared, 
give two grains of solid opium in a pill, and re- 
peat half the quantity every few hours, as the 
case may require. If the weakness be very 



130 



MEDICINE. 



great, and the spasms so alarming as to cause 
a fear of the immediate result, the quantity 
of opium may be increased carefully. If the 
pill will not remain in the stomach, give eighty 
or ninety drops of laudanum, in a tablespoonful 
of thin starch, by clyster, and repeat it as often 
as may be necessary. Fifty or sixty drops of 
laudanum in a small quantity of strong mint tea, 
or the effervescing draught, will frequently suc- 
ceed in allaying the irritation. If all these means 
fail, apply a blister to the stomach. For thirst, 
give ice ; a little at once. To complete the recov- 
ery, and to guard against a second attack, a com- 
plete casing of flannel is requisite, together with 
the use of vegetable bitters and tonics. Persons 
lubject to this disease should be cautious in their 
diet and avoid exposure to moist, cold air. 
Dysen tery. 

Symptoms. — Fever; frequent small stools, ac- 
companied by griping, bearing down pains, the 
discharge consisting of pure blood or blood and 
matter, sometimes resembling the shreds or wash- 
ings of raw flesh ; a constant desire to go to stool. 

Distinguish it from diarrhoea or lax by the fe- 
ver, griping pains, and the constant desire to 
evacuate the bowels, by the discharge itself being 
blood, or matter streaked with blood, etc. 

Trentnient. — As dysentery or bloody flux is al- 
most always in this country connected with con- 
siderable inflammation, it will be proper, in some 
cases, to bleed the patient at the beginning of the 
attack. Whether it be thought prudent to bleed 
or not, an early dose of castor oil, with clysters 
of the same, and the application of blisters to the 
belly should never be omitted. The stomach and 
bowels may be cleansed by barley or rice-water 
taken by the mouth and in clysters. As soon as 
this is effected give half a grain of opium with 
half a grain of ipecac every two, three or four 
hours. The diet should consist of gum arable dis- 
solved in milk, arrow-root jelly, barley-water, etc. 
Clysters of the same articles, with the addition of 
an ounce of olive oil and twenty drops of lauda- 
num, may be likewise injected. Towards the lat- 
ter end of the complaint, opium and astringents 
are proper, and indeed necessary. I say the lat- 
ter end of it, for in the commencement they would 
be hurtful. In this stage of it also, if a severe 
tenesmus (or constant desire to go to stool) re- 
mains, anodyne clysters^ as of forty to eighty 
drops of laudanum in an ounce of starch will be 
found useful, or what is more effectual, a couple 
of grains of opium placed just within the funda- 
ment. The various astringents which are proper 
for dysentery in its latter stages, are found below, 
and may be used, with port wine and water, as a 
drink : 

Astringents. — Acetate of lead 1 scruple ; opium 
10 grains. Divide into twenty pills. Take one 
every two, three or four hours. 

Tincture of catechu 2 ounces. Take two tea- 
spoonsful in a little port wine every hour, or oft- 
ener if required ; or. 

Extract of logwood 20 grains ; cinnamom water 
2 ounces; tincture of kino 1 drachm; sugar 2 
draehma. To be taken at once. 

Diarrhoea or Lax. 

Symptoms. — Repeated and large discharges of 
a thin excrementitious matter by stool, sometimes 
attended with griping and a rumbling noise in the 
bowels. 

Trentnient. — If the disease arises from cold, a 
few doses of the chalk mixture. No. 1, will fre- 
quently put an end to it. It is, however, some- 
times necessary to begin with an emetic of twenty 
grains of ipecacuanha, and then open the bowels 



by some mild purgative, as castor oil or rhubarb. 
Bathing the feet in warm water, and copious 
draughts of boneset tea, will be found of great 
benefit if it originate from suppressed perspira- 
tion. For the same purpose, also, from six to ten 
grains of Dover's powder may be taken at night, 
being careful not to drink much for some time 
after it. If worms are the cause, treat it as di- 
rected. When it is occasioned by mere weakness, 
and in the latter stages of it (proceed from what 
it may), when every irritating matter is expelled, 
opium, combined with astringents, is necessary as 
in the similar period of dysentery. The diet 
should consist, in the beginning, of rice, arrow-root, 
s.ago, etc., and subsequently of roasted chicken. 
Weak brandy and water, or port wine and water, 
may accompany the chicken for a common drink. 
Persons subject to complaints of this kind should 
defend their bowels from the action of cold by a 
flannel shirt; the feet and other parts of the body 
should also be kept warm. 

No. 1. Chnlk Mixture. — Prepared chalk 2 
drachms; loaf sugar 1 drachm. Rub them well 
together in a mortar, and add gradually of muci- 
lage of gum arable 1 ounce; water 6 ounces ; lav- 
ender compound 2 drachms ; laudanum 30 drops. 
The dose is a tablespoonful every hour, or oftener. 
Shake the bottle well before pouring out the liquid, 
or the chalk will be at the bottom. 

Colic, 

Symptoms. — Violent shooting pain that twists 
round the navel ; the skin of the belly drawn into 
balls; obstinate costiveness; sometimes a vomit- 
ing of excrement. 

Distinguish it from inflammation of the bowels 
bj' the pain being relieved by pressure, and from 
other diseases by the twisting round the navel, the 
skin being drawn into balls, etc. 

Treatment. — The first thing to be done in this 
disease is to give a dose of oil or magnesia with 
laudanum in a little peppermint water, and apply 
a mustard poultice over or below the, navel. Forty, 
sixty or seventy drops of laudanum may be given 
at once, as the pain is more or less violent, and the 
dose may be repeated in a half hour, or less time, 
if ease is not procured. During this time, if the 
first doses of laudanum are found ineffectual in 
reducing the pain, and it is very great, eighty or 
ninety drops may be given as a clyster in a gill 
of gruel or warm water. One great rule in the 
treatment of colic, where the pain is excessive, is 
to continue the use of opium in such increased 
doses as will relieve it. When this result is ob- 
tained, castor oil by the mouth and clyster must 
be employed to open the bowels. 

In bilious colic, when there is vomiting of bile, 
the effervescing draught, with thirty drops of 
laudanum, may be taken to quiet the stomach, to 
which flannels wrung out of warm spirits may be 
applied. When the vomiting has abated, the oil 
mixture or the pills below should be taken until a 
free discharge is procured. If, notwithstanding 
our endeavors, the disease proceeds to such an 
extent as to induce a vomiting of excrement, tho 
tobacco clyster must be tried, or an attempt be 
made to fill the intestines with warm water. This 
is done by forcibly injecting it in hirge quantities, 
at the siiine time the patient swallows as much as 
he is alile. In this way, with a proper syringe, 
two gallons have been successfully introduced. 
In all cases of colic, when there is obstinate cos- 
tiveness, an examination of the fundament should 
be made with the finger. If there are any hard, 
dry pieces of excrement there, they may be re- 
moved either by the finger or the handle of aspoon. 
Examination of the groin and navel should also 



MEDICINE. 



131 



le made, to see if there be a rupture which may 
be strangulated. 

Those will) are subject to colic should avoid 
fermenied liquors and much vegetable food; be 
always well clothed, and take care nut to expose 
themselves to cold and wet. The bowels should 
sever be allowed to remain costive. 

J'linjative Hillx. — Of calomel and jalap each 10 
grains; opium IJ grain; tartar emetic i a grain; 
oil of aniseed 1 drop. Make the whole into a mass. 
To be taken at once, or divided into pills, if the 
patient prefer it. 

Painter's Colic. 

Symptoms. — Pain and weight in the belly ; belch- 
ing; constant desire to go to stool, which is inef- 
fectual; quick, contracted pulse; the belly be- 
comes painful to the touch, and is drawn into 
knots; constant colic pains; the patient sits in a 
bent position : after awhile palsy of part or of the 
whole body. 

Treatment. — This disease is too apt to end in 
palsy, leaving the hands and limbs contracted :ind 
useless. In every case of colic, whose symptoms 
resemble the above, if the person has been ex- 
posed to lead in any of its shapes, all doubt on 
the subject vanishes. 

Give laudanum in moderate doses, and rub the 
belly well with warm spirits, and place him in a 
bath as hot as he can bear. As soon as he is 
well drieil, and has rested in bed a few minutes, 
take him up and dash a bucket of cold water over 
his belly and thighs, or mix an ounce of sulphate 
of magnesia in a pint of water, and give a wine- 
glassful every half hour until ease is obtained. 
If this, with castor oil by the mouth and in clys- 
ters will not produce a stool, apply a large blister 
to the belly. As soon as the symptoms are some- 
what abated, castor oil or laxative clysters may 
be resorted to for the purpose of keeping the 
bowels open, and to guard against a return small 
doses of opium should be taken from time to time. 
Bitters, the different preparations of iron, bark, 
etc., are necessary to restore the strength of the 
system. 

Worms. 

Si/mploms. — Intolerable itching at the nose, 
sometimes at the fundament ; disagreeable breath ; 
grinding of the teeth and starting during sleep; 
hardness of the belly ; gradual emaciatiou ; colic, 
and sometimes convulsions. 

Treatment. — This will vary according to the 
kind of worm that is to be destroyed. They are 
of three kinds : 

The White Thread- Worm 

Resembles a small piece of white thread, and is 
usually found near the fundament, at the lower 
end of the guts, where it produces a contraction 
of the parts, and a most intolerable itching. Clys- 
ters of lime-water will frequently bring the whole 
nest of them away, and procure instant relief. 
The tincture of aloes below, however, is one of 
the best remedies known for not only this, but the 
round worm. 

Tincture of Aloes. — Socotrine aloes 1 ounce; 
liquorice 2 ounces ; coriander-seed i an ounce ; 
gin I pint. Digest in a bottle for a week, shaking 
the bottle frequently ; then strain. The dose for 
a child is a teaspoonful every morning; for an 
adult two tablespoonsful, with half the quantity 
of a strong decoction of the Carolina pink root. 

Santonin suppositories (three grains to a suffi- 
cient amount of cacao butter) are a certain cure for 
seat-worms. 

The Round Worm 

Occupies the small intestines, and sometimes 
the stomach. It ia of various lengths, from three 



to eight or more inches. If the tincture of aloes 
fail to remove it, the pink root may be taken in 
decoction, or in powder, in doses of sixty or eighty 
grains, to be followed after three or four days by 
ten or fifteen grains of calomel. Cowhage, in mo- 
lasses or honey, with a dose of castor oil every 
third day, has been very highly extolled. In 
cases where all other means have failed, tobacco 
leaves, pounded with vinegar and applied to the 
belly, have produced the desired effect. They aro 
dangerous, however, especially with young chil- 
dren. 

The Tape- Worm 

Inhabits the whole of the internal canal, an4 
sometimes defies all our efforts to get him out of 
it. Large doses of spirits of turpentine, from one 
to two ounces, in barley water, have been advan- 
tageously employed for this purpose. If the spirits 
of turpentine be tried, hirge quantities of gnicl or 
barley water should be used with it in order to 
prevent its irritating the stomach and kidneys. 
Pumpkin seeds, token largely on an empty stomach, 
will often expel the worm. 

By whatever means these troublesome guests 
are got rid of, the patient should be careful to 
strengthen his system and bowels by a course of 
barks, bitters, wiue, etc., and to use a great pro- 
portion of animal food in his diet. Repeated 
purging with calomel is, perhaps, as effectual a 
remedy for worms as we have, particularly if suc- 
ceeded by the pink root tea. 

Inflammation of the Kidneys. 

Symptoms. — Deep seated pain in the small of 
the back; urine high-colored and small in quan- 
tity, sometimes bloody; sickness at the stomach; 
vomiting. 

Treatment. — This will depend upon the cause. 
If it proceed from gravel, the plan to be pursued 
will be detailed under that head. If it arise from 
any other, cup the back freely, repeat it in ten or 
twelve hours, if necessary, and put him into a 
warm bath. Twenty grains or more of the uva 
ursi, with half a grain of opium three times a day, 
accompanied by small quantities of warm barley 
or rice-water, is one of the most valuable reme- 
dies we are in possession of. The diet during the 
attack should consist of mucilaginous drinks only, 
which must be frequently taken, notwithstanding 
they may be rejected by vomiting. 

Gravel. 

Symptoms. — A fixed pain in the loins; numb- 
ness of the thigh; constant vomiting; retraction 
of the testicle; urine small in quantity, voided 
with pain and sometimes bloody. As the gravel 
passes from the kidney into the bladder the pain 
is so acute as to occasion fainting, etc. 

Treatment. — Put him into a warm bath, where 
he should remain some time. Meanwhile an emol- 
lient and anodyne clyster should be got ready, 
which must be given to him as soon as he leaves 
it. Cloths wrung out of decoctions of herbs or 
spirits and water should be applied to the part, 
and small quantities of warm gum arable tea or 
barley-water be taken frequently. A grain of 
opium every two hours will be found useful. Bi- 
carbonate of soda in twenty-grain doses every 
three hours, often gives great relief. Strong 
coffee, without sugar or cream, sometimes acts like 
a charm in soothing the pain; twenty drops of 
the spirits of turpentine taken on a lump of sugar 
every half hour, is said by high authority to do 
the same. If the irritation of the stomach is very 
great, the effervescing draught, with thirty or 
forty drops of laudanum, may be tried. When 
the pain, etc., is somewhat abated, the bowels 



1S2 



MEDICINE. 



•hould I>e opened with castor oil. The uva ursi, 
ad before mentioned, is one of the most valuable 
remedies in all diseases of the kidneys that we 
have. Blisters in all such cases are never to be 
applied. Persons subject to this distressing com- 
plaint should be careful to avoid acids and fer- 
mented liquors of all kinds, including the red 
wines, beer, pickles, etc. For a common drink 
soft water, or the seltzer and soda waters, are to 
be preferred. When any threatening symptoms 
are perceived, recourse should be hiid to the soda 
and uva ursi, with half a grain of opium three 
times a day, to be continued for weeks. 

Ii}Jlavimation of the Bladder. 

Symptoms. — Pain and swelling of the bladder, 
the pain increased by pressure ; a frequent desire 
to make water, which either comes away in small 
quantities, or is totally suppressed. 

Treatment. — Cup the patient freely, according 
to his age and strength, and put him into the warm 
bath. Inject mucilaginous and laxative clysters, 
and pursue the exact plan of treatment that is re- 
commended for the cause from which it may pro- 
ceed. See Suppression of Urine, etc. 

Difficulty of Urinating, etc. 

Symptomn. — A frequent desire to make water, 
attended with pain, heat, and diflficulty in doing 
80 ; a fullness in the bladder. 

Treatment. — If it arise from simple irritation 
by blisters, etc., plentiful draughts of warm liquids, 
as gum arable or barley-water, will be sufficient 
to remove it; if from any other cause, a bladder 
half filled with warm water, or cloths wrung out 
of a warm decoction of herbs, should be kept con- 
stantly applied over the parts, and occasionally 
clysters of thin starch with laudanum be injected. 

Retention of Urine. 

Symptoms. — Pain and swelling of the bladder; 
violent and fruitless attempts to make water, at- 
tended with excruciating pain, etc. 

T'reatment. — As a totiil retention of urine is 
always attended with considerable danger, there 
should be no delay in endeavoring to remove it. 
The first step is to place the patient immediately 
in the warm bath. While he is there a laxative 
and anodj'ne clyster must be got ready, which is 
to be given as soon as he leaves it, and soon re- 
peated. In the mean time the warm fomentations 
and bladder of hot water must be kept applied, and 
the mixture below be taken every three or four 
hours. If there be any difficulty in procuring it, 
twentj' drops of laudanum in a little warm barley 
or rice-water, or a decoction of the dandelion, will 
answer instead, AVarm sweet oil or milk and 
water may be injected up the urethra, and three or 
four grains of camphor, in a little milk, be taken 
every hour. 

If no relief is obtained by these means, leech 
the perineum, apply snow or ice to the bladder, or 
make the patient stand on a cold brick or stone 
pavement, and dash cold water over his thighs, 
and, if this fail, try the tobacco clyster, which 
sometimes succeeds after everything else has been 
resorted to in vain. If a catheter can be procured, 
try gently to pass it into the bladder while in the 
bath. If the jiatient himself cannot do it, let a 
handy friend attempt it; if foiled in one position, 
try another. Success is of the utmost importance, 
for there is nothing but an operation, in the event 
of its not being obtained, that can save life. 

In every case of retention of urine the order of 
remedies then is : the warm bath, laxatives and 
anodyne clysters, fomentations or bladders half 
filled with viiarm water over the lower belly, cam- 
phor and milk every hour or every three hours, 



passing the catheter, leeching, dashing cold water 
over the thighs and legs, or applying snow or ioa 
to the bladder, and, lastly, the tobacco clyster. 

Mixture. — Mucilage of gum arable, li ounces; 
olive oil, 2 drachms. Rub them well together, 
and add ether, 1 drachm; laudanum, 30 drops. 
Incontinence of Urine. 

Symptoms. — An involuntary dribbling or flow 
of urine. 

Treatment. — If it arises from a relaxation or 
weakness of the parts, use the cold bath daily., 
Apply blisters between the fundament and the 
bag, and have recourse to bark and the different 
tonics, as iron, etc., recommended in indigestion. 
Twenty or thirty grains of the uva ursi, twice or 
three times a day, with half a pint of lime-water 
after each dose, may also be tried. If the disease 
is occasioned by a palsy of the parts, the tincture 
of Spanish flies may be of service. If a stone in 
the bladder is the cause, apply to a surgeon to cut 
it out. In the mean time some kind of vessel 
should be attached to the yard, to receive the 
urine, in order to prevent it from excoriating the 
parts. 

Stone in the Bladder. 

Symptoms. — A frequent desire to make water, 
which comes away in small quantities at a time, 
and is often suddenly interrupted, the last drops 
of it occasioning pain in the head of the yard ; 
riding over a rough road, or any irregular motion 
or jolting, causes excruciating pain and bloody 
urine, accompanied with a constant desire to go 
to stool; itching of the fundament; a numbness 
in the thighs, etc; retraction or drawing up of 
the testicle. 

Treatment. — Cutting out or crushing the stone 
is the only remedy. 

Diabetes, or an Immoderate Flow of Urine. 

Symptoms. — Frequent discharges of large quan> 
titles of urine, which is sometimes of a sweet taste; 
skin dry, bowels costive, appetite voracious, weak- 
ness, and gradual emaciation of the whole body. 

Treatment. — The principal remedy for the euro 
of this disease consists in confining the patient to 
a diet composed almost exclusively of animal food. 
Blisters may, also, be applied over the kidneys, and 
kept open with the savin ointment. The prescrip- 
tion below has proved sometimes successful. The 
carbonate of ammonia, in doses of 11 or 12 grains 
three times a day, is strongly recommended, upon 
high authority. In addition to these, opium in 
liberal doses, exercise on horseback, the flesh- 
brush, and flannel next the skin, are not to be 
neglected. The bowels should be kept open by 
rhubarb. 

Prescription. — Peruvian bark, uva ursi, of each 
20 grains ; opium, ^ grain. Make a powder, to 
be taken three times a day with lime-water. 

Dropsy of the Belly. 

Symptoms, — A swelling of the beHy, from water 
contained in it, preceded by a diminution of urine, 
dry skin, and oppression at the breast. 

Treatment. — One of the most valuable remedies 
for dropsy is found in the elaterium, one-fourth of 
a grain of which is a dose. As it is a most active 
article, it is proper to begin with one-sixteenth of 
a grain daily, which may be cautiously increased 
to a fourth, or till it is found to exert its full pow- 
ers by bringing away large watery stools. From 
an ounce to an ounce and a half of cream of tartar, 
dissolved in water, and taken daily, has frequently 
succeeded in removing the complaint. A tea made 
by stewing an ounce of bruised juniper berries in 
a pint of water may be freely drunk with advan- 
tage. Bathing the feet before going to bed, and 



MEDICINE. 



133 



taking immediately after 20 grains of Dover's 
powiler, by producing copious sweating, has pro- 
duced tlie Hame effect. 

Dropsy is, notwithstanding, a diflBcult disease to 
care. It must be attempted, however, by the use 
of such articles as we have mentioned, beginning 
with the first, and, if it fail, proceeding to the ne.\t 
and so on. If the swelling increases to such an | 
extent as to be absolutely insupportable, send for | 
a surgeon to draw off the water. At the decline | 
of the disease the strength must be supported and ' 
restored by bark, wine, and the tonic plan recom- | 
mended for^digestion. Elaterium or other pur- j 
gatives must not be resorted to, if the patient be 
debilitated. 

Tympany. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of tympany, or a 
collection of air either in the intestines themselves, 
or in the cavity of the belly, are more or less gra- 
dual in their approach. When the disease lies 
within the intestines, it commences with wind in 
the stomach and bowels, which keeps up a con- 
stant rumliling, belching, etc., colic, costiveness, 
diminution of urine, want of appetite, etc. When 
it is in the cavity of the belly, and outride the in- 
testines, the swelling is much greater, ami very 
elastic, when it is struck, giving a hollow sound 
like a drum ; there is no belching, etc. 

Treaimnut . — If the complaint is within the in- 
testines, keep the nozzle of a clyster-pipe up the 
fundament, to permit the wind to pass through it, 
in order to diminish the pressure on the bowels. 
Warm mint tea, ginger, horseradish, ether, Cay- 
enne pepper, spices and essential oils, with laxa- 
tive medicines and clysters, should be freely used, 
with a moderately tight broad bandage round the 
belly. If these means do not answer the end, 
warm and active purges must be resorted to, such 
as the compound tincture of senna or jalap. Rub- 
bing with turpentine may also prove useful. It is 
very apt to terminate in death. 

Gouorrh(xa, or Clap. 

Symyitoms. — A tinfflingr sensation at the end of 
the yard, which swells, looks red and inflamed, 
followed by a discharge of matter that stains the 
linen, first of a whitish, then of a yellow or green 
color, a scalding pain in making water, involun- 
tary and painful erections. 

Trent iiieiit. — There are two kinds of this affec- 
tion, the mild and the virulent. The first is of so 
trivial a nature, that plentiful drauerhts of any 
soothing liquid, as barley-water or flaxseed tea, 
with a low diet, are suflScient to remove it. The 
second produces effects more or less violent on 
different persons, and occasionally resists for 
months every remedy that can be thought of If 
there be much fiain and inflammation in the pe- 
nis, apply a bread and milk poultice to it, take a 
dose of salts, and lose some blood. This is the 
more necessary if, in consequence of the swelling 
of the foreskin, it cannot be drawn back, or being 
back, fannot be drawn forward. In the mean- 
time, ta,ke pretty large doses of the balsam copaiva 
daily. A very low diet should be adhered to, and 
the patient should remain perfectly quiet. 

A painful incurvation of the yard, called a 
chord'-e, may be relieved by diiiping it into cold 
water, or surrounding it with cloths soaked in 
laudanum. To prevent it, take fifty or si.vty 
drops of the latter article, or two or three grains 
of camphor on going to bed. 

If, in consequence of violent exercise, or strong 
injections, the testicles swell, confine the patient 
on his back, leech and purge him. Pounded ice 
or snow, or cloths dipped in cold vinegar or water, 
or lead-water should also be applied to the parts, 



and a very low diet strictly observed. If, from 
the same cause, the glands in the groin are en- 
larged, treat them in like manner. 

Gleet. 

Symptomt. — The weeping of a thin glairy fluid, 
like the white of an egg, from the penis, caused 
by a long-continued clap. 

Trentment. — A gleet is exceedingly difficult to 
get rid of, and frequently defies every effort that 
is made for that purpose. It must be attempted, 
however, by the daily use of the cold bath, and 
thirty drops of the muriated tincture of iron, taken 
three times a day, for months, in a glass of the 
cold infusion of bark. The best advice to he given 
in this case is to apply at once to an intelligent 
surgeon, who will prescribe injections of alum, 
sulphate of zinc, or nitrate of silver. 

Involuntary Eniissiont. 

Symptomn. — An involuntary emission of semen 
during sleep, inducing great emaciation and de- 
bility. 

Treatment. — Abstain from all Sexual indulgence 
and laycivious ideas or books, sleep on a hard bed, 
use the cold bath daily, with a generous and 
nourishing diet. Chalybeate water and all the 
different preparations of iron, with the cold infu- 
sion of bark and eli.xir of vitriol, as directed for 
indigestion, should be freely employed. 

Strintnreg. 

Symptoms. — A difficulty in passing water, 
which, instead of flowing in a full stream, either 
dril)bles away, twists like a corkscrew, or splits 
and forks in two or three directions. They are 
occasioned by strong injections, long-continued or 
ill-treated clap. The cause, however, is not al- 
ways to be satisfactorily ascertained. 

Tretiiiiieut. — Procure several bougies of differ- 
ent sizes. Take the largest one, dip it in sweet 
oil, and pass it into the urethra till it meets with 
the stricture, then make a mark on the bougie, so 
that when it is withdrawn you can tell how far 
down the 7*assage the obstruction exists, and hav- 
ing ascertained this, take the smallest one, well 
oiled, and endeavor to pass it an inch or two be- 
yond the stricture. If this can be accomplished, 
let it remain so a few minutes. This must be re- 
peated every day, letting the instrument remain 
somewhat longer each time it is passed, and after 
a few days using one a little larger, and so on 
progressively until the largest one can be intro- 
duced. If this fails, apply to a surgeon,, who may 
destroy it with caustic or the knife. 

Syphilis, or Pox. 

Symptoms. — Chancres and buboes are among 
theifirst s}'mptoms of this dreadful malady, which, 
if not checked, goes on to cause an ulcerated 
throat, nodes, a destruction of the bones and car- 
tilages of the nose, and the palate. The voice is 
lost, the hair falls off, foul spreading ulcers show 
themselves all over the body, the stench of which 
is insupportable, and before he dies the mi.>-erable 
victim to it becomes a loathsome mass of corrup- 
tion. 

A chancre at first resembles a pimple, with a 
little pit or depression containing matter, which 
soon becomes an ulcer, with an irregular thick- 
ened edge, covered with a tough, ash-colored mat- 
ter, the basis of which is hard and surrounded by 
inflammation. It is generally found on the fore- 
skin or head of the yard. 

A bubo is an enlargement of a gland in the 
groin, V>eginning in a small hard lump, not big- 
ger than a bean, and increasing to the size of a 
hen's egg. 



134 



MEDICINE. 



A node is a hard tumor formed on a bone. 

Treatment. — Apply at onco to an intelligent 
physician. If this be impossible, confine the pa- 
tient to a simple diet, and keep the part clean. 
Two or three grains of blue mass may be used 
daily, and all stimulating substances must be 
avoided. Every one has some infallible receipt to 
cure this disorder ; but in nine cases out of ten the 
remedy proves worse than the disease. As for 
the chancres, touch them freely wifh lunar caus- 
tic, and apply a little piece of rag to them, 
Biceared with red precipitate ointment. If they 
are cituatcd under the foreskin, which is held over 
the head of the yard by a permanent phymosis, it 
(the foreskin) may have to be slit up. If there is 
a bubo, apply thirty leeches. If this does not pre- 
vent its increasing, and the formation of matter is 
inevitable, apply poultices to it, and as soon as a 
fluctuation can be felt, let out its contents by sev- 
eral small punctures through the skin with a 
sharp lancet. To assist in the evacuation, press a 
soft sponge gently on the tumor. 

Cancer of the Yard. 

Symptoms. — A small tumor, like a wart, upon 
the head of the yard or foreskin, followed by in- 
flammation and ulceration, which discharges a 
thin, disagreeable fluid; after a time a cancerous 
fungus is produced, attended by a most intoler- 
able burning and darting pain. 

7Ven<Hie)(«. — Apply at once to a surgeon, who 
will cut it out; death is the only alternative. 

Venereal Warts. 

Crops of these animal mushrooms sometimes 
spring up round the head of the yard or on the 
foreskin. If flat, they may be destroyed by 
caustic or nitric acid; if mounted on a stem or 
foot-stalk, by tying a piece of thread tightly 
round it. 

Dropsy of the Bag, 

Symptoms. — A collection of water, which is first 
perceived at the bottom of the bag, increasing in 
size as it advances upwards, and forming a tumor 
of the shape of a pear. If examined as directed 
for dropsy of the belly, the wavy motion may be 
felt, and if a candle be placed behind it, it becomes 
partly transparent. 

Treatment. — The only certain cure is an opera- 
tion, for which, as there is no pressing danger, 
apply to a surgeon. There are three sprcies of 
this dropsy, in one of which the water is contained 
within the lining of the bag; another, within the 
covering of the spermatic cord; and the third, in 
the cellular membrane of the bag. The first we 
have mentioned. The second occurs most fre- 
quently in children; it sometimes, however, is 
found in adults, and very much resembles a rup- 
ture. The treatment is the same as in the first. 
The third may be distinguished by a doughy feel 
and irregular shape. It is to be cured by punc- 
tures to let out the water, and by suspending the 
testicle. 

Enlarged Spermatic Vein. 

Symptoms. — A hard knotty and irregular swell- 
ing of the vein, which simietimes increases to a 
large size. When lying down the swelling di- 
minishes, which distinguishes it from a dropsy of 
the parts. 

Treatment. — Suspend the testicles, or keep the 
patient on his back, apply lotions of lead-water 
to the parts ; the cold bath. 

Cancer of the Testicle. 
Sym])to7nt. — The testicle is enlarged, hardened, 
craggy and unequal in its surface, painful on be- 
aig handled, with irregular pains shooting up the 



groin, into the back, without any previous inflam« 
mation, disease, or external violence. 

Treatment. — Apply immediately to a surgeon. 
Castration, and that at an early state of the dis- 
ease, is the only remedy that can save life. Be 
careful, however, to distinguish it from simple 
swelling of the testicle by inflammation, blows, 
etc., which see. 

Impoteiicy. 

This is of three kinds. The first arises from an 
original defect in the organs of generation. The 
second, from local debility of the parts, brought 
on by e.\cessive venery, self-abuse, or some pre- 
ceding disease, while the third originates from 
fear, excess of passion, or want of confidence at 
the moment of coition. 

The first is incurable. The second must he 
treated by the general principles and remedies 
pointed out for restoring the strength of the 
system, consisting of the cold bath, preparations 
of iron, bark, elixir of vitriol, generous diet, exer- 
cise, and by steadily avoiding the causes which 
may have produced it. The remedies for the third 
must be sought for in calming excessive agitation, 
and acquiring, by habits of intimacy, that confi- 
dence they are sure to produce. 

Gout. 

Symptoms. — Pain in the small joints, generally 
in the ball of the great toe, the parts swollen and 
red. the attack coming on in the night. Such are 
the striking symptoms of this disease, and gene- 
rally the first that are noticed. It is occasionally, 
however, preceded by all those attendant on indi- 
gestion. In the advanced stages chalky lumps 
are formed in the joints. 

Treatment. — If the patient be young, vigorous, 
having the disease for the first time, bleed and 
purge hiiD, confine him to a low diet, and treat it 
exactly as an inflammation arising from any other 
cause. To procure sweating, Dover's powder may 
be taken on going to bed. As soon as the inflam- 
matiiin, by these means, is reduced, use the cool or 
cold bath, and take strong exercise on foot daily; 
avoid high-seasoned food, feather beds, wine, acids 
and fermented liquors, for the remainder of your 
life! Gout is the child of indolence and intem- 
perance, and to avoid it the above means must be 
employed and steadily persevered in. 

If, however, the patient is old or infirm, and 
subject to regular fits of it, he must not be han- 
dled so roughly. The most perfect rest should be 
observed, and the parts lightly covered with 
fleecy hosiery, and flannel cloths wetted with the 
lotion below, made milk- warm, or with pure laud- 
anum. The bowels should be opened with some 
warm laxative. Then give the alkaline mixture 
below. The degree of warmth that is applied to 
the part must be regulated by the feelings of the 
patient, who, if weak, may use a nourishing diet, 
if strong, a more abstemious one. 

If from any cause the disease leaves the extre- 
mities and flies to the stomach, apply mustard 
poultices and blisters to the soles of the feet and 
ankles, give large doses of ether and laudanum, 
hot wine, brandy, etc., and endeavor by all such 
means (including the hot bath) to send it back 
again. 

If the head be the part it is transferred to, and 
apoplexy is produced by it, take away fifteen or 
twenty ounces of blood immediately, md give 
active purgatives, as 10 or 15 grains of calomel, 
followed by senna tea or Epsom salts. If, in a 
few hours, the patient is not relieved, the head 
continuing confused and painful, and the pulse 
full and throbbing, cup him to the amount of 



RHEUMATISM. 



135 



•ight or ten ounces, and apply cold vinegar and 
Water constantly to the part. 

Gout Lotion. — Alcohol 3 ounces ; camphor mix- 
ture 9 ounces. Render the whole milk-warm by 
adding a sufficient quantity of boiling water. 

Alkaline Mixture. — Carbonate of potassa 2i 
drachms; wine of colchicum root li fluidrachms ; 
water 6 ounces. Take a tablespoonful three times 
daily. 

hiflnmmatory Rheumatism. 

Symptoms. — Pain ; swelling and inflammation 
in .some one (or several) of the larger joints, the 
pain shifting from one part to another ; all the 
symptoms of fever, pulse full and hard, tongue 
white, bowels costive, and urine high-colored. 

Treuliiietit. — First purge with salts and mag- 
nesia; then give the alkaline nii.xture as above, 
but without the colchicum, if the patient be not 
of a gouty habit. The Dover's powder shauld be 
taken to procure sweating, and a lovv diet should 
be strictly observed. In severe cases I have known 
it necessary to bleed. When the disease is over- 
come, if in consequence of the bleeding, etc., the 
patient is left very low and weak, wrap him up in 
blankets, give him warm, nourishing food, wine, 
etc., etc. 

Chronic Rheumatism. 

Symptoms. — A chronic rheumatism is nothing 
more than one of long standing. It is unaccom- 
panied by fever, and makes its attacks on every 
change of weather, on getting wet, etc., etc. It is 
frequently caused by inflammatory rheumatism, 
and sometimes seems to exist as a primarj' affec- 
tion. 

Treatment. — I have found no one plan of treat- 
ment in this species of the disease so effectual as 
the following: Purge moderately with senna and 
salts, rub the parts well with the volatile liniment, 
and use Cayenne pepper and mustard at dinner in 
large quantities, and on going to bed thirty drops 
of laudanum with a teaspoonful of the tincture of 
guaiacum. It is to be recollected thiit this is ap- 
plicable only to chronic cases; if there is fever, 
etc., it will do much damage. Should there be 
any cause to suspect that a venereal taint is con- 
nected with it, have recourse to the iodide of po- 
tassium, five or ten grains thrice daily, in water. 
AVarm liniments are useful. A large blister fre- 
quently relieves the whole of the symptoms in 
the course of a night. The best safeguard against 
the complaint is the use of flannel next to the skin, 
winter and summer. 

Hip-joint Disease. 

Symptoms. — Excruciating pain in the hip-joint 
and knee; the leg becomes longer, then shorter 
than its fellow ; when lying down the foot rolls 
outwards, the buttocks appearing flatter than 
usual; lameness; after a while abscesses in vari- 
ous pr rts of the thigh ; hectic fever, etc. 

Treiitmenl. — Apply blisters to the part, and if 
there be much inflammation leech or cup ; make a 
caustic tissue in the little hollow at the top and 
outside of the thigh, and use all the remedies di- 
rected for scrofula. The diet should be nourish- 
ing, and the limb ke])t at rest. Cod-liver oil, from 
a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful thrice daily, may 
be given. When matter is formed, bark, wine 
and a generous diet must be employed. It often 
proves incurable. 

Dropsy of the Knee-joint. 
Symptoms. — The joint swells, the skin remain- 
ing of a natural color. By placing the hand on 
one side of it, and striking it gently on the other, 
the wavy or fluctuating motion is perceptible; 
steady pressure on one side will raise the other 
above its natural level. 



Treatment. — Keep a perpetual blister en the 
joint, or make a caustic issue below it, on the in- 
side of the leg; cold water from the spout of a 
tea-kettle is a useful application. Camphorated 
mercurial ointment to the knee, and iodine taken 
internally, have sometimes been of service. 
White Swelling. 
Symptoms. — Deeply seated pains in the knee, 
unattended at first by swelling, which at last 
comes on with increase of pain. After a while 
the joint enlarges, matter is sometimes dis- 
charged, hectic fever follows, and cuts off the pa- 
tient. 

Treatment. — If from scrofula, use the general 
remedies directed for that disease, and apply a 
blister to the part, which may be kept open by 
the savin ointment for months; if from blows, 
apply the blister as before; leech and purge 
freely, and act as directed in cases of similar ac- 
cidents. If in spite of these precautions the dis- 
ease continues to advance, amputation may be the 
only resource. 

Pieces of Cartilage in the Joints. 
Portions of cartilage are sometimes displaced 
in the joints, when they act like any other foreign 
bo<ly of a similar texture. While in the hollows 
of the part they give no uneasiness, but as they 
frequently slip in between the ends of the bones, 
causing excruciating pain, it is sometimes, though 
rarely, necessary to cut them out. For this pur- 
pose applj' to a surgeon. As all openings into 
the cavities of the joints are attended with much 
danger, unless the pain be insupportable it is bet- 
ter to endure the inconvenience than to run the 
risk of the operation. 

Scrofula, or King's Evil. 
Syriiptoms. — Hard and indolent swellings of the 
glands of the neck, that when ripe, instca<l of 
matter discharge a whitif h curd. It mostly occurs 
in persons of a fair ccmplexion, blue eyes, and 
delicate make. In bad cases the joints swell with 
great pain, the limbs waste away, the ligaments 
and bones are destroyed, when hectic fever soon 
relieves the patient from his misery. 

Treatment. — Sea-water is generally considered 
a great remedy in scrofula. It is to be used daily 
as a bath. Made milk warm it forms one of the 
most excellent local applications that we have. 
When the swellings break, a very strong decoction 
of hemlock may be advantageously used for the 
same purpose. The diet should be nourishing. 
After a fair trial of the waters of the ocean, re- 
course should be had to iodine and cod-liver oil. 
The former may be taken in Lugol's Solution, the 
dose of which is from three to six drops, accord- 
ing to age, twice or thrice daily. 
Inflamed Glands. 
Every gland in the body is subject to inflamma- 
tion. Whenever one of them is perceived to be 
in this state, whiih may be known by the swelling 
and pain, measures should be taken to reduce It, 
Leeches, blisters and all the remedies directed for 
such purposes, should be aetively employed, among 
which purging and a low diet must not be ne- 
glected. 

Scirrhus. 
Symptoms. — A hard tumor, unequal on its sur- 
face, and not very sensible, giving but little or no 
pain on being handled. 

Treatment. — Do not meddle with the tumor, but 
apply to a surgeon as soon as possible. 
Cancer. 
Symptoms. — A tumor, differing from the pre- 
ceding one, by being surrounded with enlarged 



136 



MEDICINE. 



Teins. It is, also, more painful, the skin being 
sometimes discolored and puckered. The whole 
tumor is particularly heavy, and at last breaks 
into a malignant ulcer, or sore, whose edges are 
raised, ragged, uneven, and curl over like the 
leaves of a (luwer; white streaks or bands cross it 
from the centre to the circumference. Acute and 
darting pains accompany both this and the pre- 
ceding stage of the disease. 

Treiitwent. — There is but one remedy that can 
be depended on for the cure of this painful and 
inveterate complaint, and even that should be re- 
sorted to early, in order to ensure success. All 
the diseased parts must be cut out. Arsenic, cor- 
rosive sublimate, phosphate of iron, and a thou- 
sand other articles have been recommended, both 
externally and internally, but without any effec- 
tual advantage. To relieve the pain, opium may 
be taken in large doses. The sore should be de- 
fended from the air, by some mild ointment. 
Powdered chalk, scraped carrots, fresh hemlock 
leaves and powdered charcoal may be used for the 
same purpose. 

Goitre. 

Symptoms. — A tumor in the fore part of the 
throat, seated in a gland close to the projection 
called " Adam's apple." 

Treatment. — Goitre is sometimes incurable. 
When taken at the very beginning of the com- 
plaint, however, and in young persons, it is said 
to have been dispersed by a course of iodine joined 
to frictions of the part, with strong mercurial oint- 
ment. As it seldom causes any inconvenience, 
and is alwnys unattended by pain, it is not a mat- 
ter of much consequence. The inhabitants of the 
Alps consider it a mark of beauty, and there are 
some cantons where every man, woman and child 
is adorned with a tumor of this nature, of which 
they would feel very sorry to be deprived. It 
cannot be cut out, on account of the great num- 
ber of blood-vessels of which it is composed. 

Fainting. 

Causes. — Sudden and violent emotions of the 
mind; bleeding; diseases of the heart and its 
great vessels. 

Treatment. — Lay the person on his back, take 
off his cravat, then open the doors and windows, 
and sprinkle cold water in his face. Smelling 
salts may be held to his nose. 

Apoplexy. 

Symptoms. — Falling without sense or motion, 
profound sleep; face livid or flushed ; eyes wide 
open or half closed, and immovable ; breathing 
slow, laboring, and irregular ; pulse full and slow. 

Ganges. — A rushing of blood to the head, ex- 
cessive fat in persons with a short neck, gluttony, 
violent exercise, intense heat, anger, hearty meat 
suppers, blows on the head, intoxication, etc., etc. 

Treatment. — If the pulse remains full, the face 
flushed, etc., take away twenty ounces or more of 
blood on the spot, remove the cravat, unbutton 
the shirt-collar, and place the patient in bed, with 
his head and shoulders a little elevated. The 
windows and doors must be thrown ojien, and no 
more persons than are necessary, be allowed to re- 
main in the room. The head is to be shaved and 
cupped, a blister applied to the back of the neck 
and the head, and mustard poultices to the feet. 
An active purgative should always be adminis- 
tered as soon as the patient is bled, and its opera- 
tion assisted by repeated clysters. If the patient 
cannot swallow pills, try liquids, if neither, have 
recourse to a strong purgative clyster. If, by 
these means, the breathing is not easier, and the 
pulse softer, bleed again, or cup the back of the 
neck. 



If, however, the patient is old and infirm, and 
the attack has come on more gradually, if the 
pulse is weak, and the face pale, bleed moderately^ 
or not at all, and give immediately a warm pur- 
gative, apply the blisters, etc. If it arises from 
swallowing vegetable poisons, give an active 
emetic, as thirty grains of white vitriol, and act as 
directed in cases of similar accidents. In this 
second kind of apoplexy, stimulants, as harts- 
horn to the nose, etc., may be used; in the first 
they are very injurious, and should never be em- 
ployed. 

Stroke of the Sun. 

This proceeds from exposure to the sun's rays, 
and exhibits the same symptoms as apoplexy, 
commencing with vertigo, loss of sight, ringing in 
the ears, etc., and must be treated by cupping or 
bleeding, and in every other respect as directed 
for apoplexy. Extreme heat sometimes, however, 
produces a state of prostration without head symp- 
toms ; for which cold affusion and rest are the 
best remedies. 

Epilepsy. 

Symptoms. — A fit, in which the patient falls to 
the ground in a convulsion ; the eyes are distorted 
and turned up, hands clenched, foaming at the 
mouth, convulsions, the whole ending in a deep 
sleep. 

Treatment. — Keep the patient from hurting him- 
self, by holding gently his hands, legs, and particu- 
larly his head, which he is apt to dash violently 
against the ground, or surrounding objects. A 
piece of soft wood should be placed between his 
teeth, to prevent his tongue from being bitten. 
This is, in general, all that can be done during 
the fit. If, however, there are symptoms of great 
determination of blood to the head, bleeding 
should not be neglected. White vitriol, the mis- 
tletoe, carbonate of iron, etc., etc., have been re- 
commended and tried for the cure of this com- 
plaint, but in vain. 

The valerianate of zinc may, however, be tried. 
It is taken in pills of a grain each, one three 
times a day, gradually increasing this dose to 
five at a tjme. To reap any benefit from this 
medicine, it is necessary to persevere in it for 
months. If it fails, iron or some other tonic may 
be resorted to. Large doses of spirits of turpen- 
tine are said to have afforded relief. The diet, in 
all cases, should be vegetable, and if symptoms 
of fulness of blood be present, it will be proper to 
bleed. Persons subject to these fits, should never 
be left alone, or ride on horseback, for obvious 
reasons. It should be known that sexual excesses 
often produce or keep up this complaint. 

Palsy. 

Symptoms. — A partial or complete loss of the 
powers of motion, and the sensibilitj' of particu- 
lar parts of the body; the pulse soft and slow. 

Treatment. — In a young and robust person, it 
may be proper to bleed, and give an active pur- 
gative. In old people, or where the powers of 
the body are much weakened, warm laxative 
medicines, with stimulating applications, as the 
flesh-brush, blisters, mustard poultices, and rub- 
bing the spine with the volatile liniment, firm the 
best plan of treatment. If it afi'ect different parts 
of the body at once, horseradish, mustard, and 
Cayenne pepper should be used liberally, as they 
are prepared for table. If a swelling or tumor be 
found on the back-bone, or any injury has been 
done it, which may have caused the disease, caus- 
tic issues may be placed on each side of it, and as 
near the injured part as possible. The diet should 
be light and nourishing. The warm bath must 
not be neglected. 



LOCK-JAW. 



137 



Tetanus. 
There are several very long and very learned 
names affixed tc this disease, as it may happen to 
attack one part of the body or another. When it 
is ciinfined to the muscles of the neck and jaws, 
lock-jaw is the common and expressive term for 
it. The aflection, however, is always the same, 
requires similar treatment, and consists in an in- 
voluntary contraction and stiffening of a part of 
the muscles, the senses remaining perfect. 

Lock-jaw. 

Symptoms. — A stiffness in the back of the neck, 
■which renders it first painful, and at last impos- 
sible to turn the head round ; difficulty in swal- 
lowing; pain in the breast, shooting to the 
back; the lower jaw becomes stiff and gradually 
closes. 

Treatment. — If the disease is supposed to arise 
from a wounded nerve, or from an injury done to 
tendinous parts, by a pointed instrument, enlarge 
the wound w^ith a sharp lancet or penknife, and 
pour laudanum or turpenline into it, as directed 
for similar accidents. Give 2 or 3 grains of opium 
at once, and repeat it every two hours, increasing 
the dose according to the violence of the symptoms 
and the effects produced by it, without too much 
regarding the quantity that has been taken. Cases 
are on record where 60 grains (a drachm) of solid 
opium have been taken at once, and with the 
happiest effect. This, however, is a large dose, 
and should never be ventured on but under the 
most desperate and alarming circumstances. Ac- 
tive purging with castor oil and .'ienna tea must 
not be omitted, and if the power of swallowing be 
lost, laudanum, etc., most be given in clysters. 
Drawing a tooth is generally recommended by 
physicians in those cases where the jaws are firmly 
closed, for the purpose of transmitting medicines 
and food to the stomach. This has always ap- 
peared to me as every way calculated to increase 
the evil. If no opening exists between the teeth, 
access can always be obtained by clysters, and in 
this way nourishment and remedies may be in- 
jected. It is always proper, however, when the 
disease is perceived to be coming on, to place two 
email pieces of soft wood between the grinders of 
the upper and lower jaw, one on each side, so that 
they may be kept asunder. 

Madeira wine, in doses of a wineglassful every 
hour, continued for several days, and combined 
with the internal use of opium and the warm 
bath, has been found of great service. Cold water 
dashed freely over the patient every two or three 
hours may likewise be tried. After every affusion 
he .<li add be well wiped and put into a warm bed, 
when a large dose of laudnnum in warm Madeira 
wine should be given. The tobacco clyster has 
sometimes succeeded when everything else has 
failed. So has chloroform by inhalation. Blis- 
tering the whole length of the spine, and caustic 
issues on its sides, as nearly on a line with the 
parts affected as possible, are strongly recom- 
mended. 

Although a valuable addition to our means of 
cure, the tobacco clyster is not to be employed 
lightly, or on common occasions. It should al- 
ways be reserved to the last moment, never using 
it until everj'thing else has failed. The prostra- 
tion of the system, and other alarming symptoms 
it sometimes causes, renders this caution neces- 
sary. 

Painfnl Affection of the Nerves of the Face, 
This disease is also called tic-doloureux, neu- 
ralgia, etc. 

Symptoms. — A very severe pain darting in par- 



ticular directions, not lasting more than a second, 
but very rapidly repeated, and excited by the 
slightest touch; during tho intervals there is no 
pain whatever. There is no intiammation or 
swelling of the cheek, as in toothache, nor does 
the pain seem so deeply seated. 

Treatment. — Blisters, tincture of aconite, mer- 
curial ointment, opium, iron, and Fowler's Solu- 
tion of Arsenic, with many other remedies of the 
same class, have been all recommended and used 
for the cure of this most painful of all the af- 
fections to which the human body is subject. 
Where the pains are so excessive as not to ba 
borne, one or two grains of the extract of bella- 
donna may be taken every three hours. When 
the pain is somewhat relieved, this quantity must 
be diminished. For a cure apply to a skilful sur- 
geon, who may divide the nerves. 

Angina Pectoris. 

Symptoms. — An acute pain at the lower end of 
the breast-lxvne, shooting into the left arm; great 
difficulty of breathing; anxiety; palpitation of the 
heart; a feeling of suffocation. It usually comes 
on while ascending a hill or going up stairs. 

Treatment. — During the fit place the patient's 
feet in a hot mustard foot-bath, and apply mus- 
tard plasters to the chest and back. Give one or 
two teaspoonfuls of Hoffmann's anodyne, in 
water, or forty drops of biudanum. If fainting, 
dash cold water in his face. Strips of linen, 
moistened with the solution below, applied seve- 
ral times a day to the breast-bone for a month, are 
said to have effected complete cures. They act 
by producing a crop of pimples, on the appear- 
ance of which the disease sometimes declines. 

Persons subject to this complaint should avoid 
all fermentable food, and excess in eating or 
drinking, taking care to live quietly and to keep 
the bowels open. Cupping and purging, followed 
by opium, to lessen the spasm, with the warm 
bath, and a perpetual blister or plaster of the tar- 
tar emetic ointment to the chest, are perhaps the 
best remedies that can be employed. 

Tartar emetic, 1 drachm; spirits of camphor, i 
an ounce; boiling water, 1 pint. Mix. 

Dance of St. Vitus. 

Sympitoms. — Irregular and convulsive motions 
of the limbs and head, usually occurring in chil- 
dren. It varies, however, in different persons, and 
is frequently counterfeited by beggars. 

Treatment. — The daily use of the cold bath, 
with the Peruvian bark, has often succeeded in 
curing the complaint in young subjects. In addi- 
tion to these, any of the preparatiims of iron com- 
bined with moderate doses of musk, opium, cam- 
phor, etc., may be tried. The disease is generally 
recovered from. 

Scarlet Fever. 

Symptoms. — Chills, heat, thirst, headache; the 
skin is marked with large red or scarlet patches, 
which at last unite, disappearing in a kind of 
brantiy scurf; sore throat. 

Distinguish it from measles by the spots coming 
out on the second day of the fever. In measles 
they seldom appear until the fourth day. By their 
color, which is that of a boiled lobster, whereas 
in measles it is of a dark red. 

Treatment. — An emetic (ipecacuanha) maybe 
given on tho first appearance of the disease, to be 
followed by a dose of salts, or eight grains of cal- 
omel, with US many of rhubarb. If the pulse is full 
and strong, the head aches, and the heat is great, 
draw blood, and apply cold water over the body 
freely and frequently. There is no disease in 
which the advantages of cold affusion are man 



138 



MEDICINE. 



striking. In order to reap the full benefit of it, 
however, it must be freely employed, that is, as 
often as heat, etc., seem to require it, or eight or 
ten times in the twenty-four hours. The saline 
mixture, p. 123, is of great use. If there is any 
soreness of the throat, the gargles recommended 
for that complaint should be used, and a mustard 
poultice be jipplied to the parts. If symptoms of 
putrescency appear, have recourse to the plan re- 
commended for putrid sore throat. As scarlet 
fever is undoubtedly contagious, the usual precau- 
tions should of course be adopted. 

Wr'ters on this subject generally consider scar- 
let ferer as consisting of three kinds, viz., the 
simple fever, the fever with sore throat, and the 
malignant fever. The treatment of the first 
should be like that of any other inflammatory 
fever; that of the second has been detailed in 
speaking of inflammatory sore throat; and the 
last is precisely that of putrid sore throat. 

Erysipelas, or St. Anthony's Fire. 

Symptoms. — Fever, delirium, vomiting; pulse 
strong or weak, as the fever inclines to the inflam- 
matory or typhous kind. On the fourth day — 
sometimes on the second or third — the skin in 
some one part becomes red and inflamed, which is 
soon extended to others, the parts affected being 
swollen and of a bright scarlet. If the face is at- 
tacked, it spreads itself on the scalp, and the eye- 
lids sometimes swell so as to prevent the patient 
from seeing. After a longer or shorter period, the 
eruption ends in small watery vesicles, or in branny 
scales. At this period the fever sometimes abates; 
at others, drowsiness or delirium comes on, which 
increases it, and destroys the patient by the elev- 
enth day. 

Treniment. — This disease is of two kinds, one 
of which is principally confined to the skin, while 
the other affects the whole system. If the accom- 
panying fever is inflammatory bleeding will be 
proper, otherwise not. This operation is to be 
cautiously employed in erysipelas, as it sometimes 
runs into a typhous state. If, however, the pa- 
tient is robust, his head aches, and great marks 
of fullness and inflammation are evident, which is 
generally the. case in this country, bleeding, purg- 
ing with salts, and cooling drinks should be em- 
ployed, to which, also, may be added Dover's 
powders, boneset tea, etc., to produce sweating. 
The room should be kept cool. If, on the con- 
trary, the fever is typhous, or the patient is of a 
weak and irritable habit of body, bleeding should 
never be resorted to. Opium, wine, bark, elixir 
of vitriol, and tincture of chloride of iron (20 
drops every three hours) are necessary in this case, 
to guard against mortification, which sometimes 
ensues. 

As local applicati(>ns, bathing the parts with 
laudanum or lead-water, or dusting them with 
rye meal or wheat flour, are the best. Should the 
disease evidently be gonfined to the skin, the ap- 
plication of a blister will sometimes put an end to 
it. If it affect the face, it may be prevented from 
extending to the scalp, by painting a line just be- 
yond the eruption quite thickly with tincture of 
iodine. If abscesses form, large openings must 
be made, to let out the matter and the dead parts. 
When the first or inflammatory kind prevails, the 
diet should be barley, sago, or panada, etc., with 
lemonade, tamarind water, etc., for drink; and, 
on the contrary, when the second or typhous form 
of it (especially if accompanied by putrid symp- 
toms) shows itself, a more generous diet, with a 
moderate quantity of wine, etc., must be employed. 

It may nut be useless again to observe, that in 
the United States erysipelas often calls for re- 



ducing and cooling measures. Among the various 
articles which are employed in this, as well as all 
inflammatory diseases, none ranks higher than 
lemonade, which should always, if possible, be 
made from the fresh fruit. AVhen taken cold, and 
in liberal quantities, it is not only delicious to the 
palate of the patient, but tends powerfully to cure 
the complaint. 

Measles. 

Symptoms. — Inflammatory fever; dry cough 
and hoarseness ; sneezing, watering of the eyes, 
which itch ; a running from the nose ; great drow- 
siness. On the fourth day small red points break 
out, first on the face, and then gradually over the 
body. They are in clusters, and, on passing the 
hand over them, are found to be a little raised. 
On the fifth or sixth day the vivid red is changed 
to a brown, and the eruption goes off. 

Distinguish it from small-pox and all other dis- 
eases by the dry cough and hoarseness, by the 
appearance of the eyes, which are red, swollen, 
and loaded with tears. 

Treatment. — The patient must be confined to a 
low diet, and kept in bed, with as much covering, 
but no more, as may be agreeable to his feelings. 
The room should be cool, and, if there is much 
fever and pain in the head, bleeding may be ne- 
cessary. Should there be pain and oppression at 
the breast, apply a blister. The bowels may be 
opened by salts. The mild form of measles ought 
to be treated like any other inflammatory com- 
plaint, taking care, however, not to repel the erup- 
tion by cold. If this happens, place the patient 
in a warm bath, give him warm wine, etc., inter- 
nally, and apply mustard poultices and blisters to 
the feet and ankles. 

There is another and more dangerous kind of 
this disease, which may be known by the fever 
being typhous, and by all the symptoms showing 
a depressing tendency. The moment this is per- 
ceived have recourse to bark wine, muriatic acid, 
etc., etc., as directed in tj'phus fever. 

Chickcn-Pox, 

Symptoms. — Fever; inability to sleep; pain in 
different parts of the body; a crop of small pim- 
ples or points on the back, which, by the second 
day, are changed into little blisters, which are 
ripe on the third and disappear before the fifth 
day, without forming true pus or matter, and 
leaving no marks or pits behind them. 

Distinguish it from small-pox by the eruption 
coming out on the back, by the mildness of the 
fever, by the fluid contained in the vesicles or 
blisters not being true pus, and by the whole fall- 
ing off in scales on the fifth day. 

Treatment. — Confine the patient to his bed, keep 
him cool and quiet, and give him a dose of salts. 
This is all that is necessary. 

Cozo-Pox. 

Symptoms, — A pimple at the spot where the 
matter was inserted, which gradually undergoes 
certain regular changes that characterize the com- 
plaint. 

Changes of genuine Cow-Pox. — On the fourth 
day, or sooner, from the time of the operation, a 
small speck of inflammation is to be perceived, 
which, on the fifth day is a pimple, surrounded by 
a circle of inflammation. On the sixth this pim- 
ple changes to a vesicle containing a thin fluid. 
On the seventh this vesicle is more perfect, its 
miirgin forming a regular circle; it is also a little 
flattened on the top, the centre of which is of a dark 
color. On the eighth or ninth day slight chills, 
flushes of heat, etc., are sometimes felt, accompa- 
nied by swelling of the pustule and pains shoot- 



SMALL POX. 



139 



ing up into the arm-pit, the glands or kernels of 
which oeciisionally swell. 

On the tenth or eleventh day the pustule is sur- 
rounrled by a circular, vivid, inflammatory blush 
that is very beautiful. This is regarded a.s a de- 
cisive proof of the presence of the genuine cow- 
pox. On the eleventh day the centre of the pus- 
tule begins to grow of a dark color, whitfh gradu- 
ally increases to a brown or mahogany one by the 
end of the second week, when it begins to leave 
the skin, from which it is finally separated. 

Treatment. — If the pain, inflammation iind swel- 
ling are excessive, reduce them by cold applica- 
tions, a duse of salts, low diet and rest. 

k^mall-Pox. 
Symptoms. — Inflammatory fever; drowsiness; 
pain in the pit of the stomach, increased by pres- 
rure ; pain in the back; vomiting; on the third 
day the eruption breaks out on the fiice, neck and 
breast in little red points that look like flea-bites, 
and which gradually appear over the whole body. 
On the fifth day little round vesicles filled with a 
transparent fluid appear on the top of each pim- 
ple. The eruptive fever now declines. On the 
ninth day the pustules are perfeitly formed, being 
round and filled with a thick, yellow matter, the 
head and face also swelling considerably. On the 
eleventh day the matter in the pustules is of a 
dark yellow color, the head grows less, while the 
feet and hands begin to swell. The secondary 
fever now makes its appearance. The pustules 
break and dry up in scabs and crusts, which at 
last fall ofif, leaving pits, which sufficiently mark 
the cause. 

Such are the symptoms of the distinct or mild 
Bmall-pox, but it frequently assumes a more terri- 
ble shape, in what is called the confluent. In the 
latter all the symptoms are more viident from the 
beginning. The fever is typhous; there is de- 
lirium, preceded by great anxiety, heat, thirst, 
vomiting, etc. The eruption is irregular, coming 
out on the second day in patches, the vesicles of 
which are flatted in ; neither does the matter they 
contain turn to a yellow, but to a brown color. 
Instead of the fever going off on the appearance 
of the eruption, it is increased after the fifth day, 
and continues throughout the complaint. The 
face swells in a frightful manner, so as to close 
the eyes; sometimes putrid symptoms prevail 
from the commencement. 

Treatment. — Place the patient in a cool, airy 
room, and let him be but lightly covered with bed 
clothes. Purge hiiu moderately with salts, and 
give him thirty drops of laudanum every night. 
The diet should consist of panada, arrow-root, 
etc., and his drink consist of lemonade or water. 
If from any cause the eruption strikes in, put him 
into a warm bath, give a little warm wine whey, 
or the wine alone, and apply blisters to the feet. 
Obstinate vomiting is to be quieted by the effer- 
vescing draught, with the addition of a few drops 
of laudanum. 

In the confluent small-pox the treatment must 
be varied as it inclines more or less to the inflam- 
matory or putrid type. If it inclines to the first, 
act as directed for the distinct kind ; if to the last, 
employ all those means direc-ted in typhus fever. 
If the eyes are much aft'ected, it will be necessary 
to bathe them frequently with warm milk, and to 
smear the lids with some simple ointment. 
Itch. 
Si/mptoms. — An eruption of small pimples be- 
tween the fingers, on the wrists, and over the 
whole body, which form matter, and are attended 
with an intolerable itching. 

Treatment. — The remedy is sulphur. It should 



be used internally with cream of tartar, so as to 
purge moderately, and at the same time be ap- 
plied externally in the form of an ointment. The 
following practice is said to be effectual: Take of 
flour of sulphur 2 ounces, and mix it well with 
2 drachms of nitre; throw the mixture into a 
warming-pan containing live coals, and pass the 
pan between the sheets in ttie usual manner. The 
patient, stripped to his skin, now gets into bed 
(taking care not to let the fumes escape), when 
the clothes should be tucked in all round him. 
Repeat the process ten or twelve times. The sul- 
phur ointment, applied after a prolonged tepid 
bath, will generally answer. 

Herpes. 
Symptoms. — Broad, itchy spots of a reddish or 
white color breaking out in different places, which 
at last run into each other, forming extensive 
ulcers : after a time they become covered with 
scales, which fall off, leaving the surface below 
red; while the disease heals in one part it breaks 
out in another. 

Treatment. — The ointment of the oxide of zino 
is a very common applicati 'U. Washing the part 
with a solution of corrosive sublimate in water, 
one grain to the ounce, is, however, to be pre- 
ferred. The citrine ointment may also be tried. 
If these fail, apply a strong solution of blue vit- 
riol to the ulcers, and take a grain of calomel 
morning and evening. The decoction of sarsa- 
parilla and guaiacum maybe used with them. If 
the disease resists the mercury, try Fowler's Solu- 
tion of Arsenic in doses of five drops three times 
a day, to be cautiously increased as directed for 
intermitting fevers. The warm bath should never 
be neglected in cutaneous complaints. 
Scnld-Head. 
Symptoms. — Inflammation of the skin of tha 
head, which ends in a scabby eruption that ex- 
tends over the whole scalp. 

OiiKses. — Want of cleanliness, putting on the 
hat, using the comb, or sleeping in the bed of a 
person who has it. 

Treatment. — Shave the head close, wash it well 
with warm soap and water, and cover it thickly 
with fresh powdered charcoal. The bowels must 
be kept open by magnesia or Epsom salts. If 
this fails, try the citrine or tar ointment to the 
parts, with a liberal use of the compound decoc- 
tion of sarsaparilla. The diet should be whole- 
some and nourishing, avoiding spirituous liquors 
and salted meats. The warm bath should not be 
neglected. 

Ringworm, 
Symptoms. — An eruption running in curved 
lines, generally in a circle, that itches when 
rubbed, or when the body is heated. 

Treatment. — Into one ounce of water throw 
more blue vitriol than it will dissolve, so as to 
form what is technically called a saturated solu- 
tion. Touching the ulcerated parts with this 
liquid several times through the day, will alone 
frequently cure it. If this fails, apply the citrine 
or tar ointments. In very obstinate cases, re- 
course may be had to the usual doses of Fowler's 
Solution. If it affects the head, shave it. In this, 
as well as all other diseases of the skin, the great- 
est cleanliness is necessary. 

Nettle-Rash. 
Symptoms. — An eruption similar to that caused 
by the stinging of nettles, whence its name. On 
rubbing the skin which itches, the eruption will 
suddenly appear, remain for a moment, and then 
vanish, breaking out in some other spot. The 
parts affected are swelled, at one time presenting 



140 



MEDICINE. 



the appearance of welts, as from the stroke of 
a whip-lash, and at another, that of white solid 
lumps. 

Treatment. — A few doses of magnesia or Epsom 
salts, and a little attention to the diet, which 
should be mild, are generally sufficient to remove 
it. If it proceed from eating poisonous fish, or 
any unwholesome food, take an emetic, etc., as 
directed in such cases. 

Blotched- Face. 

St/mptoms. — An eruption of hard, distinct tu- 
bercles or pimples, generally appearing on the 
face, but sometimes on the neck, breast, and 
shoulders. 

Treatment. — There are a great many varieties 
of this affection, some of which have been sepa- 
rately treated of by Wilson and other writers on 
diseases of the skin, to whom I would refer any 
one who is particularly interested therein. Not- 
withstanding all that has been said on the sub- 
ject, there is no disease more difficult to get rid 
of than this. Where it arises from suppressed 
perspiration, hisrh-seasonod food, or intemperance, 
it may indeed be relieved by the warm bath, by 
sweating, purging, and a low diet; but when it 
exists in persons who have always led temperate 
lives, and in whom it seems constitutional, medi- 
cine has but little effect on it. In all cases, how- 
ever, the following plan may be adopted: Take a 
dose of Epsom salts once or twice a week, use 
the warm bath daily, live on mush and milk ex- 
clusively, and drink nothing but writer. The 
parts may be touched frequently with the lotion 
below. If, after a trial of several months, this 
should not suci^eed, try Fowlor's solution, or the 
pills for scald head, with the decoction of guaia- 
cum and sarsaparilla. The various cosmetics and 
astringent applications recommended for these 
affections are always prejudicial, for although they 
sometimes repress the eruption, they occasion 
more severe and d.nngerous complaints. 

Lotion. — Take of corrosive sublimate, 4 grains; 
of spirits of wine, i an ounce; when the salt is 
dissolved, add of common gin and of water, each, 
3 ounces. 

Sciirv}/. 

Symptoms. — Bleeding of the gums, teeth loose, 
spots of various colors on the skin, generally livid, 
debility, countenance pale and bloated, pulse 
small, quick, and intermitting. In its advanced 
stage the joints swell, and blood bursts out from 
different parts of the body. 

Treatment. — Remove the patient to a new and 
healthy situation, where the air is dry and pure, 
give him plenty of fresh vegetables, such as pota- 
toes, spinach, lettuce, beets, carrots, and scurvy- 
grass. A small proportion of fresh animal food 
should be taken with them. This, with oranges, 
lemons and sugar, or lemonade, spruce-beer, with 
wine and water, are generally sufficient to cure the 
complaint. If there is much pain in the bowels, 
laudanum must he useil to relieve it. If the 
breathing is difficult, or there is much pain in the 
breast, apply a blister to it, for on no account 
should blood be drawn in scurvy. A teaspoonful 
of charcoal, well mixed with half a pint of vine- 
gar, forms an excellent gargle to clean the gums 
and ulcers in the mouth. Those on the body may 
be washed with the same, or lemon-juice, pure, or 
mixed with water. The yeast or charcoal poultice 
may also be applied to them with advantage. To 
restore the tone of the system, recourse must be 
had to the Peruvian bark, with the elixir of vitriol, 
the muriated tincture of iron, exercise, etc., etc. 
Of Tumors. 

By the word tumor is meant a swelling of any 



part of the body. They are of different kinds, 
arise from various causes, and are more or less 
dangerous, according to the nature of their con- 
tents, and the spot they occupy. Unless cancer- 
ous, they are generally not dangerous to life. 
Of Ruptures. 

Ruptures are tumors caused by the protrusion 
of a part of the bowels through certiiin natural 
openings. They are divided into reducible, irre- 
ducible, and strangulated. They mostly occur in 
men in the groin and bag. 

Causes. — Straining in any way, as at stool, 
vomiting, lifting heavy weights, violent exercise, 
as jumping, running, etc.; a natural weakness of 
the parts. 

Reducible Ruptures. 

Symptoms. — A small swelling, free from pain, 
and generally soft, the color of the skin over it 
remaining unaltered. While standing up the 
swelling increases, on lying down it decreases, 
the patient being able to return the parts himself, 
while in that position. The swelling is also in- 
creased by coughing, sneezing, or straining as if 
at stool. If he is flatulent, a rumbling sensation 
may be felt in it. 

Treatment. — The patient should place himself 
on his back, with his head and shoulders a little 
elevated. Draw up his knees to his belly, and (if 
in this position the parts do not return of them- 
selves) endeavor to push or knead them gently up 
into the belly, through the opening at which they 
come out, and which, if the tumor be in the groin 
or bag, is an oval ring or slit in the groin, at the 
precise spot where the swelling first appeared. 
When this is effected, he should remain quiet until 
a truss can be procured, the spring of which must 
be passed round his body, the pad be applied di- 
rectly over the spot just mentioned, and held there 
with one hand, while the other passes the strap 
into the buckle and draws it sufficiently tight. 
Having done this, he should get up and walk 
about. If the swelling no longer appears, the 
truss is properly applied ; if otherwise, take it off, 
return the parts as before, and apply it again; 
when, if, on rising, walking about, slightly cough- 
ing, etc., the parts are found to he well kept up, 
he may resume his ordinary business. The truss 
should be worn night and day, as long as he lives. 

Irreducible Ruptures. 

Symptoms. — A rupture in which there is no pain, 
yet that cannot be returned into the belly, caused 
by an increased bulk of the parts, or their having 
formed adhesions, or grown fast to adjoining parts. 

Treatment. — A rupture thus situated must be 
simply supported by a bag or bandage, and left 
to itself The patient should be extremely cau- 
tious in his diet, and in avoiding costiveness, by 
the use of clysters, or, if necessary, laxative med- 
icines. He should also be very careful to protect 
the tumor from blows, always recollecting that it 
is in danger of strangulation. 

Strangulated Ruptures. 
Symptoms. — The first mark of a rupture being 
strangulated, or of pressure being made on it, is 
costiveness. The tumor, which before was insen- 
sible, becomes painful, the pain being most »eyero 
at the spot where the strangulation or st;icturo 
exists, and extending from thencf i.ero^s the belly, 
which becomes swollen and hard. Tlie pain re- 
sembles that which the patient would suppose to 
arise if a cord was drawn tightly across it. The 
pain continues to increase, and is augmented by 
pressure; sneezing, coughing, nausea, and vomit- 
ing, first of the contents of the stomach, and af- 
terwards of the intestines, ensue ; great anxiety, 



ANEURISM, BOILS AND CARBUNCLES. 



141 



restlessness, and a quick hard pulse. Hiccups, 
cold clammy sweats, weakened respiration, and a 
pulse so feeble as hardly to be perceived, announce 
the approach or presence of mortification. 

Tieatiiienl. — Lose not a moment in sending for 
the best medical aid that may be within reach. In 
the mean time, having placed the patient as di- 
rected for reducible ruptures, apply both hands on 
the tumor with gentle pressure, or grasp the tumor 
gently but steadily with one hand, while with the 
fingers of the other you endeavor to knead or 
push up the parts nearest the ring in the groin, 
appljing the pressure in the same course the parts 
have taken in their descent. If this fails, seize 
the tumor between the finger and thumb of the 
left hand, close to where it enters the belly, and 
carry them downwards, with a moderate pressure, 
so as to dislodge any e.\crement which may be 
there, while with the right you endeavor to push 
in the gut. 

If you cannot succeed in two or three attempts, 
place the patient in a warm bath and try it again. 
If still foiled (you have no time to waste in un- 
availing attempts) cover the tumor with pounded 
ice, snow, or any very cold application. Should 
this fail, bleed the patient until he nearly faints, 
regardless of the small thready pulse; if fainting 
actually occurs, seize that moment to return the 
parts, as before directed. 

Should the rupture still remain irreducible, 
there are but two resources left, the tobacco clys- 
ter and an operation. One-half of the clyster 
should be injected ; if it occasions sickness and a 
rela.xation of the parts, endeavor to return them. 
If the lirst half does not produce these effects, 
throw up the remainder of it, and when relaxa- 
tion comes on endeavor, as before, to push up the 
gut. As regards the operation, no one should 
ever attempt it but a surgeon. Large doses of 
laudanum allay vomiting, and are otlierwise ben- 
eficial ; in all cases of this kind they should never 
be omitted. 

Remarks. — Ruptures are liable to be confounded 
with some other diseases, as dropsy of the bag, 
enlarged spermatic vein, etc. The modes of dis- 
tingui-shing them have already been pointed out, 
although it must be confessed that with respect to 
the latter considerable difficulty exists. If the 
disease is a rupture, by placing the patient on his 
back, returning the tumor, and holding the fingers 
firmly over the opening, and then desiring him to 
rise, the swelling will not appear. If, on the con- 
trary, it is an enlarged spermatic vein, it will be 
found to be greater than ever. The latter has 
also a peculiar ropy feel, as if a bundle of cords 
were in the bag. 

Aneurigm. 

Symptoms. — At first a small tumor without pain 
or redness, attended by a peculiar throbbing; it 
disappears on pressure, and returns the moment 
it is removed. As the tumor increases in size, 
the throbbing or beating of the artery grows less 
perceptible. It is generally found in the ham, 
thigh, neck, groin, and arm. Distinguish it by 
the beating or throbbing, which is diminished by 
pressing on the artery above the tumor, and by 
the latter disappearing on pressure, and returning 
when it is removed. 

Treatment. — In the early stage apply a soft and 
elastic cushion to the tumor, and bind it tightly 
over it by a bandage. If the patient is of a full 
habit he should be bled and purged. This plan, 
steadily and vigorously pursued for a long time, 
has sometimes eifected complete cures. There is 
nothing, however, but an operation that can be 
depended on ; wherefore, as soon as any swelling 
of thii nature is perceived, no time should be lust 



in procuring surgical assistance. If the tumor is 
left to itself it will finally burst, and death be the 
inevitable consequence. 

Flesh)/ Tumors. 

Symptoms. — Small warty projections, which, as 
they increase in size, drag down the skin from 
the neighboring parts, which forms a kind of stem 
or foot-stalk, on which the tumor hangs. They 
are hard, full of vessels, and are neither painful 
nor inflamed. 

Treatmetit. — When very small, they may be fre- 
quently touched with caustic, which will destroy 
them ; if large, the ligature or knife must be em- 
ployed, for which purpose have recourse to a sur- 
geon. 

Steatomatosis Tumors. 

Symptoms. — A small, fatty swelling, which 
gradually increases, and sometimes grows to an 
enormous size. It is soft and free from pain, the 
color of the skin remaining unaltered. 

Trentmeut. — These tumors, technically called 
steatomatous, are merely inconvenient from their 
bulk. They can only be removed by the ligature 
or knife, for which purpose apply to a surgeon. 
Encysted Tumors. 
Symptoms. — A distinct, hard, circumscribed 
swelling, gradually growing larger until a slight 
inflammation comes on, when it becomes a little 
painful, soon after which a fluctuation is distinctly 
to be perceived. As it progresses the vessels be- 
come enlarged; it seldom exceeds the size of an 
egg- 

Treatment. — Apply to a surgeon. 
Ganglion. 

Symptoms. — A small, movable, elastic swelling, 
with little or no pain, or alteration in the skin, 
situated under or between tendons or sinews, and 
generally near to a joint; it sometimes hinders 
the motions of the part. 

Treatment — Apply pressure, blisters or frictions 
of strong camphorated mercurial ointment to the 
tumor. If these are of no avail, make a small 
puncture in it with the point of a sharp lancet, 
let out its contents and iipply pressure to the part, 
so as to make the two sides of the sack or bag 
grow together. 

Boils. 

Symptoms. — A hard, circumscribed, inflamed and 
very painful tumor, of a conical shape, seldom 
exceeding in size a pigeon's egg. 

Treatment. — If the patient is of a full habit, 
bleed and purge him with Epsom salts. A soft 
poultice of warm bread and milk, or rye or flax- 
seed meal, should always be applied to the boil, 
and frequently changed. If the pain is exces- 
sive, a teaspoonful of laudanum may be mixed 
with each one. In a few daj's matter will be 
formed, when it may be let out with a sharp 
lancet. 

Carbuncle. 

A deeply seated, hard, immovable and circum- 
scribed tumor, which appears generally on the 
back, shoulders, etc. About the middle it is of a 
dark red or purple color, being much paler or 
mottled round its edges. It is attended with an 
intolerable itching and burning pain, and at last 
becomes a kind of sloughing ulcer. 

Treatment. — This will depend upon the state of 
the constitution. Most generally there is great 
weakness, in which case the diet must be gener- 
ous. Bark, with the elixir of vitriol and opium, 
to relieve the pain, are to be frequently employed. 
As a local remedy, a blister ranks very high. It 
should be placed directly on the part. After be- 
ing cut, it may be succeeded by a basilicon plaa- 



142 



MEDICINE. 



ter. A modern writer strongly recommends the 
solution of arsenic ns a local remedy in this dis- 
ease. Pledgets of linen dipped in the liquor, are 
to be laid on the swelling and frequently renewed. 
When matter begins to form, apply a bread and 
milk poultice, and treat it in every respect as a 
common ulcer. Surgeons mostly advise the early 
use of deep incisions of carbuncle entirely across 
it, in two directions, at right angles to each other. 

Whitlow, or Felon, 

Symptoms. — An inflamed tumor at the end of 
the finger. It is of three kinds. The first is 
situated immediately under the skin, around the 
nail; tlie second in the cellular membrane, the 
pain and swelling of which is much greater than 
in the first, and the matter much longer in form- 
ing; the third lies under the sheath or covering 
of the tcnd(ms of the fingers, and is infinitely 
more violent, painful and dangerous than either 
of the others. 

Treatment. — If of the first description, open the 
little abscess with a needle and let out the matter, 
which should be prevented from forming, if pos- 
sible, by bathing the part with can)phorated 
spirits. The second should be dispersed by purg- 
ing, and by leeches and blisters. If the inflam- 
mation is not reduced by these means, with a very 
sharp penknife make an early and free incision 
in the middle of the last joint of the finger down 
to the bone. Suffer the blood to run for a few 
minutes, and then treat it as a common cut. The 
same practice should be followed with regard to 
the third. 

Piles. 

Si/mptoms. — A pain in the fundament when going 
to stool; on examination small tumors are per- 
ceived to project beyond its verge, They are of 
two kinds — the blind and bleeding. They may 
also be internal and external. 

Blind Piles, 

Treatment. — A diet of rye mush and milk, 
strictly adhered to for a length of time, will very 
frequently cure the disease. If they project, are 
swelled and painful, apply twenty or thirty 
leeches to them, and cold applications. The com- 
mon gall ointment is a very soothing application. 
Bnlsiim copaiva in doses sufiiciently large to 
purge freely is also highly recommended. A radi- 
cal cure, however, is only to be sought for in the 
knife or ligature, for which apply to a surgeon. 
If the pain is very great, laudanum may be taken 
to ease it. 

Bleeding Piles. 

Treatment. — ^If the bleeding is considerable, in- 
ject a solution of alum or a decoction of oak bark, 
or make pressure upon the vessels by introducing 
a sheep's gut, tied a' one end, into the fundament, 
and then filling it wiih any astringent fluid by a 
clyster pipe. This evacuation is sometimes salu- 
tary, and it often requires much judgment to 
know if it should be stopped or not. 

0/ Abscess, 
Symptoms. — The formation of matter under the 
skin, or in any part of the body, preceded by in- 
flammation, and marked by a dull, heavy weight; 
by the pain becoming more acute and darting ; by 
a peculiar throbbing; by the swelling becoming 
more elevated and soft to the touch. If the tu- 
mor is not opened it bursts. 

Ticatvient. — Apply a soft and warm bread and 
milk or linseed poultice to the part, and endeavor 
to hasten the formation of matter. When this is 
evident, let it out with a sharp lancet If the va- 



tient is weak, let him have a generous diet, witll 
wine, porter, bark, etc. 

Psoas Abscess. 

Symptoms. — A weakness across the loins, ac- 
companied by a dull pain. After a while the 
pain shifts from the back to the thigh and hip, 
becoming more darting and severe. The glands 
in the groin swell, and at last a soft tumor is 
perceived at the lower edge of the groin, or by 
the side of the fundament; the swelling increases 
to a large size, and sometimes extends itself down 
the thigh. 

Treatment. — In the early stage purge the pa- 
tient; keep him on a low diet and apply a large 
blister over the lower part of the back. Confine- 
ment in bed is absolutely necessary. When mat- 
ter is formed make an opening into the tumor in 
the following manner: Push a sharp lancet first 
through the skin, then obliquely upwards under 
it, and then, by depressing the point, pierce the 
swelling itself. In this way the abscess is opened 
without the danger that attends wounds of large 
cavities. If it is small, the whole of the matter 
may be allowed to flow awiiy at once; if large, 
after drawing a pint, close the wound for a few 
hours, and then finish the operation. The lips of 
the wound must be kept together by sticking plas- 
ter. As there are many vessels of importance in 
the groin, care must be taken to avoid wounding 
them, and, if a surgeon can be had, he should al- 
ways be applied to for this purpose. 

0/ Fistula. 

Symptoms. — An abscess or ulcer in the neigh- 
borhood of the fundament, preceded by an in- 
flamed swelling, which gives much pain. If there 
is no communication between the gut and the sore, 
it is called an incomplete, if there is, a complete 
fistula. 

Treatment. — As the tumor is often taken for 
piles, attention should be paid to distinguish them. 
In all cases apply forty or fifty leeches to the part, 
keep the bowels perfectly loose by a diet of rye 
mush, and confine the patient to his bed. If, 
however, the formation of matter cannot be hin- 
dered, the swelling must be opened early and a 
poultice applied to it, when the disease occasion- 
ally heals like any other sore; but nine times out 
of ten it forms a callous winding abscess, through 
which (if it is complete) e.\crement, etc., often 
passes. When it arrives at this point, nothing 
but an operation can ever be of any service. 

There is another species of fistulous opening, 
which follows the obstruction caused by stric- 
tures, etc., in the urinary passage. The water 
not being able to flow through the natural canal, 
makes its way out between the bag and the fun- 
dament, constituting what is called fistula in pe- 
rineo. It may almost be called an incurable dis- 
ease ; at all events, none but a surgeon can do 
anything to relieve it. 

0/ Ulcers. 
By ulcers are meant holes or sores in the skin 
and flesh, which discharge matter. They are di- 
vided into inflamed, fungous, sloughing, and in- 
dolent ulcers in the neighborhood of carious bone, 
and those attended by a peculiar diseased action. 

Inflamed Ulcers. 
Symptoms. — The margin of the sore is ragged, 
the skin ending in a sharp edge round it. The 
neighboring parts are red, swelled and painful, 
the bottom of the ulcer is uneven and covered with 
a white spongy substance. In place of healthy 
yellow matter, it discharges a thin fluid ; the sur- 
, face of it bleeds on the slightest tauch. 



ULCERS, ACCIDENTS. 



143 



Trentment. — Confine the patient to bed, purge 
him oeciisionally, let bis diet be low, and apply a 
soft bread and milk or linseed poultice to the 
ulcer. When healthy yellow matter is formed, 
omit the poultice, keep the sore very clean, and 
apply a plaster of simple ointment. 
Fungous Ulcers. 

Symptoms. — The presence of large round gran- 
ulations, rising above the level of the adjoining 
parts, or what is commonly called proud flesh, 
marks this species of ulcer. 

Treatment. — Sprinkle red precipitate over the 
proud flesh, or touch it with lunar caustic, apply 
dressings of simple cerate to the sore, and pass a 
ban<lage tightly over the whole. Burnt alum and 
blue vitriol may also be used to destroy the proud 
flesh. Pressure by adhesive plaster or a bandage 
will often succeed when all other means fail. 
Sloughing Ulcer. 

Symptoms. — The doath of parts of in ulcer 
•which mortify and fall ofiF, generally attended by 
fever and pain. 

Tieatiiiciit. — The diet should be generous, laud- 
anum must be taken to relieve pain, and bark, 
wine, porter, etc., to strengthen the system. The 
carrot poultice is the best local application. The 
soie may also be washed with a solution of bro- 
mine, or of nitric acid, fifty drops to the pint of 
water. When the dead portions have all fallen off, 
treat it as a simple ulcer, paying attention, how- 
ever, to the state of the system. 

Indolent Ulcer. 

Symptoms. — The edges of the skin are thick, 
raised, smooth and shining. The points of new 
flesh are glossy, and the appearance of the whole 
ulcer is that of an old one in which the healing 
process is at a stand. 

Trentment. — Touch the whole surface, sides and 
edges of the sore with caustic, blue vitriol, or pow- 
der it with Spanish flie.s or red precipitate, and 
endeavor in this way to rouse the parts to action. 
If one article fails, try another. Strips of stick- 
ing plaster may be passed over the ulcer, about 
an inch apart, so as to draw its edges nearer to- 
gether, and a long bandage be applied over the 
whole. 

Carious Ulcer. 

Symptoms. — Ulcers situated over or near cari- 
ous (or dead) bones, are thereby prevented from 
healing; they frequently penetrate deep into the 
parts, forming a canal with hard and indolent 
sides, that discharges an oflfensive, unhealthy 
matter. 

Trentment. — Keep the Sore clean, repress any 
proud flesh that may arise, and pay attention to 
the general health of the patient, taking care that 
his strength be kept up, if necessary, by wine, 
bark, porter, etc., etc. The ulcer will not heal 
until all the pieces of dead bone are thrown off. 
This process sometimes lasts for years, in which 
case patience is the only remedy and nature the 
best physician. 

Cases of ulceration frequently occur, proceeding 
from various causes, whose ravages seem to bid 
defiance to medical power. In all cases of ulcera- 
tion, too much stress cannot be laid upon the 
necessity of keeping the parts clean. 



OF ACCIDENTS. 
If, in consequence of a broken bone or other 
injury, the patient is unable to walk, take a door 
from its hinges, lay him carefully on it, and have 
him carried by a.ssistants to the nearest house. 
Jf no door or sofa can be procured, two boards, 
sufficiently long and broad, should be nailed to 



two cross pieces, the ends of which must project 
about a foot, so as to form handles. If in the 
woods, or where no boards can be procured, a 
litter may be formed from the branches of trees. 
In this way a hand-barrow may be constructed in 
a few minutes, on which the sufferer may be pro- 
perly carried. 

If he has been wounded and bleeds, the bleed- 
ing must be stopped before he is removed. 

Having reached a house, lay him on a bed, and 
undress him with care and gentleness. If any 
difficulty arises in getting off his coat or pania- 
loons, rip up the seams rather than use force. 
This being done, proceed to ascertain the nature 
of tho injur3'. 

This may be either simple or compound; that 
is, it may be a contusion or bruise, a wound, 
fracture, or dislocation, or it may be two or all of 
them united in one or several parts. 

A contusion is the necessary consequence of 
every blow, and is known by the swelling and 
discoloration of the skin. 

Wounds are self-evident. 

Fractures are known by the sudden and severe 
pain, by the misshapen appearance of the limb, 
sometimes by its being shortened, by the patient 
being unable to move it without excruciating pain, 
but most certainly, by grasping the limb above and 
below the spot where the fracture is supposed to 
exist, and twisting it different ways, when a grating 
will be felt, occasioned by the broken ends of the 
bone rubbing against each other. If the swelling, 
however, is very great, this experiment should not 
be made until it is reduced. 

Dislocations, or bones being out of joint, are 
known by the del'ormitj of the joint when coin- 
pared with its fellow, by the pain and inability to 
move the limb, by its being longer or shorter tLan 
usual, and by the impossibility of moving it in 
particular directions. 

Of Sprains, 

Plunge the part sprained into very cold water, 
and hold it there as long at a time as you can bear 
it — for severcxl hours — then rub it well with cam- 
phorated spirits. If the accident has happened to 
a joint, as in the ancle, and it remains weak, pour 
cold water on it from the spout of a tea-kettle, held 
at a distance, several times in the day. 
0/ Contusions. 

If slight, bathe the part frequently with cold 
vinegar and water for a few hours, and then rub it 
well with brandy, or spirits of any kind. Should 
it be very great, or so as to affect the whole 
body, which may be known by a general soreness, 
bleed and purge the patient, and confine him to a 
diet of rice-water, lemonade, panada, etc. If fever 
comes on, repeat the purging, etc. In all cases of 
this nature, be sure the water is regularly evacu- 
ated, for it sometimes happens that in consequence 
of the nerves of the bladder being palsied by the 
blow, the patient feels no desire to pass it, though 
the bladder be full. If a suppression ensues, pass 
a catheter, if possible, or procure assistance for 
that purpose. The most serious effects, however, 
resulting from contusion, are when tho blow is 
applied to the head, producing either concussion 
or compression of the brain. 

Concussion of the Brain. 

Symptoms. — The patient is stunned, his breath- 
ing slow, drowsiness, stupidity, the pupil of the 
eye rather contracted, vomiting. After a time he 
recovers. 

Trentment. — Apply cloths dipped in cold vine- 
gar and water to his heaJ, and when the stupor 
is gone and the pulse rises, bleed him, and open 
his bowels with Epsom salts. He should be con- 



144 



MEDICINE. 



fined to bed, kept on a low diet, in a quiet situ- 
ation, nnd every measure taken to prevent an in- 
flammation uf the brain, which, if it comes on, 
must be treated by bleeding, blisters, etc. 
Compression of the Brnin. 

Symptoms. — Loss of sense and motion, slow, 
noisy, and laborious breathing, pulse slow and ir- 
regular, the muscles relaxed, as in a person just 
dead, the pupil of the eye enlarged and will not 
contract even by a strong light, the patient lies 
like one in an apoplectic fit, and cannot be roused. 

Tieatmeut. — Open a vein and draw off sixteen 
or twenty ounces of blood, shave the head, and if 
possible, procure surgical assistance without de- 
lay, as there is nothing, unless an operation, that 
can be of any avail. 

Of Wounds. 
Wounds are of three kinds, viz., incised, punc- 
tured, and contused ; among the latter are included 
gun-shot wounds. The first step in all wounds, is 

To Stop the Bleeding. 

If the flow of blood is but trifling, draw the 
edges of the wound together with your hand, and 
hold them in that position some time, when it will 
frequently stop. If, on the contrary, it is large, 
of a bright red color, flowing in spirts or with a 
jerk, clap j'our finger on the spot it springs from, 
and hold it there with a firm pressure, while you di- 
rect some one to pass a handkerchief round the limb 
(supposing the wound to be in one) above the cut, 
and to tie its two ends together in a hard knot. A 
cane, whip-handle, or stick of any kind, must now 
be passed under the knot (between the upper sur- 
face of the limb and the handkerchief), and turned 
round and round until the stick is brought down to 
the thigh, so as to make the handkerchief encircle 
it with considerable tightness. You may then take 
ofi'your finger; if the blood still flows, tighten the 
handkerchief by a turn or two of the stick, until it 
ceases. The patient may now be removed (taking 
care to secure the stick in its position) without run- 
ning any risk of bleeding to death by the way. 

As this apparatus cannot be left on for any length 
of time, without destroying the life of the parts, 
endeavor as soon as possible to secure the bleed- 
ing vessels, and take it ofi". Having waxed toge- 
ther thi-ee or four threads of a sufiicient length, 
out the ligature they form into as many pieces as 
you think there are vessels to be taken up, each 
piece being about a foot long. Wash the parts 
with warm water, and then with a sharp hook, or 
a slender pair of pincers in your hand, fix your 
eye steadfastly upon the wound, and direct the 
handkerchief to be relaxed by a turn or two of the 
stick ; you will now see the mouth of the artery 
from which the blood springs, seize it with your 
hook or pincers, draw it a little out, while some one 
passes a ligature round it, and ties it up tight with 
a double knot. In this way take up in succession 
every bleeding vessel you can see or get hold of. 

If the wound is too high up in a limb to apply 
the handkerchief, don't lose your presence of 
mind, the bleeding can still be commanded. If it 
is the thigh, press firmly in the groin; if in the 
arm, with the hand end or ring of a common door 
key, make pressure above the collar bone, and about 
its middle against the first rib which lies under it. 
The pressure is to be continued until assistance is 
procured, and the vessel tied up. 

If the wound is on the head, press your finger 
firmly on it, until a compress can be brought, 
which must be bound firmly over the artery by a 
bandage. If the wound is in the face, or so situat- 
ed that pressure cannot be efl"ectually made, or you 
Tannot get hold of the vessel, and the blood flows 



fast, place a piece of ice directly over the wound, 
and let it rem<iin there till the blood coagulates, 
when it may be removed, and a compress and 
bandage be applied. 

Incised Wounds, 

By an incised wound is meant a clean cut. Hav- 
ing stopped the bleeding, wash away all dirt, etc, 
that may be in it with a sponge and warm water, 
then draw the sides of the wound together, and 
keep them in that position by narrow strips of 
sticking plaster, placed on at regular distances, or 
from one to two inches apart. A soft compress of 
old linen or lint may be laid over the whole. 

Should much inflammation follow, remove the 
strips, and purge the patient (who should live 
very low, and be kept perfectly quiet) ac -ording 
to the exigency of the case. If it is plaiK that 
matter must form before the wound will heal, ap- 
ply a soft poultice or wet lint (water dressing) 
until that event takes place, when dressing of 
some simple ointment may be substituted for it. 

Although narrow strips of linen, spread with 
sticking-plaster, form the best means of keeping 
the sides of a wound together, when they can be 
applied, yet in the ear, nose, tongue, lips, and 
eye-lids, it is necessary to use stitches, which are 
made in the following manner: Having armed a 
common needle with a double waxed thread, pass 
the point of it through the skin, at a little distance 
from the edge of the cut, and bring it out of the 
opposite one at the same distance. If more than 
one stitch is required, cut ofiF the needle, thread it 
again, and proceed as before, until a sufiicient 
number are taken, leaving the threads loose until 
all the stitches are passed, when the respective 
ends of each thread must be tied in a hard double 
knot, drawn in such a way that it bears a little on 
the side of the cut. When the edges of the 
wound are partly united, cut the knots carefully, 
and withdraw the threads. 

From what has been said, it must be evident 
that in all wounds, after arresting the flow o<f 
blood and cleansing the parts, if necessary, the 
great indication is to bring their sides into con- 
tact throughout their whole depth, in order that 
they may grow together as quickly as possible, 
and without the intervention of matter. To ob- 
tain this very desirable result, in addition to the 
means already mentioned, there are two things to 
be attended to, the position of the patient and the 
application of the bandage. The position of the 
patient should be such as will relax the skin and 
muscles of the part wounded, thereby diminishing 
their tendency to separate. 

A common bandage of a proper width, passed 
over the compresses moderately tight, not only 
serves to keep them in their place, but also tends 
by its pressure to forward the great object already 
mentioned. If, however, the wound is so exten- 
sive and painful that the limb or body of the patient 
cannot be raised for the purpose of applying or 
removing it, the best way is to spread the two ends 
of one or two strips of linen or leather with stick- 
ing-plaster, which may be applied in place of the 
bandage, as follows : Attach one end of a strip to 
the sound skin, at a short distance from the edge 
of the compress, over which it is to be drawn with 
moderate firmness, and secured in a similar man- 
ner on its opposite side. A second or third may, 
if necessary, be added in the same way. 

In all wounds, if violent inflammation come on, 
reduce it by bleeding, parging, etc., but if there ii 
reason to fear lock-jaw, give wine, porter, brandy, 
opium, and a generous diet. 

Punctured Wounds. 

These are caused by sharp pointed instruments. 



WOUNDS AND BITES. 



145 



as needles, awls, nails, etc. Having stopped the 
bleeding, withdraw any foreign body, as part of a 
needle, splinters, bit of glass, etc., that may be in 
it, provided it can be done easily ; and if enlarg- 
ing the wound a little will enable yon to succeed 
in this, do so. Though it is not always necessary 
to enlarge wounds of this nnture, yet in hot 
weather it is a mark of precaution which should 
never be omitted. As soon as this is done, apply 
wet lint or soft linen, covered with oiled silk, or 
cover the wound with a poultice, moistened with 
laudanum. This practice may prevent lock-jaw, 
which is but too frequent a consequence of 
wounds of this description. When matter forms, 
cover the part with mild dressings, as a common 
sore. Laudanum may be given in large doses to 
relieve pain, and should the inflammation be exces- 
sive, bleed and purge. In hot weather, however, 
or in feeble persons, bleeding should be avoided. 
Contused Wounds. 

Wounds of this nature are caused by round or 
blunt bodies, as musket-balls, clubs, stones, etc. 
They are in general attended by but iiftle bleed- 
ing ; if, however, there should be any, it must be 
stopped. If it arises from a ball which can be 
easily found and withdrawn, it is proper to do so, 
as well as any piece of the clothing, etc., that may 
be in it ; or if the ball can be distinctly felt directly 
under the skin, make an incision across it, and 
take it out, but never allow of any poking in the 
wound to search for such things ; the best extractor 
of them, as well as the first and best application 
in contused wounds, proceed from what they may, 
being a soft bread and milk poultice. 

Should the inflammation be great, bleed and 
purge. Pain may be relieved by laudanum, and 
if the parts assume a dark look, threatening a mor- 
tification, cover them with a carrot poultice. 

If the wound is much torn, wash the parts very 
nicely with warm water, and then (having secured 
every bleeding vessel) lay them all down in as 
natural a position as you can, drawing their edges 
gently together, or as much so as possible, by 
strips of sticking-plaster, or stitches if necessary. 
A soft poultice or water dressing is to be applied 
over the whole. 

Poisoned Wounds from hites of Mad Dogs, Rattle- 
snakes, etc. 

The instant a person is bilten either by a mad 
dog, rattlesnake, or any rabid animal or reptile, 
he should apply a ligature by means of the stick, 
above the wound, as tightly as he can well bear 
it, and without hesitation or delay, cut out the 
parts bitten, taking along with them a portion of 
the surrounding sound flesh. The wound should 
then be freely touched with caustic, or have tur- 
pentine poured into it. A decoction of Spanish 
flies in turpentine may also be applied to the skin 
surrounding the wound. By these means inflam- 
mation will be excited, and suppuration follow, 
which may prevent the usual dreadful consequences 
of such accidents. As soon as the parts are cut 
out take ofl" the ligature. 

Should the patient be too timid to allow the use 
of the knife apply a cupping-glass, and then burn 
the wound very freely with caustic, and place in 
it a tuft of tow or cotton, well moistened with the 
above decoction. The discharge of matter that 
follows should be kept up for some time. The 
only reasonable chance for safety is found in the 
above plan, all the vegetable and mineral produc- 
tions that have been hitherto recommended as 
internal remedies, being of very doubtful, if of 
any, efficacy. 

It is asserted, however, that not more than one 
in ten persons bitten bv mad dogs have the 
10 



hydrophobia. When it occurs it is incurable; but 
nervous symptoms produced by fear are sometimes 
mistaken for it. Rattlesnake bites are nnw com- 
monly treated by giving the sufferer intoxicating 
doses of whiskey. Ammonia, locally applied im- 
mediately after the bite, may be of some use; and 
the same has been said of iodine and bromine. 
(Bibron's Antidote.) 
Stings of Bees and Wasps, Bites of Mtisquitoea, eto. 

Nothing relieves the pain arising from the sting 
of a hornet, bee, or wasp so soQp as plunging the 
part in exfremely cold water, and holding it there 
for some time. Water of ammonia may antago- 
nize the poison. A cidd lead-water poultice is also 
a very soothing application. If a number of these 
insects have attacked you at opce, and the parts 
stung are much swollen, lose some blood, and take 
a dose of salts. 

Musquito-bites may be treated in the same man- 
ner, although I have found a solution of common 
salt and water, made very strong, speedy and ef- 
fectual in relieving the pain. Camphorared spi- 
rits, vinegar, etc., may also be used for the same 
purpose. A solution of Prussian blue in soft 
water, with which the parts are to be kept con- 
stantly moist, is a highly celebrated remedy for 
the stings of bees, wasps, etc., etc. 

Wounds of the Ear, Nose, etc. 

Wash the parts clean, and draw the edges of 
the wound together by as many stitches as are 
necessary. If the part is even completely sepa- 
rated, and has been trodden under feet, by wash- 
ing it in warm water, and putting it accurately in 
the proper place, by the same means, it may still 
adhere; and so may teeth that have been knocked 
out, if replaced. 

Wounds of the Scalp, 

In all wounds of the scalp it is necessary to 
shave off the hair. When this is done, wash the 
parts well, and draw the edges of the wound to- 
gether with sticking-plaster. If it has been vio- 
lently torn up in several pieces, wash and lay 
them all down on the skull again, drawing their 
edges a,s nearly together as possible by sticking- 
plaster, or, if necessary, by stitches. Cover the 
whole with a soft compress, smeared with simple 
cerate, or with water dressing. 

Wotuids of the Throat. 

Seize and tie up every bleeding vessel you can 
get hold of. If the windpipe is cut only partly 
through, secure it with sticking-plaster. If it 18 
completely divided, bring its edges together by 
stitches, taking care to pass the needle through 
the loose membrane that covers the windpipe, and 
not through the windpipe itself. The head should 
be bent on the breast, and secured by bolsters and 
bandages in that position, to favor the approxi- 
mation of the edges of the wound. 
Wounds of the Chest. 

If it is a simple incised wound, draw the edge« 
of it together by sticking-plaster, cover it with a 
compress of wet linen, and pass a bandage round 
the chest. The patient is to be confined to his bed, 
kept on a very low diet, and to be bled and purged 
in order to prevent inflammation. If the latter 
comes on, reduce it by bleeding. 

Should the wound be occasioned by a bullet, ex- 
tract it and any pieces of cloth, etc., that may be 
lodged in it, if possible, and cover the part with 
a piece of linen smeared with some simple oint- 
ment, taking care that it is not drawn into the 
chest. If a portion of the lung protrudes, return 
it without any delay, but as gently as possible. 
Wounds of the Belly. 

Close the wound by strips of sticking-plastei^ 



146 



MEDICINE. 



and stitches passed through the skin, about half 
an inch from its edges, and cover the whole with 
a soft compress, secured by a bandage. Any in- 
flammation that may arise is to be reduced by 
bleeding, purging, and a blister over the whole 
telly. 

Should any part of the bowels come out at the 
■wound, if clean and uninjured, return it as quickly 
as possible; if covered with dirt, clots of blood, 
etc., wash it carefully in warm water previous to 
so doing. If the gut is wounded, and only cut 
partly through, draw the two edges of it together 
by a stitch, and return it; if completely divided, 
connect the edges by four stitches at equal dis- 
tances, and replace it in the belly, always leaving 
the end of the ligature to project from the external 
wound, which must be closed by sticking-plaster. 
In five or six days, if the threads are loose, with- 
draw them gently and carefully. 

Wounds of Joints. 
^ Bring the edges of the wound together by stick- 

ing-plaster, without any delay, keep the part per- 
fectly at rest, bleed, purge, and live very low, to 
prevent inflammation. Should it come on, it must 
be met at its first approach by bleeding or leech- 
ing to as great an extent as the condition of the 
patient will warrant. If a permanent stiffening 
of the joint seems likely to ensue, keep the limb 
in that position which will prove most useful, 
that is, the leg should be extended, and the arm 
bent at the elbow. Wounds of joints are always 
highly dangerous, and frequently terminate in 
death. 

Woxinds of Tendons. 
Tendons or sinews are frequently wounded and 
ruptured. They are to be treated precisely like 
any other wound, by keeping their divided parts 
together. The tendon which connects the great 
muscle forming the calf of the leg, with the heel, 
called the tendon of Achilles, is frequently cut 
■with the adze, or ruptured in jumping from 
heights. This accident is to be remedied by draw- 
ing up the heel, extending the foot, and placing a 
splint on the fore part of the leg, extending from 
the knee to beyond the toes, which being secured 
in that position by a bandage, keep the foot in the 
position just mentioned. The hollows under the 
splint must be filled up with tow or cotton. If the 
skin falls into the space between the ends of the 
tendon, apply a piece of sticking-plaster, so as to 
draw it out of the way. It takes five or six weeks 
to unite, but no weight should be laid on the limb 
for several months. 

Of Fractures. 
The signs by which fractures may be known 
having been already pointed out with suflBcient 
minuteness, it will be unnecessary to dwell there- 
on ; it will be well, however, to recollect this gen- 
eral rule : In cases where, from the accompany- 
ing circumstances and symptoms, a strong sus- 
picion exists that the bone is fractured, it is 
proper to act as though it were positively ascer- 
tained to be so. 

Fractures of the Bones of the Nose. 
The bones of the nose from their exposed situa- 
tion are frequently forced in. Any smooth arti- 
cle that will pass into the nostril should be imme- 
diately introduced with one hand, to raise the 
depressed portions to the proper level, while the 
other is employed in moulding them into the re- 
quired shape. If violent inflammation follow, 
bleed, purge, and live on a low diet. 

Fractures of the Loicer Jaw. 
This accident is easily discovered by looking 



into the mouth, and is to he remedied by keeping 

the lower jaw firmly pressed against the upper 
one by means of a bandage passed under the chin 
and over the head. If it is broken near the angle, 
or tliat part nearest the ear, place a cushion or roll 
of linen in the hollow behind it, over which the 
bandage must pass, so as to make it push that 
part of the bone forward. The parts are to be 
confined in this way for twenty days, during 
which time all the nourishment that is taken 
should be sucked between the teeth. If, in con- 
sequence of the blow, a tooth is loosened, do not 
meddle with it, for if let alone, it will grow fast 
again. 

Fractures of the Collar-Bone. 

This accident is a very common occurrence, 
and is known at once by passing the finger along 
it, and by the swelling, etc. To reduce it, seat 
the patient in a chair, without any shirt, and 
place a pretty stout compress of linen, made in 
the shape of a wedge, under his arm, the thick 
end of which should press against the arm-pit. 
His arm, bent to a right angle at the elbow, is 
now to be brought down to his side, and secured 
in that position by a long bandage, which passes 
over the arm of the affected side and round the 
body. The forearm is to be supported across the 
breast by a sling. It takes from four to five weeks 
to re-unite. 

Fractures of the Arm. 

Seat the patient on a chair, or the side of a bed. 
Let one assistant hold the sound arm, while an- 
other grasps the wrist of the broken one and 
steadily extends it in an opposite direction, bend- 
ing the forearm a little, to serve as a lever. You 
can now place the bones in their proper situation. 
Two splints of shingle or stout pasteboard, long 
enough to reach from below the shoulder to near 
the elbow, must be then well covered with tow or 
cotton, and laid along each side of the arm, and 
kept in that positinn by a bandage. The forearm 
is to be supported in a sling. Two small splints 
may, for better security, be laid between the first 
ones, that is, one on top and the other underneath 
the arm, to be secured by the bandage in the same 
way as the others. 

Fractures of the Bones of ihe Forearm. 
These are to be reduced precisely in the same 
way, excepting the mode of keeping the upper 
portion of it steadj', which is done by grasping 
the arm above the elbow. Apply two splints, one 
extending to the palm and one to the back of the 
hand, and over them a bandage. When the splints 
and bandage are applied, support it in a sling. 

Fractures of the Wrist. 

This accident is of rare occurrence. When it 
does happen the injury is often so great as to 
require amputation. If you think the hand can 
be saved, lay it on a splint well covered with tow; 
this extends beyond the fingers. Place another 
splint opposite to it, lined with the same soft ma- 
terial, and secure them by a bandage. The hand 
is to be carried in a sling. 

The bones of the hand are sometimes broken. 
When this is the case fill the palm with soft 
compresses or tow, and then lay a splint on it 
long enough to extend from the elbow to beyond 
the ends of the fingers, to be secured by a bandage, 
as usual. 

When a finger is broken, extend the end of it 
until it becomes straight, place the fractured por- 
tion in its place, and then apply two small paste- 
board splints, one below and the other above, 
to be secured by a narrow bandage or adhesive 
straps. The toj; splint should extend from the 



FRACTURES. 



U7 



•nd «f the finger over the back of the hand. It 
may sometimes be proper to have two additional 
aplints for the sides of the finger. 

Fractures of the Ribs, 

When, after a fall or blow, the patient com- 
plains of a pricking in hie side, we may suspect a 
rib is broken. It is a.scertained by placing the 
tips of two or three fingers on the spot where the 
pain is, and desiring the patient to cough, when 
the grating sensation will be felt. All that is 
necessary is to pass a broad bandage round the 
chest, so tight as to prevent the motion of the ribs 
in breathing, and to observe a low diet 
Fractures of the Thigh. 

This bone is frequently broken, and hitherto 
has been considered the most difficult of all frac- 
tures to uianage. To the ingenuity, however, of 
the late Dr. J. Hartshome, of this city, the world 
is indebted for an apparatus which does away 
the greatest impediments that have been found 
to e.'cist in treating it, so as to leave a straight 
limb, withiiut lameness or deformity. Nor is it 
the least of its merits, that any man of common 
sense can apply it nearlj' as well as a surgeon. 

It consists of twu splints made of half or three- 
quarter inch well-seasoned stufi", from eight to ten 
inches wide, one of which should reach from a 
little above the hip to fifteen or si.xteen inches 
beyond the foot, while the other extends the same 
length from the groin. The upper end of the inner 
Bplint is hollowed out and well padded or stuffed. 
Their lower ends are held together by a cross- 
piece, having two tenons, which enter two vertical 
mortices, one in each splint, and secured there by 
pins. In the centre of this cross-piece (which 
should be very solid) is a female screw. Imme- 
diately above the vertical mortices are two hori- 
Bontal ones of considerable length, in which slide 
the tenons of a second cross-piece, to the upper 
side of which is fastened a fout-block, shaped like 
the Sole of a shoe, while in the other is a round 
hole for the reception of the head of the male 
screw, which passes through the female one just 
noticed. On the top of this cross-piece, to which 
the foot-block is attached, are two pins, which fall 
into grooves at the head of the screw, thereby 
firmly connecting them. The foot-block, as be- 
fore observed, is shaped liks the sole of a shoe. 
Near the toe is a slit, through which passes a strap 
and buckle. Near the heel are a couple of straps, 
with two rings, arranged precisely like those of a 
skate, of which, in fact, the whole foot-block is an 
exact resemblance. A long male screw, of wood 
or other material, completes the apparatus. 

To apply it, put a slipper on the foot of the 
broken limb, and lay the apparatus over the leg. 
By turning the screw the foot-block will be forced 
up to the foot in the slipper, which is to be firmly 
strapped to it, as boys fasten their skates. By 
turning the screw the contrary way, the padded 
extremity of the inner splint presses against the 
groin, and the foot is gradually drawn down, until 
the broken limb becomes of its natural length 
and appearance, when any projection or little in- 
equality that may remain can be felt and reduced 
by a gentle pressure of the hand. 

The great advantages of this apparatu.?, I again 
repeat, are the ease with which it is applied, and 
the certainty with which it acts. The foot once 
secured to the block, in a way that every school- 
boy understands, nothing more is required than 
to turn the screw until the broken limb is found 
to be of the same length as the sound one. It is 
right to observe that this should not be effected 
at once, it being better to turn the screw a little 
every day, until the limb is sufficiently extended. 



As this apparatus may not always be at hand, 
it is proper to mention the next best plan of 
treating the accident. It is found in the splint; 
of Desault, improved by Dr. Physick, consisting 
of four pieces. The first has a crutch head, and 
extends from the arm-pit to six or eight inches 
beyond the foot. A little below the crutch are 
two holes, and near the lower end, on the inside, 
is a block, below which there is also a hole. The 
second reaches from the groin, the same length 
with the first, being about three inches wide above 
and two below. Two pieces of stout pasteboard, 
as many handkerchiefs or bands of muslin, with 
some tow or raw cotton, and a few pieces of tape, 
form the catalogue of the apparatus. 

It is applied as follows. Four or five pieces of 
tape are to be laid across the bed, at equal dis- 
tances from each other. Over the upper two is 
placed one of the short pasteboard splints, well 
covered with tow. The patient is now to be care- 
fully and gently placed on his back, so that bis 
thigh may rest on the splint. One of the hand- 
kerchiefs, or a strong soft band, is to be passed 
between the testicle and thigh of the affected side, 
and its ends held by an assistant standing near 
the head of the bed. The second handkerchief is 
to be passed round the ankle, crossed on the in- 
step, and tied under the sole of the foot. Instead 
of this, a number of long strips of adhesive plas- 
ter, two inciies wide, may be applied to the ankle 
and up the ^eg, and tied together below the foot. 
By steadily pulling these two handkerchiefs, the 
limb is to be extended, while, with the hand, the 
broken bones are replaced in their natural posi- 
tion. The long splint is now to be placed by the 
side of the patient, the crutch in the arm-pit 
(which is defended with tow), while the short one 
is laid along the inside of the thigh and leg. The 
ends of the first handkerchief, being passed 
through the upper holes, are to be drawn tight 
and secured by a knot, while the ends of the 
second one pass over the block before mentioned, 
to be fastened in like manner at the lower one. 
Ail that remains is the short pasteboard splint, 
which, being well covered with tow, is to be laid 
on the top of the thigh. The tapes being tied so 
as to keep the four splints together, completes the 
operation. 

Tow or raw cotton is to be everywhere inter- 
posed between the splints and the limb, and a 
large handful of it placed in the groin, to prevent 
irritation from the upper or counter extending 
band. It is necessary to be careful, while tying 
the two handkerchiefs, that they are not relaxed, 
so that if the operation is properly performed, the 
two limbs will be nearly of an equal length. 

The superior advantages of Hartshorne's appa- 
ratus over this, as well as all others, must be evi- 
dent to every one acquainted with the difficulty 
of keeping up that constant extension which is so 
absolutely necessary to avoid deformity and lame- 
ness, and which is so completely effected by the 
screw. Next to that, however, stands the one 
just described, which can be made by any car- 
penter in a few minutes, and which, if carefully 
applied, will be found to answer extremely well. 
While waiting for apparatus, the thigh may be 
kept extended by attaching a weight of a few 
pounds to the extending band below the foot, and 
suspending it beyond the foot of the bed. 

Fractured thighs and legs generally reunite in 
six or eight weeks ; in old men, however, they rep- 
quire three or four months. 

In cases of fracture of the thigh or leg, the pa- 
tient should always, if possible, be laid on a mat- 
tress, supported by boards instead of the sacking, 
which, from its elasticity and the yielding of 



148 



MEDICINE. 



the cords, is apt to derange the position of the 
limb. 

FracUirea of the Knee-pan. 

This nccident is easily ascertained on inspection. 
It may be broken in any direction, hut is most 
generally so across or transversely. It is reduced 
by bringing the fragments together, and keeping 
them in that position by a long bandage passed 
carefully round the leg, from the ankle to the 
knee, then pressing the upper fragment down so 
as to meet its fellow (the leg being extended), and 
placing a thick compress of linen above it, over 
which the bandage is to be continued. 

The e.xtended limb is now to be laid on a broad 
splint, extending from the buttock to the heel, 
thickly covered with tow to fill up the inequalities 
of the leg. For additional security, two strips of 
muslin may be nailed to the middle of the splint, 
and one on each side, and passed above the joint, 
the one below, the other above, so as to form a 
figure of eight. In twenty or thirty days the 
limb should be moved a little to prevent stiffness. 
But it usually requires two or three months for 
perfect union of this bone. 

If the fracture is through its length, bring the 
parts together, place a compress on each side, and 
keep them together with a bandage, leaving the 
limb extended and at rest. Any inflammation in 
this or other fracture is to be combated by bleed- 
ing, low diet, etc., etc. 

Fractures of the Leg. 

From the thinness of the parts covering the 
principal bone of the leg, it is easy to ascertain if 
it be broken obliquely. If, however, the fracture 
be directly across, no displacement will occur, but 
the pain, swelling, and the grating sensation will 
sufBciently decide the nature of the accident. 

If the fracture is oblique, let two assistants ex- 
tend the limb, while the broken parts are placed 
by the hand in their natural position. Two splints, 
that reach from a little above the knee to nine or 
ten inches below the foot, having near the upper 
end of each four holes, and a vertical mortice near 
the lower end, into which is fitted a cross-piece, 
are now to be apfilied as follows: — Lay two pieces 
of tape about a foot long on each side of the leg, 
JHst below the knee-joint, and secure them there 
by several turns of a bandage; pass a silk hand- 
kerchief round the ankle, cross it on the instep, 
and tie it under the sole of the foot. The two 
splints are now placed one on each side of the leg, 
the four ends of the pieces of tape passed through 
the four holes and firmly tied, and the cross-piece 
placed in the mortice. By tying the ends of the 
handkerchief to this cross-piece the business is 
finished. 

If the fracture is across, and no displacement 
exists, apply two splints of stout pasteboard, 
reaching from the heel to the knee, and well cov- 
ered with tow, one on each side of the leg, secur- 
ing them bj- a bandage passing round the limb, 
and outside the splints. Instead of splints, how- 
ever, a fracture-box is often used, made by fas- 
tening, with hinges, to a bottom-piece rather 
longer than the leg, two side-pieces about six 
inches high, and reaching above the knee. The 
leg may rest in this on a pillow. A footboard 
fastened to the bottom-piece may serve to fix the 
foot by the aid of a bandage. 

In cases of oblique fracture of the leg close to 
the knee, Hartshorne's apparatus for fractured 
thighs may be applied, as already directed. 

Fractures of the Bones of the Foot. 
The bone of the heel is sometimes, though 
arely, broken. It is known by a crack at the 



moment of the accidenfc,.^a diflScnlty in standing, 
by the swelling, and by the grating noise on 
moving the heel. To reduce, take a long bandage, 
lay the end of it on the top of the foot, carry it 
over the toes under the sole, and then by several 
turns secure it in that position. 

The foot being extended as much as possible, 
carry the bandage along the back of the leg above 
the knee, where it is to be secured by several 
turns, and then brought down on the front of the 
leg, to which it is secured by circular turns. In 
this way the broken pieces will be kept in contact, 
and in the course of a month or six weeks will be 
united. 

Fractures of the foot, toes, etc., are to be treated 
like those of the hand and fingers. 

Of Dislocations. 

The signs by which a dislocation may be knowr; 
have been already mentioned. It is well to recol- 
lect that the sooner the attempt is made to reduce 
it the easier it will be done. The strength of one 
man, properly applied, at the moment of the acci- 
dent, will often succeed in restoring the head of a 
bone to its place, which in a few days would have 
required the combined efforts of men and pulleys. 
If after several trials with the best apparatus that 
can be mustered, you find you cannot succeed, 
make the patient drink strong solution of tartar 
emetic until he is very sick. In this way, owing 
to the relaxed state of the muscles, a very slight 
force will often be suflScicnt, where a very great 
one has been previously used without effect. 

If any objections are made to this proceeding, 
or if the patient will not consent to it, having 
your apparatus (which is presently to be men- 
tioned) all ready, make him stand up, and bleed 
him in that position until he faints; the moment 
this happens, apply your extending and counter- 
extending forces. Another important rule is to 
vary the direction of the extending force. A 
slight pull in one way will often effect what has 
been in vain attempted by great force in another. 

Dislocation of the Loicer Jaw. 
This accident, which is occasioned by blows or 
yawning, is known by an inability to shut the 
mouth, and the projection of the chin. To reduce 
it, seat the patient in a chair, with his head sup- 
ported by the breast of an assistant, who stands 
behind him. Your thumbs being covered with 
leather, are then to be pushed between the jaws, 
as far back as possible, while with the fingers out- 
side you grasp the bone, which is to be pressed 
downwards at the same time that the chin is 
raised. If this is properly done, the bone will be 
found moving, when the chin is to be pushed 
backwards and the thumbs slipped between the 
jaws and the cheeks. If this is not done, they 
will be bitten by the sudden snap of the teeth as 
they come together. The jaws should be kept 
closed by a bandage for a few days, and the pa- 
tient live on soup. 

Dislocation of the Collar-hone. 

This bone is rarely dislocated. Should it occur, 
apply the bandages, etc., directed for a fracture of 
the same part. 

Dislocation of the Shoulder. 

Dislocations of the shoulder are the most com- 
mon of all the accidents of the kind. It is very 
easily known by the deformity of the joint, and 
the head of the bone being found in some unnatu- 
ral position. To reduce it, lay the patient on the 
ground, place your heel in his arm-pit, and steadily 
and forcibly extend the arm by grasping it at the 
wrist. The same thing may be tried in various 



DISLOCATIONS. 



149 



positions, as placing yourself on the ground with 
him, laving him on a low bed, while you are 
standing near the foot of it, etc. 

If this fails, pass a strong band over the shoul- 
der, curry it across the breast, give the ends to as- 
sistiints, ot fasten them to a staple in the wall : 
the middle of a strong band or folded towel is now 
to be laid on the arm above the elbow, and secured 
there by numerous turns of a bandage. The two 
ends of the towel being then given to assistants, 
or connected with a pulley, a steady, CDntinued, 
and forcible extension is to be matle for a few 
moments, wliile with your hands you endeavor to 
push the head of the bone into its place. 
Dislocation of the Elbow. 

If the patient has fallen on his hands, or holds 
his arm bent at the elbow, and every endeavor to 
straighten it gives him pain, it is aislocated back- 
wards. Seat him in a chair, let one person grasp 
the arm near the shoulder and another the wrist, 
and forcibly extend it, while you interlock the 
fingers of both hands just above the elbow, and 
pull it backwards, remembering that under those 
circumstances, whatever degree of force is re- 
quired, should be applied in this direction. The 
elbow is sometimes dislocated sideways or later- 
ally. To reduce it, make extension by pulling at 
the wrist, while some one secures the arm above, 
then push the bone into its place, either inwards 
or outwards, as may be required. After the re- 
duction of a dislocated elbow keep the joint at 
perfect rest for five or six days, and then move it 
gently. If inflammation comes on, bleed, purge, 
etc., etc. Dislocation of the elbow is often ac- 
companied by fracture, in which case it will not 
bear violence. 

Dislocation of the Wrist, Fingers, etc. 
Dislocations of the wrist, fingers and thumb are 
readily perceived on examination ; they are all 
to be reduced by forcibly extending the lower ex- 
tremity of the part, aiid pushing the bones into 
their place. If necessary, small bands may be se- 
cured to the fingers by a narrow bandage to facili- 
tate the extension. These accidents should be at- 
tended to without delay, for if neglected for a little 
time they become irremediable. 

Dislocation of the Thigh. 

Notwithstanding the hip-joint is the strongest 
one in the bodj', it is sometimes dislocated. As a 
careful examination of the part, comparing the 
length and appearance of the limb with its fellow, 
etc., suflieiently mark the nature of the accident, 
we will proceed to state the remedy. 

Place the patient on his back upon a table cov- 
ered with a blanket. Two sheets, folded like cra- 
vats, are then to be passed between the thigh and 
testicle of each side, and their ends (one half of 
each sheet passing obliquely over the belly to the 
opposite shoulder, while the other half passes un- 
der the hack in the same direction) given to sev- 
eral assistants, or what is much better, tied very 
firmly to a hook, staple, post, or some immovable 
body. A large, very strong napkin, f(dded as 
before, like a cravat, is now to be laid along the 
top of the thigh, so that its middle will be just 
above the knee, where it is to be well secured by 
many turns of a bandage. The two ends are then 
to be knotted. If you have no pulleys, a twisted 
sheet or rope may be passed through the loop 
formed by the napkin. If you can procure the 
former, however, cast the loop over the hook of 
the lower block and secure the upper one to the 
wall, directly opposite to the hooks or men that 
hold the sneets that pass between the thighs. A 
steadily increasing and forcible extension of the 



thigh is then to be made by the men who are sta- 
tioned at the pulleys or sheet while you are turn» 
ing and twisting the limb to assist in dislodging 
it from its unnatural situation. By these means, 
properly applied, the head of the bone will fre- 
quently slip into the socket with a loud noise. 

If, however, you are foiled, change the direction 
of the extending force, recollecting always that it 
is not by sudden or violent jerks that any benefit 
can be attained, but by a steady, increasing and 
long-continued pull. Should all your efl"orts prove 
unavailing (I would not advise you to lose much 
time before you resort to it), make the patient, as 
before directed, very sick or drunk, and when he 
cannot stand apply the pulleys. If this fails, or 
is objected to, bleed him till he faints, and then 
try it again. 

Dislocation of the Knee-pan. 

When this little bone is dislocated it is evident 
on the slighest glance. To reduce it, lay the pa- 
tient on his back, straighten the leg, lift it up to 
a right angle with his body, and in that position 
push the bone back to its place. The knee should 
be kept at rest for a few days. 

Dislocation of the Leg. 

As these accidents cannot happen without tear- 
ing and lacerating the soft parts, but little force 
is required to place the bones in their natural 
situation. If the parts are so much torn that 
the bone slips again out of place, apply Harts- 
horne"s or Desault's apparatus, as for a fractured 
thigh. 

Dislocation of the Foot. 

The foot is seldom dislocated. Should it hap- 
pen, however, let one person secure the leg and 
another draw the foot, while you push the bono 
in the contrary way to that in which it was forced 
out. The part is then to be covered with com- 
presses dipped in lead-water and a splint applied 
on each side of the leg that reaches below the foot- 
Accidents of this nature are always dangerous; 
all that can be done to remedy them consists in 
the speedy reduction of the bone, keeping the 
parts at rest and subduing the inflammation by 
bleeding, low diet, etc., etc. 

Of Componud Accidents. 

Having spoken of the treatment to be pursued 
for a bruise, wound, fracture, and dislocation, as 
happening singly, it remains to state what is to 
be done when they are united. 

We will suppose that a man has been violently 
thrown from a carriage. On examination, a wound 
is found in his thigh, bleeding profusely, his ankle 
is out of joint, with a wound communicating with 
its cavity, and the leg broken. 

In tbe first place stop the bleeding from the 
wound in the thigh, reduce the dislocation next, 
draw the edges of the wounds together with stick- 
ing plaster, and lastly, apply Idartshorne's or Des- 
ault's apparatus to remedy the fracture. 

If, instead of a wound, fracture, and dislocation, 
there is a concussion or compression of the brain, 
a dislocation and fracture, attend to the concussion 
first, the dislocation next, and the fracture the last 

Of Amputation. 
As accidents sometimes happen at sea, or in 
situations where it is impossible to obtain a sur- 
geon, and which require the immediate amputa- 
tion of a limb, it is proper to say a few words on 
that subject. To perform the operation is one 
thing, to know when it ought to be performed 13 
another. Any man of common dexterity and 
firmness can cut ofi" a leg, but to decide upon the 
necessity of doing so, requires much judgment, in- 



150 



MEDICINE. 



stances having occured where, under the most 
eeemingly desperate circumstances, the patient 
through fear or obstinacy has refused to submit to 
the knife, and yet afterwards recovered. 

Although in many cases much doubt may exist 
in determining whether it is proper to amputate or 
not, yet in others, all diflBculty vanishes, as when 
a ball has carried away an arm. Supposing for a 
moment while rolling in a heavy sea, during a gale, 
tbe lashings of a gun give way, by which a man 
hab his knee, leg, or ankle completely mashed, or 
that either of those parts is crushed by a fall from 
the topgallant yard, a falling tree, etc. The great 
laceration of blood vessels, nerves, and tendons, 
the crushing and splintering of the bones, almost 
necessarily resulting from such accidents, render 
immediate amputation an unavoidable and impe- 
rious duty. 

If there are none of the regular instruments at 
hand, you must provide the following, which are 
always to be had, and which answer extremely well 
— being careful to have the knives as sharp and 
emooth as possible. 

Instruments. — The handkerchief and stick, a 
carving or other large knife, with a straight blade, 
a penknife, a carpenter's tenon or mitre saw, a slip 
of leather or linen, three inches wide and eighteen 
or twenty long, slit up the middle to the half of its 
length, a dozen or more ligatures, each about a 
foot long, made of waxed thread, bobbin, or fine 
twine, a hook with a sharp point, a pair of slender 
pincers, several narrow strips of sticking-plaster, 
dry lint, a piece of linen, large enough to cover the 
end of the stump, spread with simple ointment or 
lard, a bandage three or four yards long, the width 
of your hand ; sponges and warm water. 

Amputation of the Arm. 

Operation. — Give the patient ninety drops of 
laudanum, or let him breathe ether from a large 
sponge till sound asleep, and seat him on a 
narrow and firm table or chest, of a convenient 
height, so that some one can support him, by 
clasping him round the body. If the handker- 
chief and stick have not been previously ap- 
plied, place it as high up on the arm as possi- 
ble (the stick being very short) and so that the 
knot may pass on the inner third of it. Your 
instruments having been placed regularly on a 
table or waiter, and within reach of your hand, 
■while someone supports the lower end of the arm, 
and at the same time draws down the skin, take 
the large knife and make one straight cut all round 
the limb, through the skin and fat only, then with 
the penknife separate as much of the skin from 
the flesh above the cut, and all round it, as will 
form a flap to cover the face of the stump ; when 
you think there is enough separated, turn it hack, 
where it must be held by an assistant, while with 
the large knife you make a second straight inci- 
sion round the arm and down to the bone, as close 
as you can to the doubled edge of the flap, but tak- 
ing great care not to cut it. The bone is now to 
be passed through the slit in the piece of linen be- 
fore mentioned, and pressed by its ends against the 
upper surface of the wound by the person who 
holds the flap, while you saw through the bone as 
near to it as you can. With the hooks or pincers, 
you then seize and tie up every vessel that bleeds, 
the largest first, and smaller ones next, until they 
are all secured. When this is done, relax the stick 
a little ; if an artery springs, tie it as before. The 
wound is now to be gently cleansed with a sponge 
and warm water, and the stick to be relaxed. If it 
is evident that the arteries are all tied, bring the flap 
over the end of the stump, draw its edges together 
with strips of sticking-plaster, leaving the ligature 



hanging out at the angles, lay the piece of linen 
spread with ointment over the straps, a pledget of 
lint over that, and secure the whole by the band- 
age, when the patient may be carried to bed, and 
the stump laid on a pillow. 

The handkerchief and stick are to be left loosely 
round the limb, so that if any bleeding happens to 
come on, it may be tightened in an instant by the 
person who watches by the patient, when the 
dressings must be taken off, the flap raised, and 
the vessel be sought for and tied up, after which, 
every thing must be placed as before. 

It may be well to observe that in sawing through 
the bone, along and free stroke should be used, to 
prevent any hitching, as an additional security 
against which, the teeth of the saw should be well 
sharpened and set wide. 

There is also another circumstance, which it is 
essential to be aware of: the ends of divided arte- 
ries cannot at times be got hold of, or being dis- 
eased their coats give way under the hook, so that 
they cannot be drawn out; sometimes also, they 
are found ossified or turned into bone. In all these 
cases, having armed a needle with a ligature, pass it 
through the flesh round the artery, so that when 
tied, there will be a portion of it included in the 
ligature along with the artery. AVhen the liga- 
ture has been made to encircle the artery, cut oflf 
the needle and tie it firmly in the ordinary way. 

The bandages, etc., should not be disturbed for 
five or six days, if the weather is cool ; if it is very 
warm, they may be removed in three. This is to 
be d(ine with the greatest care, soaking them well 
with warm water until thej' are quite soft, and can 
be taken away without sticking to the stump. A 
clean plaster, lint, and bandage are then to be ap- 
plied as before, to be removed every two days. At 
the expiration of ten or fifteen days the ligatures 
generally come away; and in three or four weeks, 
if every thing goes on well, the wound heals. 
Amputation of the Thigh. 
This is performed in precisely the same manner 
as that of the arm, care being used to prevent the 
edges of the flap from uniting until the surface of 
the stump has adhered to it. 

Amputation of the Leg. 
As there are two bones in the leg which have a 
thin muscle between, it is necessary to have an 
additional knife to those already mentioned, to 
divide it. It should have a long narrow blade, with 
a double-cutting edge, and a sharp point; a carv- 
ing or case knife may be ground down to answer 
the purpose, the blade being reduced to rather less 
than half an inch in width. The linen or leather 
strip should also have two slits in it instead of one. 
The patient is to be laid on his back, on a table co- 
vered with blankets or a matress, with a suflicient 
number of assistants to secure him. The handker- 
chief and stick being applied on the upper part of 
the thigh, one person holds the knee, and another 
the foot and leg as steadily as possible, while with 
the large knile the operator makes an oblique in- 
cisiim round the limb, through the skin, and be- 
ginning at five or six inches below the knee pan, 
and carrying it regularly round in such a manner 
that the cut will be lower down on the calf than 
in front of the leg. As much of the skin is then 
to be separated by the penknife as will cover the 
stump. When this is turned back, a second cut is 
to be made all round the limb and down to the 
bones, when, with the narrow-bladed knife just 
mentioned, the flesh between them is to be divided. 
The middle piece of the leather strip is now to be 
pulled through between the bones, the whole being 
held back by the assistant, who supports the flap 
while the bones are sawed, which should be so 



AMPUTATIONS. 



151 



mannged that the smaller one is completely cut 
through by the time the other is only half so. The 
arteries are then to be taken up, the flap brought 
down and secured by adhesive plasters, etc. as 
already directed. 

Amputation of the Forearm. 

As the forearm has two bones in it, the narrow 
liladod knife, and the strip of linen with three 
tnils, are to be provided. The incision should be 
Straight round the part, as in the arm, with this 
exception, complete it as directed for the preced- 
ing case. 

Aniputatiou of Fingers and Toes. 

Draw the skin back, and make an incision round 
the finger, a little below the joint it is intended 
to remove, turn back a little flap to cover the 
stump, then cut down to the joint, bending it so 
that you can cut through the ligaments that con- 
nect the two bones, the under one first, then that 
on the side. The head of the bone is tben to be 
turned out, while you cut through the remaining 
soft parts. If you see an artery spirt, tie it up, 
if not, bring down the flap and secure it by a strip 
of sticking-plaster, and a narrow bandage over 
the whole. 

lieiiiitikn. — To prevent the troublesome conse- 
quences of secondary bleeding, before the strips 
of plaster are applied over the edges of the flap, 
give the patient, if he is faint, a little wine and 
■water, and wait a few minutes to see whether the 
increased force it gives to the circulation, will 
occasion a flow of blood ; if it does secure the ves- 
sel it comes from. If there is a considerable flow 
of blood from the hollow of the bone, place a small 
cellar plug in it. Should violent spasms of the 
stump ensue, have it carefully held by assistants, 
and give the patient large doses of laudanum ; it 
may in fact be laid duwn as a general rule, that 
after every operation nf the kind, laudanum should 
be given in greater or less doses, as the patient 
may be in more or less pain. 

Of SilHpoiiiled Animation. 

From. Drowning. — The common methods of roll- 
ing the body of a drowned person on a barrel, or 
holding it up by the heels, etc., are full of danger, 
and should never be permitted. If a spark of life 
should happen to remain, tliis violence wnuld ex- 
tinguish it forever. As soon, therefore, as the 
body is found, convey it as gently as possible to 
the nearest house, strip it of the wet clothes, dry 
it well, and place it on a bed between warm 
blankets. First draw the tongue out for a few 
moments while the body is prone to open the 
wiudpi[ie. Every part is. now to be well rubbed 
with flannels dipped in warm brandy, or spirits of 
any kind, while a warming-pan, hot bricks, or 
bottles or bladders filled with warm water, are 
applied to the stomach, back, and soles of the feet. 
During these operations a certain number of the 
assistants (no more persons are to be allowed in 
the room than are absolutely necessary) should 
try to inflate the lungs by blowing through the 
nozzle of a common bellows, or a pipe of any kind, 
placed in one nostril, while the other with the 
mouth is kept closed. This should be done at 
intervals about si.\teen times a minute. Raising 
both arms forward and upward, over the head, at 
the same time and at the same intervals, will aid 
in e.vpanding the chest. If a warm bath can be 
procured, place the body in it. Clysters of warm 
brandy and water, salt and water, or peppermint- 
water may be injected. 

All these operations, particularly rubbing the 
body, and trying to inflate the lungs should be 
continued for six or eight hours, imd when the 
patient has come to himself, small quantities of 



warm wine, wine whey, brandy and water, etc., 
may be given to him from time to time. If, after 
he has recovered, a stupor or drowsiness remains 
(but not before) bleed him very moderately. 

Should the accident occur in winter, and the 
body feel cold, as if frozen, previously to apply- 
ing warmth, rub it well with snow, ice, or very 
cold water. Above all things remember that per- 
severance for many hours in the remedies pointed 
)ut, may give you the unspeakable pleasure of 
restoring a fellow creature to life. 

From Cold. — Take the body into a room, the 
doors and windows of which are open, and where 
there is no fire, and rub it with snow or cold water; 
if this can be procured in plenty, the patient, with 
the exception of his face, which should be left out, 
may be completely covered with it to the thick- 
ness of two feet. After a while, friction with flan- 
nels and hot spirits is to bo used, as in the pre- 
ceding case, and warmth very gradually applied. 
The lungs are to be inflated, as directed in cases 
of drowning, and when the patient is able to 
swallow, warm wine, etc., may be given in small 
quantities. 

If a limb is frost-bitten, the cold applications 
should be continued longer, and warmth be more 
gradually applied than when the whole body is 
frozen. Care should be taken to handle the parts 
carefully, so as not to break off the ear, tip of the 
nose, etc. 

From Hanging. — The remedies for this accident 
are the same as in drowning, with the addition of 
taking away a small quantity of blood, by cupping 
glasses, from the neck, or by opening the jugular 
vein. 

From Foul Air. — Throw open the doors and 
windows, or take the patient into the open air, 
and seat him, undressed, well wrapped in a blanket, 
in a chair, leaning a little to the right side, place 
his feet or whole body in a bath, and sprinkle his 
stomach with cold vinegar or water, and rub it im- 
mediately with flannels dipped in oil. Clysters 
of vinegar and water are to be injected, and when 
animation returns, continue the frictions, and give 
warm mint tea, etc. 

Of Swallowing Poisons. 

The first thing to be done when a person is dis- 
covered to have swallowed poison is to ascertain 
what it is he has taken, the next to be speedy in 
resorting to its appropriate remedies. If any one 
of these cannot be had, try some other without loss 
of time. An emetic is generally safe and proper. 
Acids. 

Oil of vitriol, aqua fortis, muriatic acid, oxalie 
acid. 

Symptom^. — A burning heat in the mouth, throat, 
and stomach, stinking breath, an inclination to 
vomit, or vomiting various matters mixed with 
blood, hiccups, costiveness, or stools more or less 
bloody, pain in the belly, so great that the weight 
of a sheet cannot be borne, burning thirst, diffi- 
culty of breathing, suppression of urine, etc. 

Remedies. — Mix an ounce of calcined magnesia 
with a pint of water and give a glassful every two 
minutes. If it is not at hand, use flaxseed tea, 
rice-water, or water alone, in large quantities, 
until the former can be procured. If it cannot bo 
obtained, dissolve an ounce of soap in a pint of 
water and take a glassful every two minutes; 
chalk or whiting may also be taken by the mouth, 
and clysters of milk be frequently injected. If 
the patient will not vomit, put him in the warm 
bath, bleed him freely and apply leeches and blis- 
ters over the parts pained. If the cramps and 
convulsions continue, give him a cup of common 
tea, with an ounce of sugar, forty drops of Iloffi- 



152 



MEDICINE. 



man's Anodyne, and fifteen or twenty of lauda- 
num, every quarter or half hour. No nourishment 
but sweetened rice-water is to be taken for several 
days. In these cases never give tart:ir emetic, 
ipecacuanha, or tickle the throat with a feather — 
they only ii.cicase the evil. For oxalic acid, some 
preparation of lime is the antidote. 
Alkalien. 

Caustic potash, caustic soda, volatile alkali. 

Si/niptoniD. — These substances occasion the same 
effects as acids. 

RemedieH. — Take two tablespoonsful of vinegar 
or lemon-juice in a glass of water at once ; follow 
it up by drinking large quantities of water. Pur- 
«ue the same treatment otherwise as in poisoning 
from acids. 

Mercury. 

Corrosive sublimate, red precipitate, vermilion. 

Symptoms. — Constriction and great pain in the 
throat, stomach and bowels, vomiting of various 
matters mixed with blood, unquenchable thirst, 
difficulty of urine, convulsions. 

Remedies. — Mix the whites of a dozen or fifteen 
eggs with two pints of cold water, and give a glass- 
ful every two minutes, with as much milk as can 
be swallowed, and large doses of ipecacuanha. If 
after the egg mixture is all taken the vomiting 
does not stop, repeat the dose, with the addition 
of more water. Leeches, the warm bath, blisters, 
etc., are to be used to reduce the pain and inflam- 
mation, as before directed. 

Arsenic. 

Symptoms. — These are the same as produced by 
the mercurial poisons. 

Remedies. — Give large quantities of warm water 
until a plentiful vomiting is induced, to assist 
which ipecacuanha may be taken in considerable 
doses at the same time. The antidote for arsenic 
is hydrated peroxide of iron. It may be prepared 
by adding spirits or water of ammonia to solution 
of persulphate of iron. The hydrated peroxide 
may be given freely after straining out the liquid 
in a bag. If it cannot be had, magnesia will be 
useful as a partial antidote. Barley, rice-water, 
flaxseed tea, milk, etc., should afterwards be em- 
ployed. Oil is never to be used in this case until 
the symptoms have considerably abated, or the 
poison haa been ejected. 

Copper. 

The symptoms occasioned by swallowing verdi- 
gris are nearly the same as those of the mercurial 
poisons. The great remedy is large quantities 
of the white of eggs. In addition to this use 
all the means recommended for corrosive subli- 
mate, etc. 

Autimony. 

Antimonial wine, tartar emetic, butter of anti- 
mony, etc. 

Symptoms. — Excessive vomiting, pain and cramp 
in the stomach, convulsions, etc. 

Remedies. — Encourage the vomiting by warm 
water, and if after awhile it does not stop, give 
a grain of opium in a glass of the sweetened wa- 
ter every fifteeu minutes. To relieve the pain, 
apply leeches to the stomach, throat, or parts af- 
fi.1 led. Infusion of galls may be given also quite 
freely. 

Salts 0/ Tin. 

Give as much milk as can be got down, and if 
it is not at hand use large quantities of cold wa- 
ter to induce vomiting. If the symptoms do not 
abate, pursue the plan directed for acids. 
Salts of Bismuth, Gold and Zinc. 

Pursue the plan recommended for copper. 



Lunar Caustic. 

Dissolve two tablespoonsful of common tab1« 
salt in two pints of water; a few glasses of this 
will induce vomiting. If not relieved, drink flax- 
seed tea, apply leeches, etc., as for acids. 
Saltpetre. 

Pursue the plan recommended for copper. 
Sal Ammoniac, 

Symptoms. — Vomiting: pain in the belly ; a stiff* 
ness of the whole body convulsions. 

Remedies. — Introduce your finger ir a feather 
into the throat to induce vomiting, and give plenty 
of sweetened water. To relieve the convulsions, 
give the tea, laudanum, etc., as for acids, or the 
laudanum alone, and to ease the pain in the belly 
apply leeches, etc. 

Phosphorus. 

The symptoms and remedies are the same as by 
poisons from acids, with the addition of olive oil* 
or lard oil by the tablespoonful. 

Spanish Flies. 

Syntpytoms. — Great pain in the stomach, with ob- 
stinate and painful erections, accompanied by a 
difiiculty or suppression of urine, or if any is passed 
it is bloody ; a horror of swallowing liquids; fright- 
ful convulsions. 

Remedies. — Make the patient swallow as much 
sweet oil as he can possibly get down. Milk and 
sugared water are also to be freely used. In ad- 
dition to the plan recommended for acids, solu- 
tions of gum arable or flaxseed tea are to be in- 
jected into the bladaer. If no vomiting is in- 
duced, put him in the warm bath, continue the 
sweetened water, and rub his thighs and legs with 
two ounces of warm oil, in which a quarter of an 
ounce of camphor has been dissolved. Eight or 
ten grains of camphor may be mixed with the 
yolk of an egg and taken internally. If there is 
acute pain in the bladder, apply leeches over it 
Powdered Glass. 

Stuff the patient with thick rice, bread, pota- 
toes, or any other vegetable; then give him five 
grains of tartar emetic to vomit him, after which 
use milk freely, clysters and fomentations to the 
belly, with the warm bath; leeches, etc., are not 
to be neglected. 

Lead. 

Sugar of lead, extract of Saturn, white lead, li- 
tharge, minium. 

Symptoms. — A sweet, astringent taste in the 
mouth; constriction of the throat; pain in the 
stomach ; bloody vomiting, etc. 

Remedies. — Dissolve ia handful of Epsom or 
Glauber salts in a pint of water, and give it at 
once; when it has vomited him use gum-water, 
If the symptoms continue, act as directed for 
acids. 

Opium, or Latidanum. 

Symptoms. — Stupor; an insurmountable incli* 
nation to sleep; delirium; convulsions, etc. 

Remedies. — Endeavor to excite vomiting by two 
grains of tartar emetic, or four grains of blue or 
thirty of white vitriol. Thrust a feather down the 
throat for the same purpose, or use the stumach 
pump. Never give vinegar or other acids until 
the poison is altogether or nearly evacuated. 
After this has taken place, give repeatedly a (^up 
of very strong coffee. The coffee, etc., are to be 
continued until the drowsiness is gone off, which, 
if it continues and resembles that of apoplexy, 
must be relieved by bleeding. The patient is to 
be forcibly kept in constant motion. Tiie gulvanio 
battery and artificial respiration are sometimes 
necessary. 



MEDICINE. 



163 



Toadslonls. 
Remedies. — Give the patient immediately two 
grains of t.irtar emetic, twenty-five or thirty of 
ipeciicuanha, and an ounce of salts, dissolved in a 
glass of water, one-third to be taken every fifteen 
minutes, until he vomits freely. Then purge with 
castor oil. If there is great pain in the belly, ap- 
ply leeches, blisters, etc. 

Tdborco, Hemlock, Nightshade, Spurred Rye, etc. 

Remedies. — An emetic as directed for opium. 
If the poison has been swallowed some time, purge 
wltl\ castor oil. Brandy or ammonia may be re- 
quired for stimulation in tobacco poisonmg. 
Poisonous Fish. 

Remedies. — An emetic. If it has been eaten 
some time, give castor oil by the mouth and clys- 
ter. After these have operated, twenty drops of 
ether may be taken on a lump of sugar. 

Foreign Bodies in the Throat. 

Persons are frequently in danger of sufibcation 
from fish-bones, pins, etc., which stick in the 
throat. The moment an accident of this kind oc- 
curs, desire the patient to be perfectly still, open 
his mouth, and look into it. If you can see the 
obstruction, endeavor to seize it with your finger 
and thumb, or a long slender pair of pincers. If 
it cannot be got up, or is not of a nature to do any 
injury in the stomach, push it down with the han- 
dle of a spoon, or a flexible round piece of whale- 
bone, the end of which is neatly covered with a 
roll of linen, or anything that may be at hand. 
If you can get it neither up nor down, place two 
grains of tartar emetic in the patient's mouth. 
As it dissolves, it will make him excessively sick, 
and in consequence of the relaxation, the bone, or 
whatever it may be, may descend into the stomach 
or be ejected from the mouth. 

If a pin, button, or other metallic or pointed 
body has been swallowed (or pushed into the stom- 
ach), make the patient eat plentifully of thick rice 
pudding, and afterwards give him a dose of castor 
oil, to carry it ofi" by the bowels. 

0/ Burns and Sc(dds. 

There are three kinds of remedies generally 
employed in accidents of this nature. Cooling 
applications, such as pounded ice, snow, cold 
water, lime-water and oil. Stimulants, as warm 
spirits of turpentine, and carded or raw cotton. 

Any one of these articles that happens to be 
nearest at hand may be tried, although the pref- 
erence is due to the lime-water and linseed or sweet 
oil, ecjual parts, applied on strips of soft linen or 
muslin, and laid over the parts burned, and cov- 
ered with oiled silk. Raw cotton may be used if 
the burn is extensive but not deep. Sprinkling 
wheat, rye, or starch flour is preferred by some; 
fresh lard by others, or glycerin. Equal parts of 
lime-water and linseed oil, well mixed, form one 
of the most soothing of all applications. Should 
the system seem to sink, wine, bark, stc. must be 
employed. 

0/ Mortification. 

From what has been already stated, it is evident 
that in treating wounds, etc., as well as diseases, 
one -rreat and important indication is to repress 
excessive inflammation, which, if allowed to pro- 
ceed to a certain point, sometimes produces mor- 
tification or death of the parts. 

If the fever and pain suddenly cease ; if the part 
which before was red, swollen and hard becomes 
purple and soft, abandon at once all reducing 
measures, lay a blister over the whole of the parts, 
and give wine, porter, bark, etc., freely and with- 
out delay. If the blisters do not put a stop to the 
disease, and the parts become dead and offensive, ' 



cover them with the charcoal or fermenting poul- 
tice until nature separates the dead parts from 
the living, during which process a generous diet, 
bark, etc., must be allowed. A wash of dilute 
solution of nitric acid, 50 drops to a pint, may bo 
poured over the parts daily; or a dressing of so- 
lution of bromine. 

There is a particular kind of mortification which 
comes of itself, or without any apparent cause. 
It attacks the small toes of old people, and com- 
mences in a small bluish or black spot, which 
spreads to different parts of the foot. To remedy 
it place a blister over the spot, and give two 
grains of opium night and morning, taking care 
to keep the bowels open by castor oil, and to di- 
minish the quantity of opium, if it occasions any 
unpleasant effects. 

In extensive mortifications of the forearm it is 
necessary to amputate. This, however, should 
never be done, until by the repeated application 
of stimulating poultices or washes to the sound 
parts adjoining the mortified ones, they are dis- 
posed to separate, which may be easily known by 
inspection. 

Directions for Bleeding. 

Tie up the arm, placing the bandage at least 
two inches above the projection of the elbow joint, 
and then feel for the pulse at the wrist. If it is 
stopped, the bandage is too tight, and must be 
relaxed. Select the most prominent vein, and 
feel with the tip of your finger if an artery lies 
near it. If you feel one pulsating so close to the 
vein that you are fearful of wounding it, choose 
another. Having set your lancet (I allude, of 
course, to the spring lancet, the cniy one that can 
be used wiih safety), bend the arm in the precise 
position it is to be kept in while the blood flows. 
The cutting edge of the lancet is now to be placed 
on the vein, while you depress the handle or 
frame just as much as you wish the cut to be 
deep. By touching the spring on the side with 
your thumb, the business is done. To stop the 
bleeding, rela.x the bandage, press the two edges 
of the wound together, place a little compress of 
linen on it, and bind up the whole with a bandage 
passing round the joint in a figure of eight. 

Directions for Passing the Catheter. 
Take the penis of the patient near its head be- 
tween the finger and thumb of your left hand 
(standing beside him), while with your right you 
introduce the point of the instrument into the uri- 
nary passage, its convex side towards his knees. 
While you push the catheter down the urethra, 
endeavor, at the same time to draw \ip the penis 
on it. When you first introduce it the handle will 
of course be lear the belly of the patient, and as 
it descends will be thrown further from it, until 
it enters the bladder, which will be known by the 
flow of the urine. If you cannot succeed while 
the patient is on his back, make him stand up, or 
place him with his shoulders and back on tht, 
ground, while his thighs and legs are held up by 
assistants. If still foiled, place him again on his 
back, and, when you have got the catheter as far 
down as it will go, introduce the forelinger, well 
oiled, into the fundament, and endeavor to push 
its point upwards, while you still press it forward 
with the other hand. Force is never, on any ac- 
count, to be used. Vary your position as often aa 
you please; let the patient try it himself; but al- 
ways remember it is by humoring the instrument^ 
and not by violence, that you can succeed. 

Directions for Passing Bongi-rs. 
Take the penis between your finger and thumb, 
and pass the point of the instrument (which should 



154 



MEDICINE. 



be well oiled) down the urethra, as directed for 
the catheter. When it has entered three or four 
inches, depress the penis a little, and, by humor- 
ing the buugie with one hiind and the penis with 
the other, endeavor to pass it as far as may be 
wished. The patient himself will frequently suc- 
ceed, when every one else fails. 

MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES. 
To diminish Inordinate Injiatniuation. 

Mix 1 dractim of Goulard's extrnct of lead, or 
solution of sugar of lead in water, with 4 ounces 
of rectified spirit, and 6 ounces of distilled water. 
Make a lotion, which is to be applied to those sur- 
faces where inflammation is very rapid. 

Another Method. — Dissolve 2 drachms of sul- 
phate of zinc (white vitriol) in a pint of distilled 
water. To be applied as above. 

JJiirsh-mallow Fomentation. 

Boil together for a quarter of an hour 1 ounce 
of d-'ed marsh-mallow root, with J an ounce of 
chamomile flowers, in a pint of water; strain 
through a cloth. The fomenting fl.Tnnels should 
be sprinkled with spirits just before they are ap- 
plied to the inflamed part. 

Fomentation of Poppies. 

Bruise 4 ounces of dried poppy heads, and then 
boil them in 6 pints of water, until a quart only 
remains after straining. This fomentation is to 
be applied to inflamed parts, where there is much 
pain, but which are required to suppurate. 
Refrigerant Lotion. 

Mix together equal parts of acetated water of 
ammonia and tincture of camphor, which apply to 
the inflamed joint or other part. 

Another. — Dissolve 1 ounce of muriate of am- 
monia in 4 ounces of common vinegar, and add 
10 ounces of water. To be applied with or with- 
out a cloth to inflamed surfaces. 

Another. — Mix together 2 ounces of rectified 
spirit, and 5 ounces of acetated water of ammonia. 
Sedative Lotion. 

Dissolve half a drachm of sugar of lead in 4 
ounces of distilled vinegar, and then add 1 ounce 
of common spirits with a pint of water. Linen 
cloths dipped in this lotion are to be applied to 
inflamed joints, etc. 

Cold and Sedative Cataplasm. 

Take of goulard water, IJ drachms; rectified 
spirits, 2 ounces; water, 1 pint. These are to be 
mixed with a sufiBcient quantity of the crumb of 
a new loaf to form a cataplasm. To be applied at 
Qight to inflamed parts. 

Another. — Mix with crumb of bread as above, 
one drachm of goulard water (or solution of sugar 
of lead) and a pint of common water that has 
been boiled. 

Cataplasm to hasten Suppuration. 

Make two quarts of finely-powdered bran, and 
one part of linseed meal, into a poultice,, with 
boiling water. A little oil should be spread over 
the surface just before it is applied. 

Another. — Take of crumb of bread and linseed 
meal equal parts; make them into a poultice with 
boUing mUk. 

Linseed Cataplasm. 

Stir linseed flour into boiling water in sufficient 
quantity to form a cataplasm of proper consistency, 
and before application smear the surface with a 
little olive or linseed oil. If irritation, with great 
pain and tension, or hardness should prevail, it 
will be necessary to substitute a decoction of poppy 
heads for the common water. This poultice is in 
general use in all the hospitals. 



Embrocation for Sprains. 

Shake in a phial until they become white Hka 
milk, 10 drachms of olive oil, with 2 drachms of 
spirits of hartshorn i water of ammonia) ; then add 
4 drachms of oil of turpentine. When properly 
mixed, they may be directly used as an embroca- 
tion tor sprains and bruises. 

Where weakness remains in consequence of a 
sprain, cold water ought to be pumped on the jiart 
every morning; and a long calico roller should be 
bound firmly (but not too tightly) round it imme- 
diately after. By these means strength will soon 
be restored. 

Another. — Digest fifteen ounces of white hard 
soap scraped with a knife, in four pints of spirits 
of wine, and one pint of water of ammonia, or 
hartshorn (liquor ammonia;), previously mixed in 
a large bottle. When dissolved, add five ounces 
of camphor. When this last is entirely dissolved 
the embrocation is fit for use. 

This excellent and powerful stimulant was 
selected from the Pharmacopoeia of the Middle- 
sex Hospital: for private use the above quantities 
of the ingredietits are to be reduced in prnpurtion 
to each other, according to the quantity likely to 
be used in a family. If one-third only is required, 
use five ounces of soap, one of camphor, sixteen 
ounces of spirit of wine, and four ounces of watef 
of ammonia. 

Application of Leeches. 

In the applying of leeches to the human body, 
success is rendered more certain by previously 
drying them, or allowing them to creep over a dry 
cloth. To attract them the part should be moist- 
ened with cream, sugar, or blood, and if this 
should be insufficient, the leech may be cooled by 
touching it with a cloth dipped in cold water. 
The escape of leeches from the part is to be pre- 
vented by covering them with a wineglass or 
tumbler. 

Cataplasm for Ulcers. 

Boil any quantity of fresh carrots until they 
are sufficiently soft to be beaten up into a smooth 
pulp. This cataplasm is equally beneficial in the 
cure of sloughing, as well as scorbutic ulcers. The 
latter are known by a brown color, the discharge 
being thin and corroding, whilst the fungous ex- 
crescences which shoot out, bleed on the slightest 
touch. The ulcer is surrounded by a livid ring, 
or areola, in which small spots are frequently ob- 
served. The former are known by their very 
dark and flabby surface, from several parts of 
which offensive matter exudes. They are attend- 
ed by prostration, and have a fetid discharge. 

Another. — Boil any quantity of the bottom 
leaves of the common meadow sorrel, until they 
are sufficiently soft, then beat them into a smooth 
pulp, which is to be applied as a cataplasm to 
ulcers of the above-mentioned nature. 

Another. — Poultices of the pulp of apples have 
been successfully employed on the continent for 
these ulcers. They are made by mixing two ounces 
of the pulp of boiled apples with the same weight 
of the crumb of bread. 

Lotion for Scorbutic Ulcers. 

Mix from one to two drachms of muriatic acid 
(spirit of salt) with a pint of water. This lotion 
is very useful in cleansing and stimulating the 
above-mentioned ulcers. 

Another. — Make a lotion by dissolving half an 
ounce of nitrate of potass (saltpetre) in half a pint 
of common vinegar j with which cleanse the ulcers 
in question. 

Lotion for Cancerous Ulcers. 
Mix together an ounce and a half of the tino> 



WHITLOW, WHITE SWELLING. 



155 



ture of muriate of iron, with seven ounces of dis- 
tilled water. Apply as a lotion. 

Contdiiiims Ulcer peculiar to Soldiers and Seamen. 

This ulcer generates a poison capable of con- 
verting other healthy ulcers into its own nature. 
It generally appears on the inner side of the leg, 
near the ankle. It exhales a putrid smell, whilst 
a thin acrimonious humor is discharged, which 
excoriates tlie neighboring parts; and fungons ex- 
cresceiiucs frequently shoot out. The limb be- 
comes much swelled and very painful, whilst the 
sore bleeds on the slightest touch. If not checked 
the most fatal consequences are to be ai)pr(ihended. 

Treatment. — The following remedies have been 
found most eflScacious, viz., the carrot and yeast 
poultice as mentioned before; a lotion of tincture 
of jnyrih, 1 ounce, with 7 ounces of decoction of 
bark, in equal parts; 1 scruple of sulphate of cop- 
per, or blue vitriol, in solution with distilled water, 
or with 8 ounces of lime-water; camphorated 
spiritof wine; camphorated vinegar ; the c<dd Siilt 
Water bath; and the application of ,he juice of 
limes. If the sores remain irritable and painful, 
the hemlock and poppy fomentations are to be 
used; accompanied with the internal administra- 
tion of Peruvian bark, and other tonic remedies. 

Ulcers and Sore Leys of Poor People. 

Pure lime-water is one of the best dressings for 
nlcers. 

The lotion made according to the following 
recipe, has been found very beneficial in cases of 
foul ulcers and sore legs of poor people. It has 
also succeeded (ajiplied warm) in curing a fistu- 
lous ulcer: Take of green vitriol, J ounce; alum, 
i ounce; verdigris, i drachm; crude sal ammo- 
niac, 2 scruples. 

After reducing them to powder, put them into 
a new glazed pipkin, holding about a quart. Set 
it upon a slow fire, and increase by degrees till 
the ingredients boil up to the top two or three 
times. Then take it from the lire and set it to 
cool. Break the pipkin to get the stone out. 
Stir them round all the time they are on the fire 
with a lath. The dust and the smoke should not 
come near the eyes, nose, or mouth Put a piece 
of the stone, the size of a walnut, to a quart bottle 
of soil water. To use, shake the bottle and wet a 
piece of fine linen four times doubled. Lay it 
upon a new burn or old ulcer. The linen s-hnuld 
always be kept wet with it. [For this receipt the 
late Kmperor of France gave 10,000 louis-d'ors, 
after it had been approved of in his hospitals.] 
Malt Poultice. 

Mix as much ground malt with half a pint of 
yeast as will make a cataplasm of moderate con- 
sistence. This poultice is gently stimulating, and 
very serviceable in destroying the fetid and dis- 
agreeable smell which arises from foul ulcers and 
gangrenous wounds. 

Another. — A similar poultice, and for the same 
purpose, is prepared by stirring into an infusion 
of malt as much oatmeal as may be required to 
make it of a proper thickness, and afterwards add- 
ing about a spoonful of yeast. 

Stronj Beer Poultice. 
Stir into half a pint of ale, or strong beer- 
grounds, as much oatmeal or linseed-meal as will 
make a cataplasm of proper thickness. This will 
prove an excellent stimulant and antiseptic for 
foul ulcers. It should be applied as warm as the 
parts will bear, and should be renewed every six 
hours. 

Yeast Poultice. 

Mix well together 1 pound of linseed-meal, and 
a pint of ale yeast. Expose this cataplasm to a 



gentle heat until a certain degree of ferm"ntatioii 
takes place. This poultice is excellent fjr stimu- 
lating and cleansing foul ulcers. 

Charcoal Poultice. 
To half a pound of the common oatmeal cata- 
plasm, add two ounces of fresh burnt charcoal 
finely pounded and sifted. Mix the \fhole well 
together, and apply it to foul 'doers and venereal 
sores ; the fetid smell and unhealthy appearance 
of which it speedily destroys. 

Treatment of Whitlow. 
This is a small tumor which appears under or 
around the finger nail; it is attended with redness 
and pain, and very quickly advances to suppura- 
tion. After the abscess is evacuated of the white 
matter contained in it, it very soon heals of itself. 
The loss of the nail, however, is snmetimos, through 
improper management, the consequence of the 
disease. 

In order to check the inflammation i j the first 
instance, and thereby at once stop tho i'sease, it 
will be proper frequently to apply tb * following 
lotion, that is, until the pain and heaf »re nbated : 
Dissolve one ounce of sal ammoniac iii two ounces 
of common vinegar ; adding one of n jtitied spirit, 
and twelve ounces of distilled water. 

Another Application. — It sometimes happens 
that the ulcer, which remains after the discharge 
of the matter, is very indolent and difiicult to 
heal. In such a case the following application 
will be of great service : Rub \ an ounce of cam- 
phor, in a mortar, with an ounce of olive oil. Now 
melt over a gentle fire 8 ounces of olive oil, 
with 4 ounces of yellow wax, and stir it in ^ 
an ounce of ;. solution of sugar of lead (liquor 
plumbi aceta'.is); when this mixture is cold, pour 
the campho- and oil in the mortar into it, taking 
care to stir the whole well until quite cold. If 
suppuration should ensue, marked by a white 
prominent spot, an opening should immediately 
be made, that the matter may escape. 

Whitlow at the extremity of the Finger. 
This kind of whitlow being more deeply seated 
than that of the nail, is more severe, and is at- 
tended by throbbing and acute pain. The matter, 
likewise, otten insinuates itself beneath the nail. 
To prevent suppuration it will be proper to keep 
the finger immersed for a long time in warm water, 
and to apply the lotion, recommended for the same 
purpose in common whitlow. If these fail in 
effecting a resolution of the tumor, an early and 
free incision should be made through the integu- 
ments, and carried to the bottom of the diseased 
part; after which the blood may be allowed to flow 
for some time: the opening is to be treated after- 
wards as a common wound, viz., by the applica- 
tion of adhesive plaster. 

Another Jiemedy. — Dr. Balfour, of Edinburgh, 
has found the application of pressure in incipient 
cases of whitlow to succeed in preventing the for- 
mation of matter, and speedily to cure the dis- 
ease. He applies compression with the hand in a 
degree which the patient can easily bear, with the 
view of preventing extensive suppuration, and 
then a narrow fillet. This operation, in severe 
cases, is repeated three or four times in the course 
of the day, when the pain and swelling disappear, 
leaving a single speck of pus at the point of the 
thumb immediately under the skin. If vent be 
given to this by the slightest touch of the lancet, 
the wound will heal up immediately. 

White Swelling, 
Dr. Kirkland recommends a volatile plaster for 
this disease, made after the following manner: 
Melt together in an iron ladle, or eartheru pipkin, 



156 



MEDICINE. 



two ounces of soap and half an ounce of litharge 
plaster. When nearly cold, stir in one drachm 
of sal aininoniac in fine powder: spread upon 
leather, and apply to the joint as above. 

If the above method fail, and ulceration take 
place, a surgeon should be applied to without 
delay. 

Ointment for Chnps and Eruptions of the Skin. 

Simmer ox marrow over the fire, and afterwards 
strain it through a piece of muslin into gallipots. 
When cold rub the part affected. 

Ringioorm. 
Mr. T. G. Graham, of Cheltenham, recommends 
the lime-water which has been used for purifying 
gas, as a very efficacious remedy in tiie above 
troublesome disease, ^he head is to be well 
cleaned, morning and evening, with soap and 
water, and atterwards washed with the lime-water 
from the gasworks. The above lime water is a 
very heterogeneous compound, so that it is impos- 
sible to say which of its ingredients is eflfectual. 
It contains lime, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, 
vohitile oil, and probably several other compounds 
of a more complex nature. 

Scald Head. 

Take of sulphur, 1 ounce; lard, 1 ounce; sal 
ammoniac, 2 drachms: Mix for an ointment, to 
be rubbed upon the part affected two or three 
times a day. 

Ointment for Scald Head, Ringworm, etc. 

The following ointment for scald head, ring- 
worm, and tetter, has uniformly succeeded in 
Bpeedily effecting a cure. 

Take of subacetaie of copper (in very fine 
powder), ^ a drachm ; prepared calomel, 1 
drachm ; fresh spermaceti ointment, 1 ounce. 
Mix well together. To be rubbed over the parts 
affected every night and morning. This ointment 
is also very efficacious in cases of foul and languid 
ulcers. 

Leprous Affections of the Skin. 

Dr. Hufeland praises the excellent effects of the 
oil of the walnut kernel in leprous and other cuta- 
neous complaints. It is one of the safest, simplest, 
and most efficacious external remedies that can be 
employed, as it mitigates the pains, ami that burn- 
ing sensation, sometimes almost insupportable, 
which accompany these obstinate diseases; it 
never seems to have any ill effect, if attention be 
given to the eruption suddenly disappearing, or 
diving, as it is said, by repulsion — a circumstance 
which frequently happens by the application of 
of metallic ointments, and which is often attended 
with much danger to the cimstitution; although 
it cures the cutaneous affection in a short time, it 
is not followed by any bad consequences, provided 
the eruption does not originate in any obstinate 
internal or general disease. In a child, which was 
almost covered with chronic and suppurating 
pimples, against which internal remedies, baths 
and mercurial ointments had been employed with- 
out producing a perfect cure, the oil of walnut 
kernel was used with complete success. It is like- 
wise an excellent remedy in small cutaneous erup- 
tions that are now and then observed in children. 
The oil ought to be fresh, expressed without heat, 
and applied to the affected places twice or thrice 
a day. 

Itch Ointment. 

Take of flowers of sulphur 1 ounce; essence of 
lemon 1 ounce ; hogs' lard 2 ounces. Make it into 
an ointment. Smear all the joints for three nights 
with this; wash it off in the morning with soap 
and water. Repeat the smearing three times at 



the interval of two days, and the most inveterate 
itch is certain to disappear. It will be well at the 
same time to take night and morning a tcaspoon- 
ful of an electuary of flowers of sulphur, mixed 
with honey or treacle. 

To remove Chilblains. 
Take an ounce of white copperas dissolved in a 
quart of water, and occasionally apply it to the 
affected parts. This will ultimately remove the 
most obstinate blains. This application must 
be used before they break, otherwise it will do 
injury. 

Another Method. 

Take a piece of fresh wood of the fir, made flat 
and smooth, and hold it to the fire until it becomes 
moderately warm, and all the turpentine begins 
to exude; then place the part affected upon this 
board and keep it there as long as it can well be 
borne, after which let the part be washed with 
warm water, wrapped up in flannel and kept free 
from cold. This application is improper if the 
chilblains be broken, but if applied before it has 
arrived at that stage, it has never failed in re- 
moving the complaint after two or three applica- 
tions. 

Another. — Crude sal ammoniac 1 ounce ; vine- 
gar i a pint; dissolve, and bathe the part, if not 
yet broken, two or three times a day. If sal am- 
moniac is not at hand, alum or common salt will 
do, but not so effectually. If the chilblains are 
of very longcontinuanceand obstinate, touch them 
with equal parts of liquid opodeldoc {linimeutnm 
sapoiiis) and tincture of Spanish flies, or rather 
less of the latter. If the chilblains break, poul- 
tice or dress them with basUicon, and add turpen- 
tine if necessary. 

Another. — The following ointment for this an- 
noying disease has been attended with the most 
beneficial effect : Take of citron ointment 1 ounce ; 
oil of turpentine 2 drachms; olive oil 4 drachms. 
Mix. To be well rubbed over the parts affected 
every night and morning. 

Another. — The following has also been found 
very beneficial in the cure of chilblains both in 
the incipient or inflammatory stage or when ad- 
vanced to ulceration. When in the former state, 
the part should be well rubbed over with it by 
means of a warm hand, and afterwards kept cov- 
ered with soft, thin leather. When ulcerated it 
should be applied on lint sufficiently large to cover 
the surrounding inflammation: Take of sperma- 
ceti ointment 6 drachms; prepared calomel 2 
scruples ; rectified oil of turpentine 1 drachm. 
Mix. Pure glycerin is a very good mild applica- 
tion for chilblains. 

Treatment of Corns. 
When small in size they are to be removed 
either by stimulants or escharotics, as the appli- 
cation of nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), merely 
by wetting the corn and touching it with a pencil 
of the caustic every evening. Previous to this 
the skin may be softened by immersion of the fee* 
in warm water. 

Another Mode. 

Rub together in a mortar 2 ounces of powder 
of savin leaves, i an ounce of verdigris and i an 
ounce of red precipitate. Put some of this powder 
in a linen rag and apply it to the cm at bed-time. 

Removal by Cutting, etc. 
If the corn has attained a large size, removal 
by cutting, or by ligature, will be propir; if it 
hangs by a small neck, the latter method is pre- 
ferable. It is done by tying a silk threa>l i »und 
the corn, and on its removal next day tying an- 



TREATMENT OF THE EYE. 



157 



other still tighter, and so on till completely re- \ 
moved. When the base is broad, a cautioiii dis 
section of the corn from the surrounding parts by 
means of a sh:irp knife or razor is necessary. 
This is done by paring gently until the whole is 
removed. In all cases of cutting corns the feet 
jught to be previously washed, as in case of 
making a wound in the toe great danger may re- 
sult from want of cleanliness in this respect. Mor- 
tification has in some instances been the effect of 
such neglect. 

Fi-fveiitt'oii, etc. — Corns should be secured from 
pressure by means of a thick adhesive pluiiter, in 
the centre of which a hole has been made for the 
reception of the projecting part. This, with fre- 
quent immersion in water and occasional paring, 
has often been found to remove them, and always 
prevents their enlargeuient. An effectual mode 
of extirpation is by the application of a small 
blister, the effect of which will be, generally, to 
raise them with the skin out of their bed. When 
rest from labor can be obtained, this is an excel- 
lent method. Dress the blister (which need not 
exceed the size of a silver dime) with hog's lard, 
or simple wax ointment. 

To remove Warts. 

Nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) cures those 
troublesome excrescences called warts in an ex- 
tremely simple and harmless manner. Caustic po- 
tassa is still more certain. 

The method of using it is to dip the end of the 
caustic in a little water and to rub it over the 
warts. After doing so a few times they will be 
gone. The muriate of ammonia (sal ammoniac) 
is likewise a very useful remedy. " Out of twenty 
years' practice," says a medical correspondent in 
the Mctnthly Magazine, "I never knew ihe above 
remedies to fail." 

Ward's Paste for the Piles. 

Pulverize finely in an iron mortar 1 ounce of 
black pepper, 1 ounce of elecampane root and 
three ounces of fennel seed, and mix them inti- 
mately together. Now melt together over a clear 
fire 2 ounces of sugar and 2 ounces of clarified 
honey, so as to form a clear syrup, which add to 
the mixed powder in the mortar, and heat ':he 
whole into a mass of uniform consistence. This 
medicine is to be taken when ihe irritation of piles 
runs so high as to threaten fistula. The dose is a 
piece of the size of a nutmeg, to be taken three 
times a day : this is to be washed down by a glass 
of cold water, or white wine. 

Extraneous Bodies in the Ear, 
These are to be extracted by means of a small 
forceps, or by syringing the ear with warm or 
tepid water. But should such means prove un- 
successful, they may be suffered to remain with- 
out danger, if they do not produce pain, as in a 
very short time they will be forced out by the ac- 
cumulating wax. Insects may bo killed lay filling 
the ear with oil and afterwards removed by syr- 
inging with warm water. 

To check Hxmorrhage consequent upon the Ex- 
traction of Teeth. 
A good surgeon recommends the following 
method for the treatment of the above frequent 
and sometimes serious accident : " Take a small, 
fine phial cork, of a size adapted to the socket 
whence the tooth has been extracted and the 
haemorrhage proceeds ; then with a small dos- 
sil of lint wet with tincture of chloride of iron, 
and put on the smallest end of the cork, push the 
cork into the bleeding orifice, pressing 't firmly 
in till it be, aa it were, wedged in the socket, and 



keep it there as long as may be necessary, desi- 
ring the patient to press against it with the teeth 
of the opposite jaw till the bleeding be stopped, 
which is almost instantly. This acts as a tour- 
niquet, and gives time to use whatever other 
means may be deemed requisite; but it is seldom 
that anything else is required." Solution of per- 
sulphate of iron, alum, and powder of tannin are 
also good styptics. 

Remedies for Diseases of the Teeth. 
If hollow or decayed, apply compound tincturo 
of benzoin, or some essential oil, on cotton, to 
the part; or pills with camphor ami opium; or 
chew the roots of pellitory of Spain. Some burn 
the nerve with sulphuric or nitric acid, or a hot 
iron. 

Collyria, or Eye-ioaters. [Seepage 125.] 
Take of extract of lead, 10 drops; rose-water, 
6 ounces. Mix, and wash the eyes night and 
morning. 

Another. — Take of extract of lead, 10 drops; 
spirit of camphor, 20 drops ; rose-water, i a pint. 
Mix. This eye-water is extremely u.seful in oph- 
thalmia, attended with much inflammation. 

Another. — Take of opium, 10 grains; camphor, 
6 grains; boiling water, 12 ounces. Rub the 
opium and camphor with the boiling water and 
strain. This collyrium abates the pain and irri- 
tation attendant on severe cases of inflammation 
of the eyes. 

Another. — Take of white vitriol, ^ drachm; 
spirits of camphor, 1 drachm ; warm water, 2 
ounces; rose-water, 4 ounces. Dissolve the vit- 
riol in the warm water, and add the spirit of cam- 
phor and rose-water. This is a useful collyrium 
in the chronic state of ophthalmia, or what is 
generally called weakness of the eyes after in- 
flammation. 

Another. — Dissolve 10 grains of soft extract of 
opium in 6 ounces of warm distilled water; strain 
through fine linen, and then add 2 ounces of liquor 
of acetate of ammonia, Where the pain is great, 
this collyrium will be productive of great relief. 

Another. — Make a lotion for the inflnmed eyes 
with 20 drops of tincture of camphor, 10 drops of 
solution of sugar of lead, 1 of Goulard's extract, 
and 7 ounces of distilled water. If the pain is 
very distressing, a drop of the vinous tincture of 
opium may be conveyed twice a day into the eye 
by means of a feather. This is an effectual means 
of obtaining relief. 

Another. — Mix together 1 ounce of the liquor 
of acetate of ammonia, and 7 ounces of distilled 
rose-water. 

Another. — When the eye is merely weak, fre- 
quent ablution with cold water, by means of an 
eye-cup of green glass, will be of great use. Still 
better is the application to the lids, very frequently, 
of lead-water, with a camel's hair pencil. At 
night a very cooling cataplasm, or poultice, may 
be made of crumb of bread soaked in a pint and a 
half of cold water, in which a drachm of alum has 
previously been dissolved. This is to be applied 
over the eyes in a handkerchief when going to bed. 

For Inflammation of the Eyelids. 
The following ointment has been found exceed- 
ingly beneficial in inflammation of the eyeball 
and edges of the eyelids, which has become 
very prevalent. Take of prepared calomel, 1 
scruple; spermaceti ointment, i an ounce. Mix 
them well together in a glass mortar; apply a 
small quantity to each corner of the eye, every 
night and morning, and also to the edges of the 
lids, if they are attccted. Another good ointment 
is composed of carbonate of lead, 2 drachms; sim- 



158 



MEDICINE. 



pie cerate, an ounce. If this should not eventu- 
ally remove the inflammation, the following lotion 
may be applied three or four times a day, by 
ineaas of an eye-cup. The bowels shoulr' be kept 
in a laxative state, by taking occasionallr J of an 
ounce ( f the Rochelle or Epsom salts. 

Lotion to be used at the same time. 
Take of aoetated zinc, 6 grains; rose-water 
(fresh), 6 ounces. Mi.x. Before the ointment is 
applied to the corners of the eyes, wash them with 
this lotion. These remedies have succeeded in 
almost every case of inflammation of the eyes to 
which they have been applied. 

Treatment of Styes. 

These are small abscesses seated in the edge of 
the eyelid, and produced by the obstruction of 
very minute glands. They are often attended with 
much heat and pain, and always with great incon- 
venience. The application of ice to the part will 
sometimes check them in the beginning. If they 
do not suppurate quickly, a small poultice of bread 
and milk is to be applied warm. When the mat- 
ter is formed, an opening should be made with 
the point of a lancet, or a needle, and a small por- 
tion of weak citrine ointment is afterwards to be 
applied. 

Infusion of Senna. 

Take of senna, 3 drachms; lesser cardamom 
seeds, husked and bruised, ^ drachm : boiling 
water, as uiuch as will yield a filtered infusion of 
6 ounces. Digest for an hour, and filter, when 
cold. 

This is a well contrived purgative infusion, the 
aromatic correcting the drastic effects of the sen- 
na. It is of advantage that it should be used fresh 
prepared, as it is apt to spoil very quickly. 

Electuary of Senna. 

Take of senna, 8 ounces; coriander seeds, 4 
ounces; liquorice. 4 ounces; figs, 1 pound; pulp 
of tamarinds, cassia fistula, and prunes, of each, -J 
pound ; double refined sugar, 2i pounds. Powder 
the senna with the coriander seeds, and sift out 
10 ounces of the mixed powder; boil the remainder 
with the figs and liquorice, in 4 pounds of water, 
to one-half; express, and strain the liquor, which 
is then to be evaporated to the weight of about 
1^ pounds; dissolve the sugar in it. add this 
syrup, by degrees, to the pulps; and, lastly, mix 
in the powder. 

This electuary is a very convenient laxative, 
and has long been in common use among prac- 
titioners. Taken to the size of a nutmeg, or more, 
as occasion may require, it is an excellent laxative 
for loosening the belly in costive habits. 

Compound Colocynth Pills. 

Take of pith of colocynth, cut small, 6 drachms ; 
hepatic aloes, IJ ounces; scaminony, i an ounce ; 
lesser cardamom seeds, husked and bruised, 1 
drachm ; Castile soap, softened with warm water, 
so as to have a gelatinous consistence, .3 drachms ; 
warm water, 1 pint. Digest the colocynth in the 
water, in a covered vessel, with a moderate heat, 
for 4 days. To the liquor, expressed and filtered, 
add the aloes and scammony, separately, reduced 
to powder ; then evaporate the mixture to a proper 
thickness for making pills, having added, towards 
the end of the evaporation, the soap-jelly and 
powdered seeds, and mix all the ingredients 
thoroughly together. 

These pills are much used as warm and stom- 
achic laxatives ; they are well suited for costive- 
ness, so often attendant on people of sedentary 
lives, and, upon the whole, are among the most 
useful articles in the materia medica. 



Aloetic Pilh. 

Take of socotrine aloes, powdered, 1 ounce ; er- 
tract of gentian, i ounce; oil of caraway seeds, 2 
scruples; syrup of ginger, as much as is sufficient 
Beat them together. The dose is from five to ten 
grains. 

Compound Aloetic Pills. 

Take of hepatic aloes, 1 ounce ; ginger root, in 
powder, 1 drachm ; soap, ^ an ounce ; essence of 
peppermint, ^ a drachm. Powder the aloes with 
the ginger, then add the soap and the oil, so as to 
form an intimate mixture. This is an excellent 
purge for costive habits, in the dose of from 5 to 
10 grains. 

Compound Rhubarb Pills. 

Take of rhubarb, in powder, 1 ounce ; socotrine 
aloes, 6 driichms; myrrh, 4 ounce; volatile oil of 
peppermint, i driichm. Make them into a mass, 
with a siifiicient quantity of syrup of orange peel. 
These pills are intended for moderately warming 
and strengthening the stomach, and gently open- 
ing the bowels. A scruple of the mass may be 
taken night and morning. 
Purgative Powder, formerly called Hiera Picra. 

Take of socotrine aloes, 1 pound ; white canella, 
3 ounces. Powder them separately, and then mix 
them. The spicy canella acts as a corrigent to 
the aloes ; but the compound is more adapted to 
be formed into pills than to be used in the state of 
powder. It is a convenient medicine for costive 
habits, not subject to the piles. Dose from 10 
grains to a scruple at bed-time. 

Mild Purgative Emulsion. 

Take of manna and oil of almonds, each 1 ounce; 
carbonate of potassa, 12 grains ; cinnamon and 
rose-water, each 3 ounces. Mix carefully the oil, 
potassa and manna together, gradunlly pouring 
the liquids to form an emulsion, of which take two 
tablespoonsful night and morning. 
Electuary for the Piles. 

Take of the electuary of senna, 1^ ounces; 
washed flowers of sulphur, 4 drachms ; syrup of 
roses, as much as is sufficient. Make into an elec- 
tuary, of which take the size of a nutmeg, going 
to bed, as may be required. This is an excellent 
remedy for persons who have the piles, or are sub- 
ject to their return. 

Castor Oil Clyster. 

Take of castor oil, 2 ounces; 1 egg; mix them 
well, and then add gruel, 8 ounces; which will 
operate very mildly, and is efficacious in case of 
worms. 

Purging Clyster. 

Take of manna, 1 ounce. Dissolve in 10 ounces 
by measure, of compound decoction of chamomile; 
then add of olive oil, 1 ounce; sulphate of mag- 
nesia, i ounce. Mix and let it be given directly. 



REMEDIES FOR COUGHS AND COLDS. 

Paregoric Elixir, or Camphorated Tincture of 

Opium. 

Take of hard purified opium, in powder, benzoio 
acid, each 1 drachm; camphor, 2 scruples; essen- 
tial oil of aniseed, 1 drachm ; proof spirit of wine, 
2 pints. Digest for ten days and strain. In this 
formula, the virtues of the opium and the camphor 
are combined. It derives an agreeable flavor 
from the acid of benzoin and essential oil. The 
latter will also render it more stimulating. It was 
originally prescribed under the title of elixir asth- 
maticum, which it does not ill deserve. It con- 
tributes to allay the tickling which pr -vokes fre- 
quent coughing, and at the same time, it soothes 
the breast, and gives greater Hborty of breathing. 



COUGHS AND COLDS. 



159 



It is piven to children against the chincough, etc. 
in doses of from 5 drops to 20 ; to adults, from 20 
to 100. Half an ounce, by measure, contains 
about a grain of opium. 

Expectorant Pills. 

Take of dried r«ot of squills, in fine powder, 1 
scruple; gum ammoniac, lesser cardamom seeds, 
in powder, extract of liquorice, each 1 drachin. 
Form them into a mass witli simple syrup. This 
is an elegant and commodious form for the exhi- 
bition of squills, whether for proimiting expector- 
ation, or for the other purposes to which that 
medicine is applied. The dose is from 10 grains 
to 1 scruple, three times a day. 

Napoleon's Pectoral Pills, 

The following recipe was copied from one in the 
possession of the late Emperor of France, and was 
a very favorite remedy with Napoleon for diffi- 
culty of breathing, or oppression of the chest, 
arising from a collection of mucus in the air cells 
and vessels of the lungs, and in the gullet. Con- 
siderable benefit has been derived from it in 
many similar cases. Take of ipecacuanha root, in 
powder, 30 grains; squill root, in powder, gum 
ammoniac, in powder, each 2 scruples ; mucilage 
of gum arabic, sufficient to form a mass. To be 
divided into 24 pills; two to be taken every night 
and morning. 

Dr. Ratcliff's Cough Mixture. 

Mix together 4 drachms of syrup of squills; 4 
drachms of elixir of paregoric : 4 drachms of syrup 
of poppies. Of this take a teaspoonful in a little 
tea or warm water, as occasion requires. 

Dr. Munro'a Cough Medicine. 

Take 4 drachms of paregoric elixir; 2 drachms 
of sulphuric ether ; 2 drachms of tincture of tola. 
Mix, and take a teaspoonful night and morning, 
or when the cough is troublesome, in a little milk- 
warm water. 

Simple Remedy for Coughs. 

Take of boiling water, half a pint; black cur- 
rant jelly, a desertspoonful ; sweet spirits of nitre, 
a teaspoonful. Mix the jelly in the water first, 
till it is quite dissolved, and add the nitre last. 
Take a desertspoonful of the n)ixture at night, 
going to bed, or when the cough is troublesome. 
The mixture should be made and kept in a tea- 
pot, or other covered vessel. 

Remedy for Chronic Cough, 

The following is very serviceable in common 
obstinate coughs, unattended with fever. Take of 
tincture of tola, 3 drachms; elixir of paregoric, i 
an ounce; tincture of squills, 1 drachm. Two 
teaspoonsful to be taken in a tumbler of barley- 
water going to bed, and when the cough is trou- 
blesome. 

For Coughs in Aged Persons. 

In the coughs of aged persons, or in cases where 
there are large accumulations of purulent or viscid 
matter, with feeble expectoration, the following 
mixture will be found highly beneficial : Pour 
gradually 2 drachms of nitric acid, diluted in half 
a pint of water, on 2 drachms of gum ammoniac, 
and triturate them in a glass mortar, until the 
gum is dissolved. A tablespoonful to be taken, 
in sweetened water, every two or three hours. 
Cough Emulsion. 

Take of oil of almonds, 6 drachms; milk of al- 
monds, 5 ounces; rose water, gum arabic, and 
purified sugar, equal parts, 2 drachms. Let these 
he well rubbed together, and take two tablespoons- 
ful four times a day, and a teaspoonful upon 
coughing. This is far preferable to the common 



white emulsions formed by an alkali, which, unit- 
ing with the oil, produces a kind of soap, and 
readily mingling with the water, forms the white 
appearance observed, and is commonlj disgusting 
to patients, and unpleasant to the stomach; 
whereas this suits every palate, and removes that 
tickling in the throat so very distressing to 
patients. 

Emulsionfor a Cold, etc. 

Take of milk of almonds, 1 ounce; syrup of 
tolu, 2 drachms; rose-water, 2 dr.ichms ; tincture 
of squills, 16 drops. Make into a draught. Four 
to be taken during the day. This is an admirable 
remedy in colds, and also in chronic cough, as well 
as in asthma. 

Gurgle for Thrush. 

Thrush or aphthaa in the mouth, will be greatly 
benefited by the frequent use of the following 
gargle: Mix together 20 drops of muriatic acid 
(spirits of salts) ; 1 ounce of honey of roseg; and 4 
ounces of decoction of barley. 

Another. — Make a gargle of 2 drachms of borax; 
1 ounce of honey of roses, and 7 ounces of rose- 
water. To be used three or four times a day. 

Gargle for Sore Throat. 
Take of decoction of bark, 7 ounces ; tincture 
of myrrh, 2 drachms; purified nitre, 3 drachms. 
Make into a gargle. This is a sovereign method 
to disperse a tumefied gland, or common sore 
throat. By taking upon such occasions a small 
lump of purified nitre, putting it into the muuth, 
and letting it dissolve there, then removing it, 
and a[)plying it again in a few seconds, and swal- 
lowing the saliva, I have, says Dr. Thornton, for 
many years prevented a sore throat from forming. 

For Putrid Sore Throat. 
Take of decoction of bark, 6 ounces; diluted 
muriatic acid, 1 drachm; honey of roses, 1 ounce. 
Make into a gargle. To be used, mixed with port 
wine, frequently during the day. 

For Inflammatory Sore Throat. 

Take of nitre, 2 drachms; honey, 4 drachms; 
rose-water, 6 ounces. Mix. To be used fre- 
quently. 

Another. — Dissolve 2 teaspoonsful of alum in 1 
pint of sage tea. 

Another, — Take of muriatic acid, 20 drops; 
glycerin, 1 ounce ; water, 3 ounces. Mix. 

For Ulcerated Sore Throat. 
The chlorate of potassa, in cases of putrid ulcer- 
ated sore throat, has been used with the most 
decisive success. Its internal exhibition more ef- 
fectually allays thirst and abates fever than any 
other medicine; and, when applied as a gargle to 
inflamed or ulcerated sore throats, it has been 
found to disperse the inflammation and to deterge 
the ulcers more effectually than the infusion of 
rose-leaves with the sulphuric acid, the gargle 
generally resorted to in those cases. The chlorate 
of potassa may be given in the dose of from 20 to 
30 grains in a half glass of water, three or four 
times a day. For the purpose of gargling the 
throat, 4 drachms of the chlorate may be added 
to half a pint of water. 



MEDICINE FOR WORMS. 
The Male Fern. 
The root of male fern has long been esteemed a 
powerful remedy for worms; and its powder has 
been sold under a fictitious name as an infallible 
specific for the broad or tape-worm. Sometimes 
it has been ordered to be taken without anj' mix- 
ture; at other times gamboge, scammony mer- 



160 



MEDICINE. 



cury, and other purgative medicines have been 
ordered to be tiiken with it. 

In the year 1755 the liing of France purchased, 
for a large sum of money, the recipe of a medi- 
cine which was said to be an effectual cure for tlie 
tape-worm, from the widow of a surgeon in Swit- 
zerhind, whose husband used to administer it. 
On discovery it proved to be fern-root reduced to 
powder, which is to be tnken in the following 
manner: The day before the patient is to begin 
to take the fern he is to take a dose of some open- 
ing medicine, and after its operation to make a 
very light supper. Next morning he is to take '6 
drachms of the powder of the fern-root, in a cup 
of lime-fldwer water, and after it a little orange- 
peel, or some other grateful aromatic, and, if he 
vomits it up, to take soon after another full dose 
of the powder of the fern-root. Two hours after 
this is swallowed the following purging powders are 
to be taken, viz., 12 grains of resin of scammony, 
mixed with as much of the panacea mercurialis 
(calomel digested in spirit of wine), and 5 grains 
of gamboge, in powder; the dose being made 
stronger or weaker, according to the strength of 
the patient. Soon after taking this dose, the pa- 
tient is to drink tea, and as soon as the physic 
begins to operate, if he perceives that the tasnia 
is coming away, he is to remain on the close-stool 
till it has entirely passed. If the purgative should 
prove too weak, the patient is to take a dose of 
Epsom salts, and to drink freely of broth. If the 
first dose of the fern powder and of the purging 
medicine has not the desired effect, the powder 
and purge are to be repeated next day; and if at 
any time the taenia is observed to be coining away, 
the greatest care must be taken not to break it. 

Worm-seed. 

Worm-seed is one of the oldest and most com- 
mon anthelmintics, especially in the lumbrici of 
children. On account of its essential oil, it 
is heating and stimulating. It is given to chil- 
dren to the extent of ten grains or half a drachm, 
finely powdered, and strewed on bread and butter; 
or made into an electuary with honey or treacle; 
or candied with sugar; or diffused through milk, 
and taken in the morning when the stomach is 
empty. After it has been used for some days, 
it is customary to give a cathartic; or it is com- 
bined from the beginning with rhubarb, jalap, or 
calomel. 

To destroy Aacarides. 

Tiike of socotrine aloes, 2 drachms ; new milk, 
8 ounces. Rub them together for a clyster. This 
is useful to destroy the ascarides, or little seat- 
worm. Still more effectual are suppositories con- 
taining each 3 grains of santorin, in a sufficient 
amount of cacao butter. 

Powder of Tin. 

In a teaspoonful of honey, or currant jelly, mix 
a drachm of powder of tin, and take it twice a day 
for six successive mornings and evenings, making 
altogether 12 drachms, or IJ ounces of the tin. A 
little rhubarb, or any mild aperient medicine, may 
be taken each alternate night of the six. This is 
the quantity for an adult person, but would not 
prove too much for a child, we apprehend, as the 
tin does not act upon the bowels, but upon the 
worm itself. 

Oil of Turpentine. 

Dr. Gibney, of Cheltenham, observes that the 
oil of turpentine is almost a specific in every spe- 
cies of worms, and its failure, in the practice of 
many physicians, he attributes to the improper 
exhibition of it. When the dose is not sufficiently 
large, it affects the kidneys and skin, and produces 



no effect on the worm or intestinal canal. He pre- 
scribes 1 or 2 drachms, at intervals, for children 
of three years of age, and 6 drachms for older chil- 
dren, and more for adults. He directs it to be 
taken when the stomach is most empty, and en- 
joins strict abstinence during its use. Bei^in with 
a good dose early in the morning, and repeat it 
every hour for three or four hours, as circum- 
stances may indicate. Combine with it mucilage 
of gum arable, simple cinnamon water, and syrup. 
And, in case it shuuld not operate on the bowels 
as an aperient, take a dose of castor oil. This 
treatment is renewed about every four or five 
days, for some time after the evacuation <it 
worms, or until the fajces become healthy. 
Essence of Bergamot. 
An Italian physician, of great eminence, hag 
found the "essentia de cedra" (essence of berga- 
mot), in the dose of one or two drachms, mixed 
with honey, more efficacious in destroying the 
tape, and also the long round worm, than the oil 
of turpentine or naphtha. 

For Tnj)e-worm in Children. 
Beat up 5J drachms of rectified oil of turpen- 
tine with the yolk of an egg and some sugar and 
water, or common syrup. Give this to a child 
having tape-worms. Two doses are sure of ex- 
pelling them. Pumpkin seeds, made into an elec- 
tuary with honey or molasses, and taken rather 
copiously on an empty stomach, will generally kill 
and remove tape-worm. 

For the Long, Round Worm. 
Take of pink-root and senna each ^ an ounce, 
and infuse two hours in hot water. Take one or 
two glasses each morning on an empty stomach. 



MEDICINES FOR INDIGESTION. 
Gentian Wine. 
Take gentian root and dried lemon-peel, fresh, 
of each 1 ounce, 2 drachms of long pepper and 2 
pints of light wine; infuse without heat for a 
week and strain out the wine for use. In com- 
plaints of the stomach arising from weakness or 
indigestion, a glass of this wine may be taken an 
hour before dinner and supper. 

Chalybeate Wine. 

Take 2 ounces of filings of iron, cinnamon and 
mace, each 2 drachms, and 2 pints of Rhenish 
wine. Infuse for three or four weeks, frequently 
shaking the bottle; then pass the wine through a 
filter. This wine is a remedy for obstruction of 
the menses. The dose is half a wine glass taken 
twice or thrice a day. Lisbon wine, if sharp- 
ened with half an ounce of cream of tartar, is also 
beneficial. 

Potcer/id Tonic. 

Take of decoction of bark 6 ounces; compound 
tincture of bark 1 ounce; bark in powder 1 
drachm; calcined magnesia 1 drachm. Forma 
mixture. Two tablespoonsful are to be given three 
times a day. 

For Debility of the Stomach. 

Take of chamomile flowers, lemrn-pcel, orange- 
peel, each 4 drachms; boiling wat»r 1 pint. Let 
them remain for four hours, and strain. To the 
strained liquor add syrup of ginger 6 drachms. 
The dose is a wineglassful in the morning early 
and repeat an hour before dinner for habits debili- 
tated by drinking or natural weakness of the 
stomach. 

Stomachic Aperient Pills. 

The pills made according to the following re- 
cipe have been long prescribed as a dinner pill 
with success : Take of rhubarb-root powdered IJ 



INDIGESTION, 



161 



drachms ; Turkey myrrh 1 drachm ; soeotrine 
aloes i a drachm; extract of chamomile flowers 
2i drachms ; essential oil of chamumile flowers 
16 drops. Mix well together, and divide into 80 
pills. Two or three to be taken about an hour 
before dii-ner. 

Tonic Draught iu cases of General Debility. 

Take of the decoction of bark 12 drachms; 
tincture of bark 1 drachm; syrup of Tolu i 
drachm; aromatic sulphuric acid 8 drops. Make 
into a draught, to be taken three times a day. 
Ahernethy's Prescription for Indigestion. 

Take of calomel (or proto-chloride of mercury), 
precipitated sulphuret of antimony, each 1 scru- 
ple; powder of gum guaiacum 2 scruples ; Span- 
ish soap as much as will be sufficient to form into 
twenty pills, which are to be taken night and 
morning. 

For Indigestion and Costiveness, 

The following remedies for indigestion, attended 
with heartburn and costiveness, were prescribed 
by Dr. Gregory, of Edinburgh : Take of carbonate 
of potassa 4 drachms; simple cinnamon-water, 
pure water, each 6 ounces ; compound tincture of 
gentian | of an ounce. Mix. Three large spoons- 
ful are to be taken twice a day. 

Accompanying Purgative. 

Take of compound pill of aloes, with colocynth, 
2 drachms. To be divided into 24 pills, two to be 
taken twice a week. 

liemedy for Flatulency. 

Take of bay-berries 6 drachms; grains of para- 
dise 2 scruples ; soeotrine aloes and filings of iron 
each 2 scruples ; oil of turpentine 2 drachms ; 
simple syrup sufficient to form an electuary. 
Dr. Reese's Remedy for Flatulence and Cramp in 
the Stomach. 

Take of carbonate of soda 1 drachm ; compound 
tincture of rhatany 1 ounce; compound tincture 
of ginger and chamomile 3 drachms ; camphor- 
ated julep 7 ounces. Mix. Three tablespoonsful 
are to be taken twice a day. 

Night-mare. 

Great attention is to be paid to regularity and 
choice of diet. Intemperance of every kind is 
hurtful, but nothing is more productive of this 
disease than drinking bad wine. Of eatables those 
which are most prejudicial are all fat and greasy 
meats and pastry. These ought to be avoided, or 
eaten with caution. The same may be said of salt 
meats, for which dyspeptic patients have fre- 
quently a remarkable predilection, but which are 
not on that account the less unsuitable. 

Moderate exercise contributes in a superior de- 
gree to promote the digestion of food and prevent 
flatulence; those, however, who are necessarily 
confined to a sedentary occupation, should par- 
ticularly avoid applying themselves to study or 
bodily labor immediately after eating. If a strong 
propensity to sleep should occur after dinner, it 
will be certainly better to indulge it a little, as 
the process of digestion frequently goes on much 
better during sleep than when awake. 

Going to bed before the usual hour is a frequent 
eause of night-mare, as it either occasions the pa- 
tient to sleep too long or to lie long awake in the 
night. Passing a whole night or part of a night 
without rest likewise gives birth to the disease, as 
It occasions the patient, on the succeeding night, 
to sleep too soundly. Indulging in sleep too late 
in the morning, is an almost certain method to 
bring on the paroxysm, and the more frequently 
It returns, the greater strength it acquires; the 
11 



propensity to sleep at this time is almost irresisti- 
ble. Those who are habitually subject to attacks 
of the night-mare ought never to sleep alone, 
but should have some person near them, so as to be 
immediately awakened by their groans and strug- 
gles, and the person to whom this oflicc may be 
entrusted should be instructed to rouse the patient 
as early as possible, that the paroxysm may not 
have time to gain strength. 

Digestive Pills, 

Take of soft extract of quassia, 1 drachm ; es- 
sential oil of peppermint, 1 drop. Make into 12 
pills, of which take 3 an hour before dinner. 
These pills are excellent to create digestion in 
habits injured by hard drinking. 

To improve Digestion. 

Eat a small crust of bread every morning, fast- 
ing, about an hour before breakfast. 
To restore the Appetite. 

Take of shavings of quassia, 2 drachms ; boil- 
ing water, 1 pint. Let this remain in a close ves- 
sel until cold, then strain off, and add to the 
strained liquor, compound tincture of cardamoms, 

2 ounces; spirit of lavender, 4 drachms; powder 
of rhubarb, 1 scruple. Take three tablespoonfuls 
an hour before dinner to create an appetite. 

Aloetic and Assafoetida Pills. 

Take of soeotrine aloes, in powder, assafoetida, 
soap, equal parts. Form them into a mass with 
mucilage of gum arable. These pills, in doses of 
about 10 grains twice a day, produce the most sal- 
utary effects in cases of dyspepsia, attended with 
hysteria, flatulence, and costiveness. 
For Heartburn. 

This complaint is an uneasy sensation in the 
stomach, with anxiety, a heat more or less vio- 
lent, and sometimes attended with oppression, 
faintness, an inclination to vomit, or a plentiful 
discharge of clear lymph, like saliva. 

This pain may arise from various causes : such 
as wind, sharp humors, and worms gnawing the 
coats of the stomach ; also from acrid and pun- 
gent food; likewise from rheumatic and gouty hu- 
mors, or surfeits, and from too free a use of tea. 

The diet should be of a light animal kind; the 
drink brandy and water, toast and water, Bristol 
water; no vegetables should be allowed; very lit- 
tle bread, and that well toasted. 

If heartburn has arisen from acidity in the sto- 
mach, it will be necessary to take two tablespoon- 
fuls of the following mixture three times a day : — 

3 drachms of magnesia, 1 scruple of rhubarb, in 
powder; 1 ounce of cinnamon water, i a drachm 
of spirits of lavender, and 4 ounces of distilled 
water. 

For Heartburn, attended by Pain and Flatulence. 

Mix together 12 grains of prepared chalk, ^ an 
ounce of peppermint water, 1 ounce of pure water, 
2 drachms of spirits of pimento, and 12 drops of 
tincture of opium. This draught is to be taken 
three times a day. 

Another. — Mix together 10 grains of bicarbon- 
ate of soda, 1 fluidrachm of compound tincture 
of cardamom, 20 drops of paregoric, and a table- 
spoonful of water. Take this occasionally. 
For Heartburn, attended by Costiveness. 

In this case, gentle laxatives, combined with car- 
minatives, are to be administered, until the cause 
is entirely removed. Take of confection of senna, 
2 ounces; jalap, in powder, 2 drachms: compound 
powder of cinnamon, 20 grains ; cream of tartar, 1 
drachm, and syrup of ginger as much as will form 
an electuary; of which the bulk of a walnut is to 
be taken every night on going to bed. 



162 



MEDICINE. 



DIARRH(EA, GOUT, RHEUMATISM, Etc. 
To check Diarrhoea, or Looseness. 

Take of the soft extract of bark, 16 grains ; puri- 
fied alum, in powder, 5 grains; tincture of opium, 
6 drops. Make into a bolus, to be taken three 
times a day, in half a glass of red wine. 
Another JIfethod. 

Take of tincture of opium, 15 drops; chalk mix- 
ture, 6 ounces; cinnamon water, 1 ounce. Make 
into a mixture, of which take a large tablespoon- 
ful every six hours. 

Another. — Take of powder of rhubarb,10 grains ; 
powder of chalk, with opium, 1 scruple ; powder 
of chalk without opium, 1 drachm. Make into 
four papers, of which take one night and morning. 

Another. — Take of tincture of opium, 20 drops ; 
chalk mixture, 4J ounces: tincture of cinnamon, 
Jounce; cinnamon water, 2 ounces. Make a mix- 
ture, of which take two tablespoonsful after every 
liquid motion. Given in diarrhoea, and the loose- 
ness often attendant upon consumption. 
Treatment of Obstinate Diarrhoea. 

Take of tannin, 1 drachm; opium, 10 grains. 
Divide into 20 pills, one to be taken three or four 
times a day. This is excellent in obstinate diar- 
rhoea, first evacuating with rhubarb and columbo, 
equal parts, 3 grains every four hours. 
Anodyne Clyster. 

Take of tincture of opium, J drachm ; decoc- 
tion of barley, 8 ounces. Make a clyster, to be 
thrown up directly, to stop diarrhoea and remove 
spasm. 

Opiate Enema. 
Take of milk of assafcetida, 8 ounces; tincture 
of opium, J drachm. To be injected as a clyster 
at bed-time. This is useful in disorders of the 
anus, which induce insufferable pain. 

Remedy for Piles. 

Take of galls, in powder, 2 drachms ; hogs' lard, 
J an ounce. Make into an ointment, to be applied 
by means of lint to the external piles, or even 
pressed somewhat up the fundament every night. 
This has done wonders in the piles, taking, at the 
same time, the following: Take oFquassia, in rasp- 
ings, 2 drachms: boiling water, 1 pint. Let it re- 
main three hours, strain ; to 7 ounces of the strained 
liquor, add aromatic confection, 1 drachm ; ginger, 
in powder, 2 scruples. Take of this mixture, two 
tablespoonsful at twelve and seven every day. 
Pills for Rheumatism. 

Take of guaiacum (gum resin) in powder, snap, 
equal parts, 1 drachm; essential oil of juniper 
berry, 4 drops. Make into 28 pills ; take two four 
times a day. This is an admirable remedy. 
•. Ointment for the satne. 

In America, an ointment of stramonium, made 
by gently boiling 6 ounces of the recent leaves 
(bruised) in a pound and a half of fresh hog's lard, 
till they become crisp, is in high repute as a remedy 
for this disease. The size of a nutmeg. Dr. Turner, 
of Philadelphia, has found to remove rheumatic 
pains, after electricity and powerful liniments, 
with internal remedies, had totally failed ; and Dr. 
ZollickofFer says, that he has known the stramo- 
mium ointment to succeed in cases of rheumatism, 
after the internal exhibition of the tincture of stra- 
monium had failed. For internal use he prefers 
A tincture of the leaves (made in the proportion of 
an ounce and a half of the dried leaves to a pint 
of proof spirit) to the extract. 

Drauifht for Lumbago and Sciatica. 

At a meeting of the Medical Society of London, 
oil of turpentine was strongly recommended, as 



being almost a panacea for acute rheumatism, cto- 
The formula in which it was administered is as 
follows : — Oil of turpentine, 20 drops ; decoction 
of bark, IJ ounces. To be taken every four hours. 
The use of the lancet and purgatives were gene- 
rally premised. No sensible operation ensued 
from the medicine; but the patients were quickly 
relieved of the complaint. 

Rheumatic Pains in the Face. 

M. Double has administered the sulphate of 
quinia in several cases of acute pains in the 
face, approaching to tic doloureux, with complete 
success. He advises it to be given in the dose of 
6 grains, dissolved in camphorated jalap, three 
times a day. This dose, however, is large. 
Friction, Compression, and Percussion. 

Not only rheumatism, but the cramp and gout, 
which bear affinity to each other, have long been 
grently relieved by friction, wherever it was bear- 
able, but some cures were performed upon patients 
slightly attacked, by pertinaciously rubbing the 
parts day after day; to this method of obtaining 
relief. Dr. Balfour has recently added those of 
compression and percussion, with complete suc- 
cess. Percussion at the sole of the foot relieves 
pain there and higher up the limb, and compres- 
sion affords a certain degree of ease. Compression, 
alone upon the tendon of the heel 'grasping by 
the w.arm hand between the finger and thumb), is 
sure to afford relief, as long as the pressure is con- 
tinued, at least so far as the knee. A bandage 
round the thigh gives instant relief to that part of 
the member; grasping, or repeated pinchings, 
leave the patient in comparative ease. Percus- 
sion, by the patient himself, with his crutch, u)ion 
the spot most affected, is very beneficial. Dr. 
Balfour "pummels" the same part daily, until the 
cure is effected. 

Tremor, caused by lifting up the limb, is always 
to be checked by passing a bandage round the 
ancle; and the reason assigned for this whole 
series of remedies is the excitement of certain 
nerves to action, or arresting that of others. This 
practice is by no means a novelty ; it has long 
been employed by the negroes upon their Euro- 
pean masters,. by whom it is termed " shampooing." 

Remedy for the Gout. 

Wine of colchicum root, 15 drops; carbonate of 
potassa, ] 5 grains, in a tablespoonful of water, 
thrice daily. 

Another. — Take of rhubarb, powdered, guaiao 
gum, nitrate of potass, flowers of sulphur, each, 1 
ounce; treacle, 1 pound. Mix well together. 
From one to two teaspoonsful (according to its 
aperient effects) to be taken every night, with a 
little warm gin and water. 

The Chelsea Pensioner's remedy for Gout and 
Rheumatism. 

Gum guaiacum, 2 drachms ; rhubarb, pulverized, 
^ drachm ; flowers of sulphur, J ounce; cream of 
tartar, 2 drachms; nutmeg, or ginger powder, i 
drachm. Made an electuary with treacle, and 
two teaspoonsful taken night and morning. 



CHOLERA, 

History. 
This disease, sometimes confounded with cholera 
morbus, is an epidemic ; that is, it occurs at certain 
times, and moves from place to place; some partj 
of the world never having been visited by it. It 
prevails especially in cities; and follows the routes 
of travel, from India, where it is an annual scourge, 
westward across the globe, once in a number of 



CHOLERA, ETC, 



163 



years. It is not contagious from person to person, 
but is always propagated by human or otlicr ani- 
mal Pith, ill the air or water. An alisolutely clean 
and pure locality will always be free from cholera.* 
Symptoms. 

After watery diarrhoea, generally, of a few 
hours' duration, vomitiTig begins, of a clear color- 
less fluid ; which, as well as the copious passages 
from the bowels, resembles rice-water. There is, 
also, coldness of the skin, which gradually in- 
creases ; with cramps, thirst, great feebleness of 
the pulse, and general prostration, deepening into 
collapse. In this last condition the patient is blue 
all over, with the skin shrunken, and the pulse at 
the wrist imperceptible; sometimes the breath is 
cold. Few recover from this state. 
Treatment, 

Medical men vary infinitely in their mode of 
management of this disease ; as no specific remedy 
for it has been discovered. Considerable experi- 
ence with it, in 1849, 1850, and 1854. enables the 
writer of this article to express a confident opinion 
in favor of the following mode of practice; by 
which, although it cannot be claimed to be infalli- 
ble, ho believes that he has saved a number of lives. 

Apply a large mustard -plaster over the abdo- 
men, and another on the back. Rub the limbs 
well with brandy mixed with Cayenne pepper. 
If the cramps continue, substitute for the mus- 
tard-plaster over the abdomen, a poultice of hops 
steeped in hot-water. Let the patient have, very 
frequently, small pieces of ice to dissolve in the 
mouth ; and, every five miiiuteg, a dose of the fol- 
lowing anodyne and cordial tincture: — 

Take of aromatic spirits of ammonia, laudanum, 
chloroform, and spirits of camphor, each, li fl. 
drs. ; creasote, 8 drops; oil of cinnamon, 2 drops; 
alcohol, enough to make 1 oz. of the tincture. 

Put 1 teaspoonful of this into a winegLassful of 
ice-water, and give 1 teaspoonful of the solution 
every five minutes until the patient decidedly im- 
proves ; then lengthen the intervals by degrees 
till the symptoms all abate. 

It is important to know that epidemic cholera is 
not a disease of the bowels or stouiach particu- 
larly, but of the whole system. In this it differs 
from common cholera morbus. When an epi- 
demic of cholera is prevailing, it is not well to 
live on a thin or weak diet, of rice, etc., as this 
will not promote immunity from the disease. 
Neither is it prudent to indulge at such a time in 
spirituous or other stimulants, as intemperance 
increases the danger. The true plan is, to live 
regularly, according to one's usual habits and 
needs, so as to keep the system steadily up to par 
in every way, without excess or reduction. 

Another important fact is, that the diarrhoea, 
which commonly, though not invariably, precedes 
an attack of cholera, may be checked often by 
very mild means. During a cholera epidemic no 
one should neglect even a slight looseness of the 
bowels. Paregoric, in doses varying from 20 drops 
to 1 dr., at intervals, according to the case, will 
usually be suitable ; or the following mixture, used 
much in Turkey, will be found serviceable : tinc- 
ture of opii, camphor, and rhubarb, each 2 fluid- 
drs. Dose, 18 to 20 drops every two hours in a 
little sugar-water. But medical advice should be 
early obtained. 



FUMIGATION AND VENTILATION. 

To Purify the Air in Halls, Hospitals, etc. 
Dr. Van Marum has discovered a very simple 
method, proved by repeated experiments, of pre- 
flerving the air pure in large halls, theatres, hospi- 
tals, etc. The apparatus for this purpose is nothing 



but a common lamp, made according to Argand'3 
construction, sus^pended from the roof of the hall, 
and ke|)t burning under a funnel, thetube of which 
rises above the roof without, and is furnished with 
a ventilat'>r. For his first experiment he filled his 
large laboratory with the smoke of oak shavings. 
In a few minutes after he lighted his lamp, the 
whole smoke disappeared, and the air was perfectly 
purified. 

Simple mode of Ventilation. 
Ships' holds are well ventilated when there is 
wind, by means of a sail, rigged out from the deck 
-to below like a funnel, whose largest orifice points 
to leeward. But in some situations, as prisons, 
where foul air stagnates, this method cannot be 
adopted. Therefore, the plan has been adopted 
of making two holes in the side of the building or 
shii>, communicating with the open air by a tin 
tube. Two pair of bellows are fitted up, the nozzle 
of one being introduced air-tight into one of the 
tin tubes, and a leathern pipe nailed on the wall, 
over the other tube, to which it may be fastened 
by wax thread. The other end of this pipe is to 
l)e made fast to the clicker-hole of the second pair 
of bellows ; a luting of plaster of Paris, rendering 
both ends air-tight. A common blacksmith's 
forge-bellows will thus empty a space containing 
thirty hogsheads of foul air, and supply its place 
with good fresh air in a very few minutes. 

Air- Pipes for Ventilating Ships, etc. 
Air-pipes are used for drawing foul air out of 
ships, or other close places, by means of fire. One 
extremity is placed in a hole in the side of a fur- 
nace (closed in every part excepting the outlet for 
the smoke); the other in the place which it is de- 
signed to purify. The rarefaction produced by 
the fire, causes a current of air to be determined 
to it, and the only means by which the air can 
arrive at the fire being through the pipe, a quick 
circulation in the place where the extremity of the 
pipe may be situated, is consequently produced. 

The Air Trunk. 
This apparatus was contrived by Dr. Hales, to 
prevent the stagnation of putrid effluvia in jails 
and other places, where a great number of people 
are crowded together. It consists merely of an 
oblong trunk open at both ends, one of which is 
inserted into the ceiling of the room, the air of 
which is to be kept pure: and the other extends a 
good way beyond the roof. Through this trunk 
a continued circulation is carried on ; and the rea- 
son why vapors of this kind ascend more swiftly 
through a long trunk thin a short one is, that 
the pressure of fluids is always according to their 
different depths, without regard to the diameter 
of their basis, or of the vessel that contains them. 
When the column of putrid effluvia is long and 
narrow, the difierence between the column of at- 
mosphere pressing on the upper end of the trunk, 
and that which presses on the lower end, is much 
greater than if the column of putrid eflBuvia was 
short and wide; and consequently the aseect is 
much swifter. One pan of a single pair of scales, 
which was two inches in diameter, being held 
within one of these trunks over the House of Com- 
mons, the force of the ascending air made it rise 
so as to require four grains to restore the equilib- 
rium, and this when there was no person in the 
house; but when it was full, no less than twelve 
grains were requisite to restore the equilibrium; 
which clearly shows that these trunks must be 
of real and very great eflficacy. 

German Method of Cooling and Purifying the Air 
in Summer. 
In the hot days of summer, especially in houses 



• " The di6chirge» of cholera palienli contain the generative principle of cholera." — European Cholera Conference, ComlanlinrfJe. 
Uay 21, 1866. Hence uten«>l» and water-closet* used by cholera patienta (bould be carefully scalded, or dismfeced wiib chlonue oi Imm 
or cnpperab. Scs Index for DisiiifectaatJ. 



164: 



MEDICINE. 



exposed to the meridian sun, a capacious vessel 
filled with cold water is placed in the middle of a 
room, and a few green briinches (or as many as it 
will hold) of lime, liirch, or willow-tree, are plunged 
with the lower ends into the fluid. By this easy 
expedient the apartment is, in a short time, ren- 
dered much cooler ; the evaporation of the water 
producing this desirable effect in sultry weather 
without any detriment to health. Besides, the 
exhalation of green plants, under the influence of 
the solar rays, greatly tends to purify the air ; but 
care must be taken that they do not rem.iin in the 
apartment after night-fall, or in the shade. 
Tn Fumigate Foul Rooms. 
To one tablespoonful of common salt, and a little 
peroxide of manganese, in a glass cup, add four 
or five different times, a quarter of a wine-glass 
of strong sulphuric acid. Place the cup on the floor 
and go out, taking care to shut the door. The 
vapor will come in contact with the malignant 
miasma and destroy it. Prepared chloride of 
lime will do as well. 

Caution in Visiting Sick Booms. 
Never venture into a sick room in a Violent per- 
spiration (if circumstances require a continuance 
there for any time), for the moment the body be- 
comes cold it is in a state likely to absorb the in- 
fection and receive the disease. Nor visit a sick 
person (especially if the complaint be of a conta- 
gious nature) with an empty stomach, as this dis- 
poses the system more readily to receive the infec- 
tion. In attending a sick person, stand where the 
air passes from the door or windnw to the bed of 
the diseased, nut betwixt the diseased person and 
any fire that is in the room, as the heat of the fire 
will draw the infectious vapor in that direction, and 
danger would occasionally arise from breathing 
in it. 

Fumigating Poicder. 
Take of cascarilla reduced to a coarse i;fbwder, 
chamomile flowers, aniseed, each equal parts, two 
ounces. Put some hot cinders in a shovel, sprinkle 
this gradually on it, and fumigate the chambers 
of the sick. It takes away all smell, and keeps off 
infection. 

Disinfecting Liquid. 
Make a strong solution either of nitrate or ace- 
tate of lead ; and sprinkle with it the floor and 
walls of a foul apartment. The first of the above 
is Ledoyen's liquid. 

Preparation of Acetic Acid. 
Put 4 ounces of acetate of lead, in powder, into 
a tubulated glass retort, and pour over it 4 ounces 
of sulphuric acid. Place the retort in a sand-bath, 
the heat of which should be kept as uniform as 
possible. Adapt a common receiver, over which 
there must be constantly kept a piece of wet flan- 
nel or cotton for the condensation of the gas as it 
comes over. Sometimes sulphurous acid gas will 
be found to adulterate the acetic acid ; this is easily 
known by the suffocating odor which it emits. 
The best way to prevent this is by a slow distilla- 
tion ; or the whole may be distilled a second time. 
The acetic acid possesses a very pungent odor, 
owing to its volatility ; consequently it should be 
kept in a well stopped phial. It is used as the 
basis of all the aromatic vinegars. 
Aromatic Vinegar. 
Acetic acid may be mixed with camphor and 
aromatics, as in Henry's Aromatic Vinegar, in a 
quantity sufficient for a small smelling bottle, at 
no great expense. But it is the acetic acid which 
is useful in preventing infection, and not the aro- 
matics, which are added for the pleasure of the 
perfume. 



Cheap Aromatic Vinegar for Ptm-i nng large 
Buildings, Manufactories, j>c. 

Take of common vinegar any quantity; mix 
powdered chalk or common whiting with it, aa 
long as bubbles of carbonic acid gas arise. Let 
the white matter subside, and pour off the insipid 
supernatant liquor; afterwards let the white pow- 
der be dried either in the open air or by a fire. 
When dry pour upon it, in a glass or stone vessel, 
sulphuric acid as long as white acid fumes con- 
tinue to ascend. This product is similar to the 
acetic acid known in the shops by the name of 
Aromatic Vinegar. The simplicity of this process 
points it out as a very useful and convenient one 
for purifying prisons, hospital ships, and houses 
where contagion is presumed or suspected, the 
white acid fumes diffusing themselves quickly 
around. 

To 2}revent and Destroy the Mephitism of Plastered 
Walls. 

Wherever a number of people are assembled, 
either in health or sickness, the wiills become in- 
sensibly impregnated with infectious exhalations. 
Currents of air, when admitted, sweep and cleanse 
the atmosphere, but do not carry away the mias- 
mata concealed in the porosity of the walls, which 
retain the infectious humidity of the perspiration 
of bodies, gradually condensing on their surface. 
Quick-lime may be substituted to destroy such 
mephitism of walls, and also to prevent the evil. 
The most infected tans and sieves lose their smell 
when mixed with the whiting or size of lime. 
Lime enters whitewashing, and may become the 
principal substance of it, by substituting it for 
Spanish white. When made the principal ingre- 
dient of whitewashing, it will prevent walls from 
being impregnated with infectious miasmata. The 
addition of milk and oil are requisite, for lime has 
no adhesion on walls, nor can a body or substance 
be given to the layer. The slightest rubbing with 
a pencil brush will rub it off, and leave the wall 
naked. The cheesy part of the milk, with the ad- 
dition of oil, which makes a soapy body with lime, 
form, after the evaporation of the humidity, a 
dense coherent layer, or sort of varnished plaster, 
which overcomes the porosity of stone, plaster, 
brick, and wood. This wash has another advan- 
tage, that of checking the nitrification of walls, 
which the painting of them in water colors has a 
tendency to accelerate. 

To deodorize Privies. 

Chloride of lime (bleaching powder) will effect 

this. So will chloride of zinc, or sulphate of iron. 

The first is the most convenient, although the last 

is also used, with fifteen times its weight of water 

Ridgewood's Disinfectant. 

Tn 100 parts, use of carbolic acid 5 to 8 per 
cent. ; lime from magnesia limestone, 5 per cent. ; 
fuller's earth, 70 to 80 per cent.; with a little sul- 
phate of potash and sulphate of soda. 
To disinfect Letters. 

A common method of disinfecting letters, and 
other articles coming from places that are sup- 
posed to be visited by the plague, is to expose 
them to the fumes of b— -jing sulphur, mixed with 
saltpetre. A high temperature, short of combus- 
tion, will answer the same purpose. 



CAUTIONS TO GLAZIERS, PAINTERS, AND 
PLUMBERS. 

The following medical cautions were recom- 
mended by the physicians and surgeons of the 
Bath Hospital, to those who have received benefit 
by the use of the Bath waters, in eases where the 
poison of lead is concerned, as plumbers, glaziers, 



DISEASES OF FEMALES. 



165 



painters, and other artificers, who work in trades 
which expose them to similar haznrds from the 
same cause; to be observed by them at their re- 
turn to the exercise of their former occupation. 

1. To maintain tiie strictest temperance, par- 
ticularly respecting distilled spirits, which had 
better be altogether forborne. 

2. To pay the strictest attention to cleanliness ; 
and never suffer paint to remain upon their 
hands; and particularly never to eat their meals, 
or go to rest, without washing their hands and face 
with soap, perfectly clean. 

3. Not to eat or drink in the room or place 
wherein they work; and much less to suffer any 
food or <lrink to remain unused, even for the 
shortest space of time, in any part of a room while 
painting, or where color stands; and not to work 
on an empty stomach. 

4. As the clothes of persons in this line (paint- 
ers, particularly) are generally much soiled with 
color, it is recommended for them to perform 
thcrr work in frocks of ticking, which may be 
fretiuently washed, and conveniently laid aside 
when the workmen go to their meals, and again 
put on when they resume their work. 

5. Every business which can, in these branches, 
should be performed with gloves on their hands. 
Painters, in performing clean light work, would 
find gloves an inconvenience; but to avoid the 
evil here mentioned, the handle of the brush 
should be often scraped. Woollen or worsted 
gloves are recommended, as they may and should 
be often washed, after being soiled with the paint, 
or even with much rubbing against the metal. 

6. Caution is necessary, in mixing, or even in 
unpacking, the dry colors, that the fine powder do 
not get into their mouths, or be drawn in by the 
breath. A crape covering over the face might be 
of service; but care should be taken to turn al- 
rays the same side of the crape towards the face, 
and to clean or wash it frequently. 

7. All artificers should avoid touching lead 
when hot ; and this caution is especially necessary 
for printers or compositors, who have often lost 
the use of their limbs by handling the types when 
drying by the fire, after being washed. 

S. Glaziers' putty should never be made or 
moulded by the hand. An iron pestle and mortar 
would work the ingredients together, at least 
equally as well, and without hazard. It is neces- 
sary in working putty to handle it, nor is it 
usually pernicious. Cleanliness is therefore the 
best recommendation. 

9. If any persons, in any of the above employ- 
ments, should feel pain in the bowels, with cos- 
tiveness, they should immediately take 20 drops 
of laudanum, and when the pain is abated 2 
tablespoonsful of castor oil, or i an ounce of Ep- 
som salts, dissolved in warm chamomile tea. If 
this does not succeed, a pint or two pints of warm 
soapsuds should be thrown up as a clyster. 

10. As a preventive, ten or fifteen drops of 
aromatic sulphuric acid (elixir of vitriol), is likely 
to be of service, if taken daily. 



DISEASES PECULIAR TO FEMALES. 

Hysteric Fits. 

This complaint, called also the hysteric passion, 
appears under various shapes, and is often owing 
to a lax. tender habit, obstruction of the menses, 
liuor albus, etc. 

In the fit the patient is seized with an oppres- 
sion in the breast, and difficult respiration, accom- 
panied with a sensation of something like a ball 
ascending into the throat, which puts her under 



great apprehensions of being suffocated. There 
is a loss of speech, and generally violent convul- 
sive motions. These, with a train of hypochon- 
driac symptoms, are sufficient to determine th« 
disease; to which may be added frequent laugh- 
ing and crying, and various wild, irregular ac- 
tions: after which a general soreness all over the 
body is felt; the spirits are 1"W • the feet are cold. 
The urine is clear and limpid, and discharged in 
great quantity. The hysteric fit may be easily 
distinguished from fainting; for in this the pulse 
and respiration are entirely stopped ; in that they 
are both perceivable. 

Ctire and Prevention. 

Nothing recovers a person sooner out of the 
hysteric fit than putting the feet and legs in warm 
water. 

When low spirits proceed from a suppression 
of the piles or the menses, these evacuations must 
be encouraged, or repeated cuppings substituted. 
When they take their origin from long-continued 
grief, anxious thoughts, or other distresses of 
mind, nothing has done more service, in these 
cases, than agreeable company, daily exercise, 
and especially long journeys, and a variety of 
amusements. 

Regimen. — A light animal food, red wine, 
cheerful company, and a good clear air, with 
moderate exercise, are of great importance in this 
disorder. Drinking tea, and such like tepid re- 
laxing fluids, should be but moderately indulged in. 

The cure consists in whatever tends to strength- 
en the solids, and the whole habit in general; and 
nothing will efi'ect this more successfully than a 
long-continued use of the mineral chalybeate wa- 
ters, and riding on horseback. Assafoetida pills, 
3 grains each, are often temporarily useful. 

Anti-hysterie Spirits. 

Take of proof spirit, 1 pint; sal ammoniac, 2 
ounces; assafoetida, 6 drachms: potash, 3 ounces. 
Mix them, and draw off, by distillation, 1 pint, 
with a slow fire. 

The spirit is pale when newly distilled, but ac- 
quires a considerable tinge by keeping. The dose 
is a. teaspoonful, in some water, during hysterics, 
and the same to be taken occasionally. 
Anti-hysteric Pills. 

Take of compound pills of galbanum, 2 drachms; 
rust of iron, 4 scruples; syrup of ginger, as much 
as is sufficient. Form a mass, which is to be mailo 
into 40 pills, of vrhieh take 4 at noon and at seven 
in the evening every day, drinking after them 
half a glass .of port wine. These pills are good 
in hysteric affections. 

Foetid Enema. 

This is made by adding to the ingredients of 
the common clyster 2 drachms of the tincture of 
assafoetida. 

In cases of hysterics and convulsions, the foetid 
enema is of singular use. 

Opiate Draught. 

Mix together cinnamon water, 1 ounce; spirit 
of caraways, ^ an ounce; sulphuric ether, i a 
drachm; tincture of castor, i a drachm. Let this 
draught be taken every six hours, if the stomach 
should be affected by cramp. If the feet are cold, 
bottles filled with warm water should be applied 
to them. 

Tonic for Debility in Females. 

Take of soft extract of bark, 2 drachms; co- 
lumbo and rust of iron, each 1 drachm; simple 
syrup, as much as is sufficient. Make into fifty 
pills; take two, and gradually increase to five, 
three times a day. 



166 



MEDICINE. 



Compound Galhanum Pills. 
Take of galbanum, myrrh, sagapcnutn, each 1 
ounce; assafoetida, i an ounce; syrup of saftVon, 
as much as is sufficient. Beat them together. 
These pills are excellent as anti-hysterics and em- 
menagogues: from five grains to half a scruple 
may be taken every night, or oftener. 

Compon»d Spirit of Lavender. 

Take of spirit of lavender, 3 pounds; spirit of 
rosemary, 1 pound ; cinnamon, ^ an ounce ; nut- 
meg, the same; red sanders, 3 drachms. Digest 
for ten days and then strain off. This is often 
taken upon sugar, and is a salutary cordial, far 
preferable to drams, which are too often had re- 
course to by persons feeling a great sinking or 
depression of the spirits. 

Jn/ngion of Senna, with Tamarinds. 

Add to the infusion of senna, before it is 
strained, an ounce of tamarinds; then strain. 
This forms a mild and useful pui-ge, excellently 
suited for delicate stomachs and inflammatory 
diseases. The taste of the senna is well covered 
by the aromatic sugar, and by the acidity of the 
tamarinds. An ounce is a convenient purge. 
Jlild Purgative. 

Take of manna, 2 ounces ; tamarinds, 1 ounce ; 
rose-water, 1 ounce. Boil the rose-water and tam- 
arinds together for a quarter of an hour, then add 
the manna. Three tablespoonfuls to be taken 
every three hours, until a motion is obtained. 
Less is to be given to a child. 

Fliior Albiis, or Whites. 

The fluor albus is a flux of thin matter, of a pel- 
lucid or white color; sometimes it is greenish or 
yellow, sharp and corroding, often foul and foetid, 
especially if it be of any long standing. 

Tedious labors, frequent miscarriages, immod- 
erate Sowings of the menses, profuse evacuations, 
poor diet, an inactive and sedentary life, are the 
causes which generally produce this disease. 

Regimen, etc. — The diet should be nourishing: 
milk, jellies, sago, broths and light meats, red port 
wine in moderation, chalybeate waters, moderate 
exercise, and frequent ablution of the parts should 
be recommended. A standing posture of body 
long continued, violent dancing, or much walk- 
ing, must be forbidden. 

Astrliigent Iiijevtion. 

To restore tone to the parts, it will be necessary 
thrge or four times a day to inject a portion of 
the following mixture by means of a syringe: 

Rub together in a mortar white vitriol, 1 drachm ; 
sugar of lead, 10 grains ; water, 2 drachms. Mix 
the whole with a pint of distilled water. 

Another. — Mix together 1 drachm of powdered 
alum with 1 pint of decoction of oak-bark. Inject 
as above. 

Tonic and Astringent Pills. 

Take of gum kino, and extract of Peruvian 
bark, each, 1 drachm; grated nutmeg, 1 scruple; 
powdered alum, i drachm ; syrup, in sufficiency to 
form a mass, which is to be divided into 36 pills. 
Three of these are to be taken at eleven, forenoon, 
and five in the afternoon; being taken two hours 
before dinner, three hours afterwards washed down 
by a glassful of good port wine. Recourse may, 
at the same time, be had to tincture of Peruvian 
bark, to preparations of steel, and mineral waters. 

Prevention. — Females afflicted with this disor- 
der should liy no means indulge in the too free use 
of tea, or other warm slops of a relaxing nature. 
They should sleep on a mattress, rise early, and 
take such exercise as may be convenient, and, if 
possible, on horseback. Cold bathing should also 
be used as often as convenient. In winter a flan- 
nel shift ought to be worn. 



Immoderate Flow of the Menses. 

When the menses continue too long, or come on 
too frequently for the strength of the patient, they 
are said to be immoderate, and are generally oc. 
casioned by weak vessels, thin blood, or a ple^ 
thoric habit. This often happens in delicate 
women, who use enervating liquids too freely, 
especially tea. It also arises in consequence of 
abortion, and sometimes attends women who ar# 
obliged to work hard. 

Where the haemorrhage is excessive, opiates are 
of great use. Tincture of the chloride of iron 
may be given, 20 drops three times daily in water. 

A stringent Fomentations. 

Astringent fomentations may often be very pro- 
perly prescribed. Cloths dipped in decoction of 
oak or Peruvian bark, with the addition of a 
small quantity of brandy, or red wine and vine- 
gar, will answer the purpose extremely well. 
Astringent Lijection. 

Where the ha?morrhage is profuse, and resists 
the usual means now recommended, it will be ne- 
cessary to throw up the following astringent in- 
jection into the uterus from time to time. Take 
of decoction of bark, 1 pint; alum, in powder, 3 
drachms. Mix, and use as an injection, three 
times if necessary. 

Regimen, etc. — To confirm the cure, and pre- 
vent a relapse, the body should be strengthened 
by pro])er exercise, mineral waters, a light but 
nourishing diet; such as light broths, red port 
wine in moderation, and an easy cheerful mind. 

When an immoderate flux of the menses, or 
floodings after abortion, is either attended with or 
preceded by acute pain, not inflammatory, in the 
lower part of the back or belly, and returns with 
greater violence, as the discharge comes on, opium 
will, in such a case, answer better than astrin- 
gents, and may be given in clysters, composed of 
water or 3 ounces of infusion of roses, with i a 
drachm of laudanum. 

Green Sickness. 

This disease is commonly attended with listless- 
ness to motion, a heaviness, paleness of complex- 
ion, and pain in the back and loins, also ha?mor- 
rhages at the nose, pains in the head, with a great 
sense of weight across the eyes, loathing of food, 
a quick and weak pulse, fluor albus, hectic heats, 
coughs, and hysteric fits. 

There is often indigestion and costiveness, with 
a preterniitural appetite for chalk, lime and other 
absorbents. 

Regimen, etc. — The diet ought to be nutritive 
and generous, with a moderate use of wine. Ex- 
ercise ought also to be daily used, and particu- 
larly on horseback. The mind should likewise 
be kept amused by associating with agreeable 
company. 

Chalybeate Pills. 

Mix together extract of bark and sulphate of 
iron (green vitriol), each 1 scruple; sub-carbonate 
of soda 15 grains; powdered myrrh 30 grains. 
Add syrup of ginger to form the whole into a mass, 
which divide into thirty-four pills. After the 
stomach has been cleansed by a gentle emetic, 
two of these are taken two or three times a day, 
taking care to wash them down with nearly a 
wineglassful of the following 

Tonic Draught. 
Mix together compound tincture of Peruvian 
bark and compound tincture of cardamoms, each 
1 ounce; compound infusion of gentian 1 pint. 

Chalybeate Draught. 
Pour fifteen drops of tincture of muriate of iron 



DISEASES OP FEMALES. 



16T 



into a glassful of cold water, or a decoction of 
Peniviiin bark. Drink this twice or thrice a day, 
an hour before or two hours after eating, 

Tincture of Iodine. 

In many cases of green sickness, attended with 
eyniptoius of approaching consumption, and also 
in incipient phthisis, the saturated tincture of 
iodine may be administered with great effect. 

When tiiken internally it is very beneficial in 
di.-per.-;ing wen. Ten drops of the saturated tinc- 
ture taken three times a day, may eflectually re- 
move the complaint in the cour>e of live or six 
weeks. The Lugol'.-* Solution of Iodine will do as 
well as the above for the same uses. Dose five or 
six drops twice daily. 

Cessation of the Menses. 

The constitution undergoes a very considerable 
chimge at the critical period when menstruation 
ceases, and it often happens that chronic, and 
soiiietiuies fatal complaints arise, if care is not 
taken when this natural discharge terminates. It 
selilom stops all at once, but gradually ceases, 
being irregular both as to quantity and time. 

Reijimen, etc. — When the disappearance is sud- 
den in females of a plethoric habit, malt liquors, 
wine and animal food ought for a time to be ex- 
cluded friim their diet. They sh(i\ild likewise 
avoid all liquors of a spirituous nature. Regular 
exercise should be taken and the body constantly 
kept open by the tincture of senna, Epsom salts, 
or any other mild laxative medicine. 

If giddiness and occasional pain in the head 
aifect the patient, or if there be a visible fulness 
in the vessels, the application of leeches to the 
temple will be found very beneficial, and if ulcers 
should break out in the legs, etc., they ought by 
no means to be healed up, unless a salutary drain 
by means of an issue be established in some other 
part. 

Dropsy. 

Dissolve an ounce of acetate of potassa in a 
pint of cold water ; take a wineglassful every 
morning and evening. 

For Vomiting during Pregnancy. 

The morning sickness is one of the most pain- 
ful feelings attendant on the pregnant state, and 
it is one of those which medicine commonly fails 
to relieve. A cup of chamomile or peppermint 
tea taken when first waking, and suffering the pa- 
tient to be still for an hour, will sometimes alle- 
viate the distressing sickness, but should it recur 
during the day these means seldom succeed. 

Two or three teaspoonfuls of the following mix- 
ture should then be taken, either occasionally or 
when the vcjiniting and heartburn are more con- 
tinual immediately after every meal : Take of cal- 
cined magnesia 1 drachm ; distilled water 6 ounces ; 
aromatic tincture of rhatany 6 drachms; water, 
pure ammonia, 1 drachm. Mix. 

Another. — Dr. Scellier extols the following mix- 
ture as a remedy for nausea and vomiting during 
the period of pregnancy : Take of lettuce-water 
4 ounces; gum arable 1 scruple; syrup of white 
poppies, syrup of marsh-meadow root, each 2 
ounces; Prussic acid 4 droj)S. Let an apothecary 
prepare the mixture. A tablespoonful is to be 
taken every half hour when the vomiting is 
present. 

If the lettuce-water cannot be obtained, 8 grains 
of the ins|)issated white juice (lactuariuin) dis- 
solved in 4 ounces of water, may be substituted 
for it. 

Another. — The saline mixture in a state of effer- 
vescence, with a pill of one or two grains of lac- 



tuarium, is by some preferred to the above com- 
position. When the matter brought up is acid, a 
weak solution of the carbonate of soda may be 
substituted for the saline mixture. 

To relieve Sickness and Qualms in Pregnancy. 
Take of infusion of quassia, 1 ounce; cinnnmon. 
water, 4 drachms ; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 26 
drops; prepared oyster-shells, 2 grains. To be 
taken at a draught, at twelve and seven o'clock 
every day. 

For Jfeartbnrn during Pregnancy. 
Take of solution of ammonia, calcined magne- 
sia, each I drachm; cinnamon-water 2 ounces; 
common water 6 ounces. The dose is a table- 
spoonful as often as required. 
Head-ache. 
When head-ache or drowsiness proves trouble- 
some to a pregnant woman of robust habit, a few 
ounces of blood should be taken from the arm. 
If she be of a weak or irritable habit, leeches 
ought to be applied to the temples. In both cases 
the bowels should be opened by magnesia, rhu- 
barb, or some other gentle laxative medicine. 
Hysteria. 
When hysteria or fainting occurs, the pregnant 
patient should be placed in a horizontal position 
in the open air. When she is a little recovered a 
glass of wine in a little cold water should be ad- 
ministered, or what is perhaps better, a few drops 
of the spirits of hartshorn in a glass of water. 
Costiveness and Piles. 
To prevent these, women in a pregnant state 
should make frequent use of the following elec- 
tuary : 

Mix together in a marble mortar 2 ounces of the 
electuary of senna, i a drachm of powder of jalap ; 
2 drachms of cream of tartar, and \ an ounce of 
syrup of roses. Half a teaspoonful to be taken 
every night at bed-time, or oftener, as long as the 
above complaints continue. 

Pregnant women should be particularly careful 
not to use aloes as a purgative, this medicine 
being very apt to increase the piles. The same 
caution is necessary with respect to Anderson's 
and Scott's pills, the basis of both of which is 
aloes. If the piles should prove so very trouble- 
some as to prevent the patient from sitting com- 
fortably, leeches ought to be applied to the part; 
in all other cases simple ablution with cold water, 
with the use of purgatives as above directed, will 
be sufiBcient. 

Tfouhlesome Itchings. 
Cooling laxatives are likewise proper in this 
place ; also frequent ablution with cold or luke- 
warm water. If the itching does not speeaily 
abate, a lotion is to be applied to the parts twice 
a day, consisting of a drachm of sugar of lead in 
a pint of distilled water. 

Swelling of the Feet and Ankles. 
Pregnant women are usually free from this com- 
plaint in the morning, but suffer a good deal from 
it towards night. 

Prevention. — In the commencement it will bo 
merely requisite for the patient to use a footstool, 
when sitting, so that her feet may never be in a 
hanging position for any length of time. 

Remedy. — If there should be great distension, 
so as to give the sensation of almost bursting, 
slight sc.'irification may be made with the edge of a 
lancet: an<l flannels, wrung out of a hot fomenta- 
tion of chamomile, are soon after to be applied. A 
teaspoonful of cream of tartar mixed in water may 
be taken once or twice daily, to act on the kidneys. 
It is almost unnecessary to state that this com- 



168 



MEDICINE. 



plaint invariably disappears at the period of de- 
livery. 

Cramp of the Legii and Thighs. 

This complaint may be speedily relieved by 
rubbing thn p i:t affected with the following lini- 
ment: ]\Ii.\. together (by shaking in a phial) laiid- 
• anum, ^ an ounce; tincture of camphor, 1 ounce; 
and sulphuric ether, J an ounce. 

Cramp in the Stomach. 
This is to be avoided by proper attention to 
diet, which should not be of a flatulent nature, or 
too hard of digestion. Attention is likewise to be 
paid to the state of the bowels. 

Distention and Cracking of the Skin. 

This is very apt to occur in the latter months 
of gestation, accompanied sometimes with con- 
siderable soreness. It is to be relieved by fre- 
quent friction with warm oil. 

Distention of Veins. 

The veins of the legs, thighs, and belly are apt 
to become enlarged in the latter stages of preg- 
nancy. Although no bad consequences ever at- 
tend this, it will be necessary sometimes to relieve 
it by moderate bleeding, and by repeated small 
doses of infusion of senna, mixed with Epsom 
salts; at the same time using a spare diet. The 
distended vein may frequently be relieved by the 
application of a pretty tight bandage. 

Incontinence of Urine. 
This very uncomfortable complaint is to be re- 
lieved by a frequent horizontal pusition, but can- 
not be entirely remedied except by delivery. Strict 
attention, however, ought to be paid to cleanli- 
ness, and much comfort will be felt by the use of 
a large sponge properly fastened. 

Restlessness and Want of Sleep. 

In this case, cooling laxative medicines, as the 
infusion of senna, with Epsom salts, ought fre- 
quently to be used. If relief be not soon olstained, 
small quantities of blood are to be taken from the 
patient. Opiates ought seldom to be used, as they 
tend sometimes to increase the febrile state of the 
natient. 

Convulsions, 

When a female is disposed to this complaint 
from a plethoric habit, there will be great fullness 
and giddiness in the head, in the latter months of 
gestation; also drowsiness, with a sensation of 
weight in the forehead when she stoops, or bends 
forward, accompanied sometimes by imperfect 
vision, and the appearance of atoms floating before 
the eyes. In such a case, ten or twelve ounces of 
blood ought to be taken from the arm, and the 
bowels are afterwards to be kept open by frequent 
and small doses of infusion of senna, mixed with 
cream of tartar, until the above symptoms entirely 
disappear. Wine, spirituous and malt liquors, and 
solid or animal food are likewise to be avoided. 

When convulsions have occurred, and when 
there is reason to believe that they are owing to 
irritation, rather than plethora, it will likewise be 
necessary to bleed the patient in a small degree, 
both from the arm. and by the application of 
!■ f 'lies to the temples. The bowels are also to be 
kept perfectly open, and a common clyster, con- 
taining from halt' a drachm to a drachm of lauda- 
num, is to be administered. The warm bath is 
likewise exceedingly useful ; at the same time 
taking care to strengthen the habit as much as 
possible. 

The Milk Fever. 

This fever generally arises about the third or 
fourth day after delivery. The symptoms are 



pain and distention of the breasts, shooting fre» 
quently towards the arm-pit. Sometimes th« 
breasts become hard, hot, and inflamed. It gene- 
rally continues a day or two, and ends sponta- 
neously by copious sweats, or a large quantity of 
pale urine. 

Remedies. — If it should prove violent, especially 
in young women of a plethoric constitution, we 
should abate the inflammation by bleeding; this, 
however, is rarely necessary. But, in every con- 
stitution, the body must be kept open by gentle 
cooling laxatives, or clysters. The breasts should 
be often drawn either by the child, or, if the mother 
does not design to give suck, by some proper per- 
son. If the breasts are hard, very turgid, or in- 
flamed, emollient fomentations ought to be ap- 
plied to them. The common poultice of bread 
and milk, with the addition of a little oil, may be 
used on this occasion; and warm milk, or a de- 
coction of elder flowers, for a fomentation. 

Regimen. — The patient should use a simple diet, 
consisting only of panada, or some other farina- 
ceous substances. Her drink may be barley-water, 
milk and water, gruel, or the like. 

Inflamed Breasts. 

When the breasts tumefy, and begin to be un- 
easy, a few days after delivery, from the milk 
stagnating, gentle diaphoretics and purgatives 
are to be used, and camphorated spirits of wine is 
to be applied, or warm cloths dipped in brandy, 
are to be put to the arm-pits. Should pain with 
inflammation come on, apply a poultice of bread, 
milk and oil, and an emollient fomentation ; and 
in case suppuration cannot be prevented, it must 
be opened with a lancet. The ulcer is afterwards 
to be treated according to the common rules for 
disorders of that kind. 

If there be only a hardness in the breast, from 
coagulated milk., emollient cataplasms and fomen- 
tations are to be used, likewise fresh linseed oil, 
by way of liniment. 

Sore Nipples. 

Chapped or sore nipples are very frequent with 
those who give suck. In this case the olive oil is 
a very proper application ; or fresh cream spread 
upon fine linen ; or a solution of gum arable in 
water. Collodion, applied with a camel's hair 
pencil, is the most effectual remedy. 

It is almost needless to observe that, whatever 
applications be made use of to the nipples, they 
ought to be washed off before the child is permit- 
ted to suck. This is not always necessary with 
collodion. 

Puerperal Fever. 

Puerperal fever commonly begins with a rigor, 
or chilliness, on the first, second, or third day 
after delivery; followed by a violent pain and 
soreness over the belly. There is much thirst; 
pain in the head, chiefly in the forehead and jtarts 
about the eyebrows; a flushing in the face; anx- 
iety ; a hot, dry skin : quick and weak pulse, 
though sometimes it will resist the finger pretty 
strongly; a shortness in breathing: high-colored 
urine, and a suppression of the natural discharge. 
Sometimes a vomiting and purging attend from 
the first, but in general, in the beginning, the 
belly is costive; however, when the disease proves 
fatal, a diarrhoea generally supervenes, and the 
stools at last become involuntary. 

The cause of this fever has been commonly 
ascribed either to a suppression of the natural 
discharge, an inflammation in the womb, or a 
retention of the milk. 

Remedies. — If the belly be costive, nt\ emollient 
opening clyster is to be administered; and, if 



DISEASES OF CHILDEEN. 



169 



etools and an abatement of the pain be not pro- 
cured thereby, immediate recourse is to be had 
to cathartics, and bleeding frcim the arm. Those 
to be recommended are, infusion of senna, or cas- 
tor oil : cither in sufficient quantity. 

After the intestinal canal is sufficiently cleared, 
a gentle <liaphoresis is to be encouraged by such 
medicines as at the same time promote the relief 
f (lain. This intention is best answered by small 
doses of ipecacuanha, tartar emetic, or antimo- 
nial wine, combined with opium in pill or lauda- 
num, and given about four times in the course of 
the twenty-four hours. In the intermediate spaces 
of time, interpose saline draughts. It is proper to 
stale, that when child-bed fever is epidemic, es- 
peciallj' in cities or hospitals, it is more malig- 
nant and prostrating, and will not bear reducing 
treatment. 

Regimen. — The patient's drink should consist of 
pure water with toast in it; barley-water, either 
by itself or with the addition of a little nitre; 
whey made with rennet or vinegar; milk and wa- 
ter ; leunmade ; a slight infusion of malt ; and mint 
or sage tea. 



MANAGEMENT AND DISEASES OF 
CHILDREN. 

Infant Nursing. 

A child, when it comes into the world, should 
be laid (for the first month) upon a thin mattress 
rather longer than itself, which the nurse may 
sometimes keep upon her lap, that the child may 
' always lie straight, and only sit up as the nurse 
slants the mattress. To set a child quite upright 
before the end of the first month is hurtful. 
Afterwards the nurse may begin to set it up and 
dance it by degrees ; and it must be kept as dry 
as possible. 

Friction. 

The clothing should be very light, and not much 
longer than the child, that the legs may be got at 
with ease, in order to have them often rubbed in 
the day with a warm hand or flannel, and in par- 
ticular the inside of them. Rubbing a child all 
over, takes off scurf, and makes the blood cir- 
culate. 

Rubbing the anklebones and inside of the knees 
will strengthen those parts, and make the child 
stretch its knees and keep them flat. 

Position, 

A nurse ought to keep a child as little in her 
arms as possible, lest the legs should be cramped, 
and the toes turned inwards. Let her always keep 
the child's legs loose. The oftener the posture is 
changed the better. 

Exercise. 
By slow degrees the infant should be accustomed 
to exercise, both wi'hin doors and in the open air; 
but he never should be moved about immediately 
after sucking or feeding; it will be apt to sicken 
him. E.xcrcise should be given by carrying him 
about and gently dandling him him in his mother 
or nurse's arms; but dancing him up and down 
on the knee is very fatiguing for a young child. 

To prevent Distortion. 
Tossing a child about, and exercising it in the 
open air in fine weather, is of the greatest service. 
In cities children are not to be kept in hot rooms, 
but to have as much air as possible. Want of ex- 
ercise is the cause of rickets, large heads, weak 
joints, a contracted breast, and diseased lungs, 
besides a numerous train of other evils. 



Rendering Children Hardy. 
Endeavor to harden the body, but without re- 
sorting to any violent means. All attempts to 
render children hardy, must be made by gradual 
steps. Nature admits of no sudden transitions. 
For instance, infants should, by imperceptible de- 
grees, be inured to the cool, and then to the cold 
bath ; at the same time attention must be paid t© 
their previous management. If they have hitherto 
been accustomed to an efieminating treatment, 
and should be suddenly subjected to an opposite 
extreme, such a change would be attended with 
danger. When children have once been accus- 
tomed to a hardy system of education, such a 
plan must be strictly adhered to. 

Cleanliness and Bathing. 
The child's skin is to be kept perfectly clean by 
washing its limbs morning and evening, and like- 
vvise its neck and ears ; beginning with warm water, 
till by degrees he will not only bear, but like to 
he washed with cool or cold water. 

Alter he is a month old, if he has no cough, 
fever, or eruption, the bath should be colder and 
colder (if the season be mild ), and gradually it may 
be used as it comes from the fountain. After 
carefully drying the whole body, head and limbs, 
another dry soft cloth, a little warmed, should be 
used gently to take all the damp from the wrinkles 
or fat parts that fold together. Then rub the 
limbs; but when the body is rubbed, take speoial 
caie not to press upon the jtomaoh or belly. On 
these parts the hand should move in a circle, be- 
cause the bowels lie in that direction. If the skin 
is chafed, starch-powder is to be used. The utmost 
tenderness is necessary in drying the head, and 
no binding should be made close about it. Squeez- 
ing the head, or combing it roughly, may cause 
dreadful diseases, and even the loss of reason. A 
small soft brush, lightly applied, is safer than a 
comb. Clean clothes every morning and evening 
will tend greatly to a child's health and comfort. 
Dress. 
With regard to the child's dress in the day, let 
it be a shirt, a petticoat of fine flannel, reaching 
two or three inches below the child's feet, with a 
dimity top (commonly called a bodice-coat), to tie 
behind. Over this put a robe or frock or what- 
ever may be convenient, provided it is fastened 
behind, and not reaching much below the child's 
feet, that his motions may be strictly observed. 

Caps are, as a general rule, undesirable. The 
head should be kept cool. 

The dress for the night may be a shirt, a blanket 
to tie on, and a thin gown to tie over the blanket. 
The Act of Dressing. 
Some people in dressing an infant seem in such 
haste as to toss him in a way that must fatigue 
and harass him. The most tender deliberation 
should be observed. In addition to this hurried 
dressing, his clothes are often so tight that he frets 
and roars. Pins should never be used in an in- 
fant's clothes; and every string should be so 
loosely tied that one might get two fingers be- 
tween it and the part where it is fixed. Bandages 
round the head should be strictly forbidden. 
Many instances of idiocy, fits, and deformity, are 
owing to tight bandages. 

Sleep. 
Infants cannot sleep too long; and it is a favor- 
able symptom, when they enjoy a calm and long- 
continued rest, of which they should by no means 
be deprived, as this is the greatest support granted 
to them by nature. A child lives comparatively 
much faster than an adult; its blood flows more 
rapidly; and every stimulus operates more power- 



170 



MEDICINE. 



fully. Sleep promotes a more calm and uniform 
circulation of the blond, and it facilitates assimi- 
latiiin of the niitiiinent received. The horizontal 
posture, likewise, is the most favorable to the 
growth and bodily development of the infant. 

Duration of, and time for Sleep. 
Sleep ought to be in proportion to the age of the 
infant. After an uninterrupted rest of nine months 
in the womb, this salutary refre.'ihment should 
continue to fill up the greater part of a child's ex- 
istence. A continued wakefulness of twenty-four 
hours would prove destructive. After the age of 
si.x months, the periods of sleep, as well as all 
ether animal functions, may in some degree be 
regulated ; yet, even then, a child should be suffer- 
ed to sleep the whole night, and several hours both 
in the morning and afternoon. Mothers and 
nurses should endeavor to accustom Infants from 
the time of their birth, to sleep in the night pre- 
ferably to the day, and for this purpose they ought 
to remove all external impressions which may dis- 
turb their rest, such as noise, light, etc., but espe- 
cially they should not obey every call for taking 
theui up and giving food at improper times. After 
the second year of their age, they will not instinct- 
ively require to sleep in the forenoon, though 
after dinner it may be continued till the third 
and fourth year, if the child shows a particular 
inclination to repose; because till that age, the full 
half of its time may safely be allotted to sleep. 
From that period, however, it ought to be short- 
ened for the space of one hour with every succeed- 
ing year; so that a child seven years old may 
sleep about eight, and not exceeding nine hours; 
this proportion may be continued to the age of 
adolescence, and even manhood. 

A^onkiiig Suddenly. 
To awaken children from their sleep with a 
noise, or in an im])etuous manner, is extremely in- 
judicious and hurtful, nor is it proper to carry 
them from a dark room immediately into a glarrng 
light, against a ilazzling wall; for the sudden im- 
pression of light debilitates the organs of vision, 
and lays the foundation of weak eyes, from early 
infancy. In fact it is a sound precept, never to 
waken a young child from sleep at all. 

Restlessness at niglit. 

An infant is sometimes very restless at njght, and 
it is generally owing either to cramming him with 
a heavy supper, tight night-clothes, or overheat- 
ing by too many blankets. It may als > proceed from 
putting him to sleep too early. I ndressing and 
bathing will weary and dispose him for sleep, and 
the universal stillness will promote it. This habit 
and all others depend on attention at first. Accus- 
tom him to regular hours, and if he has a good sleep 
in the forenoon and afternoon, it will be easy to 
keep him brisk all the evening. It is right to 
offer him drink when a young infant; and more 
Bolid, though simple food, when he is going to bed, 
after he is two or three months old, but do not 
force him to receive it; and never let anything 
but the prescription of a physician in sickness, 
tempt the nurses to give him wine, spirits, or any 
drug to make him sleep. Milk and water, whey, 
or thin gruel, is the only fit liquor for little ones, 
even when they can run about. The more simple 
and light their diet and drink, the in(jre they will 
thrive. In the night a drink of water will often 
do better than the breast. Such food will keep 
their bowels regular, and they cannot be long well 
if that essential point be neglected. 
Anuisements, etc. 

The bodily education of boys and girls ought in 



every respect to be uniform. A great difference 
usually prevails in the education of the sexes dur- 
ing infancy. Parents being too anxious for the 
accouiplishment of girls, imagine that they must 
be kept under a certain restraint. Boys, in 
general, are not laced, but girls are compressed 
tight enough to suffocate them ; because it is erro- 
neously supposed, that this injudicinus practice 
contributes to an elegant shape, though, ultimate- 
ly, the contrary effect is obvious ; as it is the surest 
way of making children round shouldered and 
deformed. Girls are, from their cradles, com- 
pelled to a mure sedentary life; and with this 
intention, dolls, and other playthings, are early 
procured ; yet boys are permitted to take more 
frequent exercise. Thus, girls are confined in 
their apartments, while boys amuse theuiselves in 
the open air. Such absurd constraints impede the 
free and progressive evolution of the different 
faculties and powers. 

The Yellow Gum. 

The yellow gum is knovrn by a yellow tinge of 
the skiu, with languor and a tendency to sleep. It 
is to be relieved by giving a teaspoonful or more 
of castor oil, to clear the intestines. When the 
disease does not give way to this treatment, give 
half a grain of calomel, or 4 grains of rhubarb. 
Vomiting. 

When the food is vomited in an unaltered state, 
it is generally a sign of over-feeding ; but when the 
vomiting is bilious, or when the food is partly 
digested, the diet ought to be changed, and the 
bowels opened by 1 grain of calomel, given in 
sugar. This is to be followed by a teaspoonful of 
castor oil on the following morning. If the vom- 
iting should still continue, give lime-water or the 
calomel powder (containing 1 or 2 grains, accord- 
ing to the age) a second time. If there be much 
irritation, apply a spice plaster to the stomach, 
and, if possible, give a teaspoonful of the saline 
medicine, in a state of effervescence, and contain- 
ing 1 or 2 drops of laudanum. 

Hiccups. , 

These generally arise from acidity in the sto- 
mach, and may be remedied by the administration 
of 6 grains of prepared chalk with 2 grains of 
powdered rhubarb, given in a little syrup or gruel. 
If very severe, the stomach is to be rulibed with a 
little soap liniment, or opodeldoc, to which a little 
laudanum has been added. 

Griping and Flatulency. 

These are known by continual crying, restless- 
ness, and drawing up of the legs. When attended 
by diarrhoea and green stools, it is to be relieved, 
in general, by the administration of a few grains 
of rhubarb and magnesia. If sour belchings, etc. 
still continue, it will be proper to give a teaspoon- 
ful every quarter of an hour, of equal parts of 
camphor-water and cinnamon-water. After this, 
particularly if there be any purging, it will be pro- 
per to give a little rhubarb and magnesia again, 
and now and then a little chalk mixture. 
Absorbent Mixture. 

If the pains are very great so as to make the 
child scream violently, two ' teaspoonsful of the 
following mixture, with 1 or 2 drops of laudanum, 
may be given directly: Mix together, prepared 
chalk, 1 scruple; tincture of caraway seeds, 3 
drachms; compound spirits of lavender, 1 drachm, 
and of peppermint-water, 2 ounces. 

As soon as there is diminution of pain, a purga- 
tive should be given, particularly if the bowels 
happen to be in a costive state. The best will be 
castor oil. The above mixture may afterwards be 
occasionally continued, but without the laudanum. 



DISEASES OF CHILDREN. 



171, 



Diarrhoea. 
This may, in general, if the stools are green, 
bo relieved by a brisk purgative, of from 1 to 2 
grains of calomel, with 4 or 5 grains of rhubnrb, 
according to the age of the child. The absorbent 
mixture is then to be given as before directed. 

Fiu-ther Remedies. 

When the stools are very frequent, and are 
either slimy or tinged with blood, it will be proper 
to give 5 grains of rhubarb every six hours, the 
food being beef tea, sago, isinglass in milk or 
calfsfoot jelly, the body being wrapped in warm, 
flannel. A spice plaster may likewise be applied 
to the belly, and a de.<sertspoonful of the follow- 
ing tonic and astringent mixture is to be given 
every six hours. Mix together chalk mixture, 2 
ounces; laudanum, 12 drops; and cinnamon water, 
1 ounce. 

Opiate Clyster. 

If the fluid stools are ejected with great force a 
clyster should be given composed of half a tea- 
cupful of boiled starch, and 2 to 5 drops of lau- 
danum. This may be repeated at intervals of 
eight hours, if the symptoms do not abate. 

Excoriations of the Skin. 

Children are apt to be chafed between the 
thighs, behind the ears, and in the wrinkles of 
the neck, from w;int of proper attention to clean- 
liness. In such cases it will be necessary to bathe 
the parts twice a day (or every time that the 
child's things are changed) ivith a little warm 
milk and water, and to apply a puff with a lit- 
tle powder of pure starch, arrow-root, or r3'e- 
meal, immediately afterwards, so as to keep the 
parts dry. When discharges tnke place behind 
the ears they must not be dried up too suddenly, 
as such a circumstance might produce a diversion 
to the brain. In such cases it will be alwaj's best 
to give frequent doses of castor oil, or calomel, 
every other night, in the proportion of 1 grain 
to 3 grains of rhubarb. 

CntaneoHS Eruptions. 

No real danger attends these eruptions, which 
are generally known by the names of red-gum, 
nettle-rash, etc. All that is required to be done 
is to keep the bowels open by such mciins as are 
prescribed in the foregoing article, and to guard 
against Cold, which might drive the eruption in- 
wardlj', and so produce internal inflammations of 
a critical nature. If the milk i<r food be consid- 
ered the cause, the nurse or diet ought to Ije 
changed; and if sickness and vomiting should 
prevail, it will be proper to give the absorbent 
mixture mentioned under the head of Griping and 
Flatulency. 

The Thrush. 

This disease makes its appearance with little 
ulcerations in the mouth, tongue, etc., of a white 
color, and sometimes of a yellow appearance. 
They arc generally owing to acidities in the 
stomach, etc. 

In this disorder nothing avails more than an 
emetic at first, aui then a little magnesia and rhu- 
barb (if there be di;irrhoea), with thin chicken- 
water as drink. Chlorate of potassa, or the ab- 
sorbent mixture (see Griping and Flatulency), will 
also be proper. If there is no looseness, it will be 
proper to give a grain or two of calomel, with 3 
or 4 grains of rhubarb. The mouth and throat 
should at the same time be cleansed by gargles. 

Syrup of Black Currants. 
Take of the juice of black currants, strained, 1 
pint; double refined sugar, 24 ounces. Dissolve 
the sugar, aud boil to make a syrup. 



A teaspoonful of this may be given to children 
in the thrush. 

Falling Down of the Fundament. 

This happens frequently to children who cry 
much, or who have had a diarrhoea, or from 
straining on going to stool. If it proceed from 
cosliveness. give lenitive clysters. In case the 
gut be swelled or inflamed, foment with warm 
milk, or decoction of oak bark, or wash frequently 
with cold water. The protruded parts are now to 
be replaced by the finger, and supported by a truss 
or bandage. The internal use of tonics will be 
proper. A child subject to this should not be al- 
lowed to sit on a low vessel or chair when the 
bowels are moved. 

Dentition. 

When children are about cutting their teeth 
they slaver much, are feverish, hot, and uneasy; 
their gums swell, and are very painful; they are 
sometimes loose in the bowels, and at other times 
costive; now and then convulsions come on. 

Leeches are often of use applied behind the 
ears j also blisters. 

Scarifying the Gums. 

Instead of giving narcotics to children cutting 
their teeth, it is strenuously recommended to have 
the tumid gums divided by a lancet down to the 
tooth; an operation at once safe and unattended 
with pain. If done in time, from removing the 
cause of the complaint, all the symptoms will 
disappear of themselves. Instead of giving prep- 
arations of opium, it will be found, in the majority 
of cases far better to administer calomel, in mi- 
nute doses, as this iriod'cine is well known to pos- 
sess peculiar tlJic.ioy in promoting absorption in 
these parts. The bowels, if costive, should be kept 
regularly open, and if there should be looseness 
of the bowels, it should by no means be discour- 
aged. Instead of coral or any other hard body, 
let the child nibble at a ring of gum-elastic. 

Convulsions. 

Children are particularly liable to convulsions 
at the period of teething, small pox, measles, and 
other eruptive diseases; sometimes, also, from ex- 
ternal causes, such as tight clothes, bandages, 
etc. When they proceed from any of these, bath- 
ing the feet, or the whole body, in warm water, 
of 92° or 94°, and administering a mild clyster, 
will almost immediately relieve them. To shorten 
the duration of the fit. cold water should be poured 
over the face and neck, while the rest of the body 
is in the bath. Afterwards a mustard plaster, 
weakened with flour, may be applied for a short 
time to the back. 

The return of convulsions is to be prevented 
only by the removal of the cause of the existing 
irritation; but, in general, when the body is kept 
carefully dpen, there will be little cause to fear a 
return. 

Inward Fits. 

In these fits the infant appears as if asleep; the 
eyelids, however, are not quite closed, but fre- 
quently twinkle, and show the whites turned up- 
wards. The muscles of the face are sometimes 
slightly distorted, the mouth having the appear- 
ance of a laugh or smile. The breath is some- 
times very quick, and at others stops for a time; 
while the eyelids and lips are pale and dark al- 
ternately. The infant startles on the least noise, 
and sighs deeply or breaks wind. This relieves 
him for a little, but he soon relapses into a doze. 
Whenever the above-menticmed symptoms are oD- 
served, it will be right to awaken the infant, by 
stirring or otherwise, and to rub its back and belly 
well before the fire, until wind escapes. At the 



172 



MEDICINE. 



same time it will be proper to give half a tea- 
spoonful of drink or pap, containing 2 drops of 
oil of ptiise or caraways. As soon after as possi- 
ble, a purgative of castor oil, or a grain or two of 
calomol (according to the age), with 2 or 3 grains 
of rb/iharb, is to be given, to empty the bowels of 
whatever crude matter may occasion the dis- 
order. 

The Rickets, 

This disorder affects the bones of children, and 
»!ausep a considerable protuberance, incurvation, 
or distortion of them. It may arise from various 
causes, but more particubirly when proper care 
has not been taken with children ; when they have 
been too ti>rhtly swathed in some parts, and too 
loosely in others; keeping them too long in one 
and the siime position ; and not keeping them 
clean and dry. Sometimes it may proceed from a 
lax habit, at others from costiveness. 

It usually appears about the eighth or ninth 
month and continues to the sixth or seventh year 
of the child's age. The head becomes large and 
the fontanel keeps long open: the countenance 
is fuii and tiorid; the joints knotty and distorted, 
especially about the wrists, loss near the ankles. 
The ribs protuherate and grow crooked ; the belly 
swells ; cough and disorder of the lungs succeed, 
and there is, withai, a very early understanding, 
and the child moves but weakly, and waddles in 
walking. 

Regimen, etc. — The regimen should be light and 
properly seasoned; the air dry and clear; exer- 
cise and motion should he encouraged, and band- 
ages as well as instruments contrived to keep the 
limbs in a proper situation ; but wo should take 
care that they be so formed as not to put the child 
to pain or restrain it too much. 

Cold sea-bathing is of infinite use, after which 
friction should be used, and the child placed be- 
tween two blankets, so as to encourage perspira- 
tion. The back should be well rubbed with opo- 
deldoc or good old rum every night. Chalybeates 
are also very serviceable. 

A decoction of Peruvian bark is also good, with 
red wine ; it is to be used with moderation in the 
forenoon and after dinner. 

Dixtortion of the Spine. 

Dr. Weitch, an eminent physician of Berlin, has 
published in Hufeland's journal a simple remedy 
for weakness of the back-bone of infants, and 
which he considers capable of preventing distor- 
tion. This method consists, first, in frequent and 
close examination of the child's back-bone, and 
secondly, on the slightest trace of any distortion, 
to wash the same with brandy every morning and 
night, and to pay the strictest attention to the 
child's keeping a straight posture both sleeping 
and waking, and if it can be bathed from time to 
time it will be so much the better. 

Jelly from the linspings of Ivory. 

The raspings of ivory impart to boiling water a 
very pleasant jelly, which has been found more 
easy of digestion and more nutritious than that 
of the hartshorn shavings or isinglass. Mixed 
with the jelly of the arrow-root in the proportion 
of one part to seven, it has been recommended for 
weakly and rickety children and consumptive or 
emaciated invalids. 

Ringworm and Scald Head. 

It is well known that these disorders, which are 
in many respects similar, are contagious; there- 
fore no comb or hair-brush used by a child af- 
fected by them is to be used by another child 
either in a school or in the same family. Nor 



should the hat or cap of such a child be worn by 
any other. 

Treatment. — The intractableness of most chil- 
dren, when attempted to be controlled or gov- 
erned by the accustomed mode of treatment, 
proves in most instances a material obstacle in the 
way of curing this malignant disease, and the 
quickness with which the hair of the scalp grows 
in children, has hitherto in many instances ren- 
dered every etfort ineffectual. It was -a constant 
failure under these inauspicious circumstances 
that led Mr. Barlow, a medical professor in Lan- 
cashire, to adopt the sulijoined lotion: Take of 
sulphate of potassa, recently prepared, 'i drachms; 
Spanish white soap H drachms; lime-water VJ 
ounces, and sjiirits of wine 2 drachms. Mix by 
shaking well in a phial. 

By bathing the affected head with this lotion a 
few times, morning and evening, and suffering the 
parts to dry without interruption, the scabs will 
loosen and peel off from the scalp, and leave the 
parts underneath perfectly healed, without tor- 
turing the patient by shaving the head, though 
the hair should be kept short. 

Ointment for the same. 
Take of spermaceti ointment 1 ounce ; tar oint- 
ment 1 ounce : powdered angustura bark 3 drachms. 
Rub the whole well in a marble mortar and apply 
to the parts affected. 

Alterative Medicines. 

In six cases out of ten this disease is aggrava- 
ted by a scrofulous taint of system, and when 
this is the case the following alterative medicines 
accelerates the cure : 

Iodide of potassium 1 drachm ; water 6 ounces. 
Give a teaspoon ful night and morning. 

Instead of the above 1 grain of calomel may be 
given going to rest, and repeated every night for 
a few nights; also, the use of arsenic and of salt 
water, externally and internally as an alterative, 
has been found very useful. 

In all cases the bowels ought to be kept open, 
and the diet should consist of wholesome and nu- 
tritive food, avoiding fish and salt meats. Clean- 
liness and occasional use of the warm bath will 
likewise be of service. 

Hooping Cough. 

This convulsive cough is occasioned by a viscid 
matter which cannot be easily expectorated. The 
poor infant, in endeavoring to bring it up, strains 
violently, till he becomes almost suffocated and 
convulsed. 

Remedies. — In this complaint, next to occa- 
sional vomiting, the daily use of the warm bath 
is most useful. Bleeding may sometimes be used 
to prevent inflammation of the internal mem- 
branes, or cupping between the neck and shoul- 
ders. Gentle emetics may be given early. 

Give a tablespoonful of milk of assafcetida 
every four hours, or half as much, with five or 
ten drops of wine of ipecac, or, in violent cases, 2 
or 3 grains of musk as often. 

To the above may be added, as auxiliaries, a 
Burgundy pitch plaster on the pit of the stomach, 
a flannel waistcoat or shirt next the skin, and a 
change of air when practicable. The diet should 
be light and easy of digestion, avoiding every- 
thing of a fat and oily nature. 

Emhrocation for Hooping Cough. 
Take of tartar emetic 2 drachms; boiling wa. 
ter 2 ounces: tincture of cantharides 1 drachm; ^ 
oil of thyme 3 drachms. Mix. A dessertspoon- y^ 
ful to be rubbed upon the chest every night and 
morning till it becomes soro. 



USEFUL DOMESTIC MEDICINES. 



173 



Regimen, etc., for Hooping Gough. 
A frequent change of air is exce'>dingly useful 
in hooping cough, particularly shjrt voyages at 
sea; at the same time flannel is to be worn next 
the skin. Young children should lie with their 
heads and shoulders raised, and when the cough 
occurs they ought to be placed on their feet and 
bent a little forward, to guard again.-<t suffocation. 
The diet should be light and the drink warm and 
mucilaginous. 

The Croup. 
This disease is almost peculiar to children, and 
sometimes fatal, if care is not taken in the com- 
mencement. It commonly approaches with the 
usual signs of a catarrh, but sometimes the pecu- 
liar symptoms occur at the first onset ; namely, a 
hoarseness, with a shrill ringing sound both in 
epeaking and coughing, as if the noise came from 
a brazen tube. At the same time there is a sense 
of pain about the larynx, and some difficulty of 
respiration, with a whizzing sound in inspiration, 
as if the passage of air was diminished, which is 
actually the case. The cough is generally dry, 
but if anything is spit up, in the worst cases it is 
a matter, sometimes resembling small portions of 
a membrane. There is also a frequent pulse, rest- 
lessness, and an uneasy sense of heat. The in- 
side of the mouth is sometimes without inflam- 
mation, but frequently a redness, and even a 
swelling, exists. Sometimes there is an appear- 
ance of matter on them, like that ejected by 
coughing. 

Iteniedies. — As soon as possible a brisk emetic 
should be administered, for the purpose of freeing 
the patient from the coagulable lymph which is 
already secreted. The powder, wine or syrup of 
ipecac will generally answer. In obstinate cases 
a teaspoonful of alum powder with one of ipecac 
is recommended. Topical bleeding, by means of 
leeches, should immediately succeed, and the dis- 
charge be encouraged. As soon as it diminishes, 
a blister so large as to cover the whole throat 
should be applied, and suffered to lie on for thirty 
hours or longer. Then warm steam should be 
inhaled, and the bowels should be evacuated by 
calomel. 

As soon as the emetic has operated sufficiently, 
1 grain doses of calomel with 5 grains of nitre 
may be administered, by which means the breath- 
ing will in general be soon relieved; but should 
it become more difficult in the course of a few 
hours the emetic is to be again repeated, and after 
its operation the opium again employed. This 
practice is to be alternately used till such time as 
the patient is out of danger, which will in general 
be in the course of three or four days. The child 
should be kept nearly upright in bed. 

The warm bath is very useful in this complaint. 
As an adjunct, apply an ointment to the breast, 
composed of 5 grains of tartar emetic, and 5 grains 
of powdered opium, to a drachm of spermaceti 
cerate, until eruptions are excited on the skin. 



USEFUL DOMESTIC MEDICINES. 

Dover's Sudorific Powder. 

Take of ipecacuanha in powder, opium (puri- 
fied), each 1 part; sulphate of potass, 8 parts. 
Triturate them together into a fine powder. 

The dose is from two to five or ten grains, re- 
peated according as the patient's stomach and 
strength can bear it. It is proper to avoid much 
drinking immediately after taking it, otherwise it 
is very apt to be rejected by vomiting before any 
other effects are produced. Perspiration should 
be kept up by diluents. 



Aloetic Powder with Tron. 
Take of socotrine aloL's, powdered, 1} ounces; 
myrrh, powdered, 2 ounces; extract of gertian 
and sulphate, each in powder, 1 ounce. Mix 
them. 

In this powder we have an aloetic and chaly- 
beate conjoined. It is a useful medicine, and is 
particularly employed in cases of obstructed men- 
struation. 

Compound Assafoetida Pills. 
Take of assafoetida, galbanum and myrih, each 
1 ounce ; rectified oil of amber, 1 drachm. Beat 
them into a mass with simple syrup. 

These pills arc anti-hysteric and emmenagogue, 
and are very well calculated for answering those 
intentions. Half a scruple, a scruple, or more, 
may be taken every night or oftener. 
Comi^ound Aloetic Pills. 
Take of hepatic aloes, 1 ounce ; ginger powder, 
1 drachm ; soap, \ ounce ; essential oil of pepper- 
mint, i drachm. 

Let the aloes and the ginger be rubbed well to- 
gether, then add the soap and the oil, so as to 
form a mass. 

These pills may be advantageously used for ob- 
viating the habitual costiveness of sedentary per- 
sons. The dose is from ten to fifteen grains. 
Aloetic and Myrrh Pills. 
Take of socotrine aloes, 4 drachms ; myrrh, 2 
drachms ; saffron, 1 drachm. Beat them into a 
mass with simple syrup. 

These pills have been long employed to stimu- 
late and open the bowels in chlorotic, hypochon- 
driacal, and long-diseased habits. The dose ia 
from ten grains to a scruple, twice a day. 
Plwnmer's Pills. 
These pills are alterative, diaphoretic, purga- 
tive, and beneficial in cutaneous eruptions, etc. 

Take of calomel, 1 drachm ; sulphate of anti- 
mony, 1 drachm ; gum guaiacum, 2 drachms. 

Mix these assiduously with mucilage, and divide 
into sixty pills, two pills forming the dose. To 
be taken at night. 

Compound Soap Liniment. 
Take of camphor, I ounce; soap, 3 ounces; 
spirit of rosemary, 1 pint. 

Digest the soap in the spirit of rosemary until 
it be dissolved, and add to it the camphor. This 
is useful to excite action on the surface, and is 
used to disperse scrofulous enlargements, and to 
moisten flannel which is applied to the throat in 
cases of quinsy. 

Cajepnt Opodeldoc. "^"^Ol. 

Take of almond soap, 2 ounces; alcohol, 1 pint; \~ 
camphor, 1 ounce; cajeput oil, 2 ounces. 

First dissolve the soap and camphor in the alco- 
hol in a retort, by means of a sand heat, and 
when the solution is about to congeal, or becomes 
nearly cold, add the oil of cajeput : shake them 
well together, and put it into bottles to congeal. 

This composition is a great improvement on the 
opodeldocs in general use, and in cases of rheu- 
matism, paralytic numbness, chilblains, enlarge- 
ments of joints, and indolent tumors, where the 
object is to rouse the action of absorbent vessels, 
and to stimuliite the nerves, it is a very valuable 
external remedy. 

In several cases of lumbago and deep-seated 
rheumatic pains, it has been known to succeed in 
the almost immediate removal of the disease. 
Liniment of Ammonia. 
Take of water of ammonia, i an ounce; olive 
oil, li ounces. 

Shake them together in a phiaJ till they are 
mixed. 



174 



MEDICINE. 



In the inflammatory quinsy, a piece of flannel, 
moistened with this mixture, applied to the throat, 
and renewed every four or five hours, is (me of the 
most efiicacious remedies. By means of this warm 
stimulating application, the neck, and sometimes 
the whole hody, is put into a sweat, which, after 
bleeding, either .-arries off or lessens the inflam- 
mation. Where the skin cannot bear the acri- 
mony of this mixture, a larger proportion of oil 
may be used. 

Ean-de-lnce. 

Ten or 12 grains of white soap are dissolved in 
4 ounces of rectified spirit of wine; after which 
the solution is strained. A draeliui of rectified 
oil of amber is then added, and the whole filtered. 
With this solution should be mixed such a pro- 
portion of the strongest volatile spirit of iiiiimonia, 
in a clear glass bottle, as will, when sufficiently 
shaken, produce a beautiful milk-white liquor. 
If a kind of creiim should settle on the surface, it 
will be requisite to add a small quantity of the 
spirituous solution of soap. Those who may wish 
to have this liquor water perfumed, may employ 
lavender or Hungary water instead of the spirit 
of wine. 

This composition is, however, seldom obtained 
in a genuine state when purchased at the shops. 
Its use as an external remedy is very extensive; 
for it has not only been employed for curing the 
bites of vipers, wasps, bees, gnats, ants, and other 
insects, but also for burns, and even the bite of a 
mad dog, though not always with uniform success. 
Besides, it affords one of the safest stimulants in 
cases of suffocation from mephitie vapors, and in 
that state of apoplexy which is termed serous, as 
likewise after excessive intoxication, and in all 
those paralytic complaints where the vessels of 
the skin or the muscular fibre require to be excited 
into action. 

Simple Ointment. 

Take of olive oil, 5 ounces ; white wa.x 2 ounces. 
This is a useful emollient ointment for softening 
the skin. 

Ointment of Hog's Lard. 

Take of prepared hog's lard, 2 pounds; rose- 
watci-. .3 ounces. Beat the lard with the rose- wa- 
ter iini.l they be mixed: then melt the mixture 
with a slow fire, and set it apart that the water 
may subside; after which, pour off the lard from 
the water, constantly stirring until it be cold. 

This ointment may be used for softening the 
skin, and healing the chaps. 
Lip Salve. 

Melt together 2^ ounces of white wax ; 3 ounces 
of spermaceti ; 7 ounces oil of almonds ; 1 drachm 
of balsam of Peru; and IJ ounces of glj'cerin 
■wrapped up in a linen bag. 

Pour the salve into small gallipots or boxes, and 
cover with bladder and white leather. 

Basilicon, or Yellow Resinous Ointment. 

Take of yellow resin, 1 pound; yellow wax, 1 
pound; olive oil, 1 pint. Melt the resin and wax 
with a gentle heat; then add the oil, and strain 
the mixture while yet warm. 

This plaster is employed for the dressing of 
broken chilblains, and other sores that require 
stimulating; it is also used to drive milk away, 
being placed over the tumid breasts when the 
child is weaned. 

Turners' Cerate. 

This ointment is known by the vulgar name of 
Turners' cerate, as curing the wounds of Turners. 
It is generally used for broken chilblains. 

Take of prepared calamine, yellow wax, each 
j pound; olive oil, 1 pint. 

Melt the wax with the oil, and as soon as they 



begin to thicken, sprinkle in the prepared cala< 
mine and keep it stirring till the cerate is cool. 
Savin Ointment. 

Take of fresh savin leaves, separated from th« 
stalks, and bruised, J pound ; prepared hog's lard, 
2 pounds; yellow wax, i pound. Boil the leaves 
in the lard until they become crisp; then filter 
with expression ; lastly, add the wax, and melt 
them together. 

This is an excellent issue ointment, being, in 
many respects, preferable to that of cantharides. 
It is mixed with equal parts of blistering oint- 
ment, in order to keep up a discharge. 
Jifercnrial Ointment. 

Take of mercury, and mutton suet, each, 1 part; 
hogs' lard, 3 parts. Rub the mercury diligently 
in a mortar with a little of the hogs' lard, until the 
globules disappear; then add the remainder of the 
lard, and rub until the ointment is completely pre- 
pared. 

One drachm of this ointment contains twelve 
grains of mercury. 

The preparation of mercurial ointment requires 
much labor, care, and patience. During the tri- 
turation, the mercury is mechanically divided into 
minute globules.which are prevented from running 
together again by the viscosity of the fat. These 
globules at length disappear, being oxidized, or 
rendered black by intimate mixture with the lard. 
Whatever tends to favor this (for instance, a slight 
degree of rancidity of the lard) shortens the time, 
and lessens the labor required for the preparation 
of the ointment. It is not uncommon, however, 
to use other means, which are not admissible, to 
facilitate the process, such as the use of sulphur 
or turpentine. The first may be detected by the 
very black color of the ointment, and also by the 
sulphurous odor exhaled when a paper covered 
with a little of it is held over the flame of a can- 
dle. The turpentine is detected by its odor also, 
when the ointment containing it is treated in the 
same manner. 

When newly prepared, mercurial ointment has 
a light gray or bluish color, owing to its contain- 
ing some unoxidized metal, which separates in 
globules when it is liquefied by a gentle heat; 
when kept for some time the color is much deep- 
ened, and less metallic mercury is seen, owing to 
the more complete oxidizement of the metal. 

Cerate of Spanish Flies. 

Take of cerate of spermaceti, softened with 
heat, 6 drachms; Spanish flies, finely powdered, 
1 drachm. Mix them by melting over a gentle 
fire. 

Under this form cantharides may be made to 
act to any extent that is requisite. , It may sup- 
plj' the place either of the blistering plaster or 
ointment, and there are cases in which it is pre- 
ferable to either. It is particularly more conve- 
nient than the plaster of cantharides, where tha 
skin to which the blister is to be applied is pre- 
viously much affected, as in cases of small-pox, 
and in supporting a drain under the form of issue 
it is less apt to spread than the softer ointment. 

Cimiponnd Burgundy Pitch Plaster. 

Take of Burgundy pitch 2 pounds ; labdanum 1 
pound; yellow resin and yellow wax each 4 
ounces ; expressed oil of mace 1 ounce. 

To the pitch, resin and wax melted together, 
add first the labdanum and then the oil of mace. 

After a long-continued cough in the winter, a 
Burgundy pilch plaster should be put over the 
breast-bone. 

Compound Labdanum Plaster. 

Take of labdanum 3 ounces; frankincense 1 



USEFUL DOMESTIC MEDICINES. 



175 



ounce; cinnamon, powdered, expressed oil of 
mace, each i an ounce; essential oil of mint 1 
dracbm. 

To the melted frankincense add first the labda- 
nuin, softened by heat, then the oil of mace. 
Mix these afterwards with the cinnamon and oil 
of mint and beat them together in a warm mor- 
tar into a plaster. Let it be kept in a close 
vessel. 

Tliis has been considered as a very elegant 
stomach plaster. It is contrived so as to be 
easily made occasionally (for such cnuipositions, 
on account of their volatile ingredients, are not 
fit for keeping), and to be but moderately adhe- 
sive, so as tKjt to oifend the skin, also that it may 
without difficulty be frequently renewed, which 
these applications, in order to their producing 
any considerable effect, require to be. They keep 
up a perspiration over the part affected, and create 
a local action, which diverts inflammation ; con- 
sumption from colds in delicate habits is by such 
means frequently obviated. 

Adhesive Plaster. 

Take of common, or litharge plaster, 5 parts, 
white resin, 1 part. 

Melt them together, and spread the liquid com- 
pound thin on strips of linen by means of a spa- 
tula or table knife. 

This plaster is very adhesive, and is used for 
keeping on other dressings, etc. 
Court- Plaster. 

Bruise a sufficient quantity of fish glue, and let 
it soak for twenty-four hours in a little warm 
water; expose it to heat over the fire, to dissipate 
the greater part of the water, and supply its place 
by colorless brandy, which will mix the gelatine 
of the glue. Strain the whole through a piece of 
open linen ; on cooling it will form a trembling 
jelly. 

Now extend a piece of black silk on a wooden 
frame, and fix it in that position by means of tacks 
or pack thread. Then with a brush made of 
badger's hair apply the glue, after it has been ex- 
posed to a gentle heat to render it liquid. When 
this stratum is dry, which will soon be the case, 
apply a second, and then a third if necessary, to 
give the plaster a certain thickness ; as soon as the 
whole is dry cover it with two or three strata of a 
strong tincture of balsam of Peru. 

This is the real English court-plaster; it is plia- 
ble and never breaks, characters which distin- 
guish it from so many other preparations sold 
under the same name. 

Compound Tincture o/ Rhubarb. 

Take of rhubarb, sliced, 2 ounces ; liquorice root, 
bruised, i ounce ; ginger, powdered, safi"ron, each 
2 drachms ; distilled water, 1 pint; proof spirits of 
wine, 12 ounces by measure. 

Digest for 14 days, and strain. Dose, J an 
oance as an aperient, or 1 ounce in violent diarrhoea^ 
Tincture of Ginger. 

Take of ginger, in coarse powder 2 ounces; 
proof spirit, 2 pints. 

Digest in a gentle heat for 7 days, and strain. 

This tincture is cordial and stimulant, and is 
generally employed as a corrective to purgative 
drauglits. 

Compound Tincture of Senna. 

Take of senna leaves, 2 ounces; jalap root, 1 
ounce ; coriander seeds, i ounce ; proof spirits, 2^ 
pints. 

Digest for 7 days, and to the strained liquor 
add 4 ounces of sugar candy. 

This tincture is a useful carminative and ca- 
thartic, especially to those who have accustomed 



themselves to the use of spirituous liquors ; it often 
relieves flatulent complaints and colics where the 
common cordials have little effect; the dose is 
from one to two ounces. It is a very useful addi- 
tion to castor oil, in order to -take off its mawk- 
ish taste; and, as coinciding with the virtues of 
the oil, it is therefore much preferable to brandy, 
shrub, and such like liquors, which otherwise are 
often found ntfcessary to make the oil sit on the 
stomach. 

Solution of Citrate of Magnesia. 

Take of magnesia, 120 grains; citric acid, 450 
grains; bicarbonate of potassa, 40 grains; dis- 
solve the citric acid in 4 fluidounces of water, and, 
having added the magnesia, stir until it is dis- 
solved. Filter the solution into a strong twelve- 
ounce bottle, into which has been poured 2 fluid- 
ounces of syrup of citric acid. Then add the bi- 
carbonate of potassa, and enough water almost to 
fill the bottle, which must be closed with a cork, 
and this secured with twine. Shake moderately 
till all is dissolved. This is a very pleasant drink, 
and in the dose of a tumblerful a pretty active 
and cooling purgative. 

Duffy's Elixir. 

Take of senna, 2 pounds ; rhubarb shavings, 2 
pounds; jalap root, 1 pound; caraway seeds, 1 
pound; aniseeds, 2 pounds; sugar, 4 pounds; 
shavings of red sanders-wood, i pound. 

Digest these in 10 gallons of spirits of wine for 
14 days, and strain for use. 

This elixir possesses almost the same qualities 
as the Compound Tincture of Senna. The above 
quantities may be reduced to as small a scale aa 
may be required. 

The Black Drop. 

Take ^ a pound of opium, sliced ; 3 pints of 
good verjuice; IJ ounces of nutmeg; and ^ an 
ounce of saffron ; boil them to a proper thickness, 
then add a i of a pound of sugar and 2 spoonsful 
of yeast. Set the whole in a warm place near the 
fire for 6 or 8 weeks, then place it in the open air 
until it becomes of the consistence of a syrup j 
lastly, decant, filter, and bottle it up, adding a 
little sugar to each botl'e. Dose, 5 to 15 drops. 

The above ought to yield about two pints of the 
strained liquor. 

Godfrey's Cordial. 

Dissolve i an ounce of opium, 1 drachm of oil 
of sassafras, in 2 ounces of spirits of wine. Now 
mix 4 pounds of treacle with 1 gallon of boiling 
water, and when cold mi.\ both solutions. This 
is often used to soothe the pains of children, 
etc. It must be employed with caution, however, 
as it contains opium. It is an injurious error to 
keep children quiet by stupifying them constantly 
or frequently with opiates, or other narcotics. 
Balsam of Honey. 

Take of balsam of Tolu, 2 ounces; gum storax, 
2 drachms; opium, 2 drachms; honey, 8 ounces. 
Dissolve these in a quart of spirits of wine. 

This balsam is exceedingly useful in allaying 
the irritation of cough. The dose is 1 or 2 tea- 
spoonsful in a little tea or warm water. 

Tincture of the Balsam of Tolu. 

Take of balsam of Tolu, I ounce ; alcohol, 1 pint. 
Digest until the balsam be dissolved, and then 
strain the tincture through a paper. 

This solution of the balsam of Tolu possesses 
all the virtues of the balsam itself. It may b« 
taken internally, with the several intentions for 
which that balsam is proper, to the quantity of a 
teaspoonful or two in any convenient vehicle. 

Mixed with simple syrup it forms an agreeable 
balsamic syrup. 



176 



MEDICINE. 



Tincture of Peruvian BnrJc. 

Take of Peruvian hark, 4 ounces ; proof spirit, 
2 pints. Digest for 10 days and strain. 

It may be given from a teaspoon fnl to i an 
ounce, or an ounce, according to the different pur- 
poses it is intended to answer. 

Hiuham's T''ictitre of Bark. 

Take of Peruvian hark, powdered, 2 ounces; 
the peel of Seville oranges, dried, IJ ounces ; Vir- 
ginian snakeroot, bruised, 3 drachms; saffron, 1 
drachm: cochineal, powdered, 2 scruples; proof 
spirit, 20 ounces. Digest for 14 days and strain. 

As a corroborant and stomachic, it is given in 
doses of 1 to 8 drachms; but when employed for 
the cure of intermittent fevers, it must be taken 
to a greater extent. 

Tinrtnre of Guaiacum. 

Take of guaiacum, 4 ounces; rectified spirits of 
■wine, 2 pints. Digest for 7 days and filter. 

What is called gum guaiacum is, in fact, a resin, 
and perfectly soluble in alcohol. This solution is 
a powerful stimulating sudorific, and maybe given 
in doses of about ^ an ounce in rheumatic and 
asthmatic cases. 

Aninioniated Tincture of Oiutiacum. 

Take of resin of guaiacum, in powder, 4 ounces ; 
ammoniated alcohol, in powder, 1^ pounds. Digest 
for 7 days and filter through a paper. 

This is a very elegant and efficacious tincture; 
the ammoniated spirit readily dissolving the resin, 
and, at the same time, promoting its medical vir- 
tues. In rheumatic cases, a tea, or even table- 
gpoonful, taken every morning and evening, in 
any convenient vehicle, particularly in milk, has 
proved of singular service. 

Campound Tincture of Benzoin. 

Take of benzoin, .3 ounces ; purified storax, 2 
ounces: balsam of Tolu, 1 ounce; socotrine aloes, 
J an ounce : rectified spirits of wine, 2 pints. Digest 
for 7 days and filter. 

This preparation may be considered as an ele- 
gant simplification of some very complicated com- 
positions, which were celebrated under different 
names ; such as Baume de Commandeur, Wade's 
Balsam, Friar's Balsam, Jesuit's Drops, etc. These, 
in general, consisted of a confused farrago of dis- 
cordant substances. The dose is a teaspoonful in 
some warm water four times a day, in chronic 
bronchitis and spitting of blood. It is useful, also, 
■when applied on lint, to recent wounds, and serves 
the purpose of a scab, but must not be soon re- 
moved. Poured on sugar it sometimes checks 
spitting of blood immediately. 

Tincture of Cntechti. 

Take of extract of catechu, 3 ounces ; cinnamon, 
bruised, 2 ounces ; diluted alcohol, 2 pints. Digest 
for seven days, and strain through paper. 

The cinnamon is a very useful addition to the 
catechu, not oi,ly as it warms the stomach, but 
likewise as it covers its roughness and astringency, 

This tincture is of service in all kinds of deflux- 
ions, catarrhs, loosenesses, and other disorders 
where astringent medicines are indicated. From 
one to three teaspoonsful may be taken every now 
and then, in red wine, or any other proper vehicle 
Godhold's Vegetable Balsam. 

A pound of sugar candy, dissolved by heat, in 
a quantity of white wine vinegar, and evaporated 
to the measure of 1 pint, during which operation 
as much garlic as possible is dissolved with it, an- 
swers all the purposes of Godbold's Vegetable Bal- 
sam, and is probably the same medicine. 
Spirit of Nutmeg. 

Take of bruised nutmegs, 2 ounces; proof spirit, 



1 gallon ; water sufficient t: prevent burning. 
Distil off a gallon. 

This is used to take off the bad flsivor of medi- 
cine, and is a grateful cordial. 

Lavender Water. 

The common mode of preparing this, is to put 

3 drachms of the essential oil of lavender, and a 
drachm of the essence of ambergris, into 1 pint of 
spirit of wine. 

Water of pure Ammonia. 

Take of sal ammoniac, 1 pound; quick-lime, 2 
pounds; water, 1 gallon. Add to the lime two 
pints of the water. Let them stand together an 
hour; then add the sal ammonia, and the other 
six pints of water, boiling, and immediately cover 
the vessel. Pour out the liquor when cold, and 
distil off, with a slow fire, one pint. This spirit 
is too acrimonious for internal use, and has there- 
fore been chiefly employed for smelling in faint- 
ings, etc., though, when properly diluted, it may 
be given inwardly with safety. 

Water of Acetate d Ammonia. 

Take of ammonia, by weight, 2 ounces ; dis- 
tilled vinegar, 4 pints ; or as much as is sufficient 
to saturate the ammonia. 

This is an excellent diaphoretic saline liquor. 
Taken warm in bed, it proves commonly a power- 
ful sudorific: and as it operates without heat, it 
is used in febrile and inflammatory disorders, 
where medicines of the warm kind, if they fail of 
procuring sweat, aggravate the distemper. Its 
action may likewise be determined to the kidneys, 
by walking about in cool air. The common dose 
is half an ounce, either by itself, or along with 
other medicines adapted to the intention. Its 
strength is not a little precarious, depending on 
that of the vinegar. 

Black Pectoral Lozenges. 

Take of extract of liquorice, gum arable, each, 

4 ounces ; white sugar, 8 ounces. 

Dissolve them in warm water, and strain ; then 
evaporate the mixture over a gentle fire till it be 
of a proper consistence for being formed into 
lozenges, which are to be cut out of any shape. 
White Pectoral Lozenges. 

Take of fine sugar, 1 pound ; gum arabic, 4 
ounces; starch, 1 ounce; flowers of benzoin, J of 
a drachm. 

Having beaten them all in a powder, make them 
into a proper mass with rose-water, so as to form 
lozenges. 

These compositions are very agreeable pecto- 
rals, and may be used at pleasure. They are cal- 
culated for promoting expectoration, and allay- 
ing the tickling in the throat, which provokes 
coughing. 

Si/rup of Ginger. \ 

Take of ginger, bruised, 4 ounces; boiling dis- 
tilled water, 3 pints. 

Macerate four hours, and strain the liquor; 
then add double refined sugar, and make info a 
syrup. 

This syrup promotes the circulation through 
the extreme vessels ; it is to be given in torpid 
and phlegmatic habits, where the stomach is sub- 
ject to be loaded with slime, and the bowels dis- 
tended with flatulency. Hence it enters into the 
compound tincture of cinnamon and the aromatio 
powder. 

Dyspeptic patients, from hard drinking, and 
those subject to flatulency and gout, have been 
known to receive considerable benefit from the use 
of ginger tea, taking two or three cupfuls for 
breakfast, suiting it to theii palate. 



USEFUL DOMESTIC MEDICINES. 



177 



Syrup of Poppies. 

Tiike of the heads of white poppies, dried, 3i 
pounds; double refined sugar, 6 pounds; distilled 
water, 8 gallons. 

Slice and bruise the heads, then boil them in 
the water to three gallons, and press out the de- 
coction. Reduce this, by boiling, to about four 
pints, and strain it while hot through a sieve, 
then through a thin woollen cloth, and set it aside 
fcr twelve hours, that the grounds may subside. 
Boil the liquor poured off from the grounds to 
three piMts, and dissolve the sugar in it, that it 
may be made a syrup. 

This syrup, impregnated with the narcotic 
matter of the poppy-head, is given to children in 
doses of two or three drachms, and to adults of 
from half an ounce to one ounce and upwards, 
for easing pnin, procuring rest, and answering the 
other intentions of mild medication. Particular 
care is requisite in its preparation, that it may be 
always made, as nearly as possible, of the same 
strength. 

Syrup of Violets. 

Take of fresh flowers of the violet, 1 pound; 
boiling distilled water, 3 pints. 

Macerate for twenty-five hours, and strain the 
liquor through a cloth, without pressing, and add 
double refined sugar, to make the syrup. This 
is an agreeable laxative medicine for young chil- 
dren. 

Syrup of Squills. 

Take of vinegar of squills, 2 pounds; double 
refined sugar, in powder, 3J pounds. 

Dissolve the sugar with a gentle heat, so as to 
form a syrup. 

This syrup is used chiefly in doses of a spoon- 
ful or two for promoting expectoration, which it 
does very powerfully. It is also given as an 
emetic to children. 

Oxymel of Squills, 

Take of clarified honey, 3 pounds; vinegar of 
squills, 2 pints. 

Boil them in a glass vessel, with a slow fire, to 
the thickness of a syrup. 

Oxymel of squills is a useful aperient, deter- 
gent, and expectorant, and of great service in hu- 
moral asthmas, coughs, and other disorders where 
thick phlegm abounds. It is given in doses of 
two or three drachms, along with some aromatic 
water, as that of cinnamon, to prevent the great 
nausea which it would otherwise be apt to excite. 
In large doses it proves emetic. 

Vinegar of Squills. 

Take of squills, recently dried, 1 pound; vine- 
gar, 6 pints; proof spirit,^ pint. 

Macerate the squills with the vinegar, in a glass 
vessel, with a gentle heat, for twenty-four hours, 
then express the liquor, and set it aside until the 
fceces subside. To the decanted liquor add the 
spirit. 

Vinegar of squills is a medicine of great anti- 
quity. It is a very powerful promoter of secretion, 
and hence it is frequently used with great success 
as a diuretic and expectorant. The dose of it 
is from a drachm to half an ounce. Where crudi- 
ties abound in the first passages, it may be given 
at first in a larger dose, to evacuate them by vom- 
iting. It is most conveniently exhibited along 
■with cinnamon, or other agreeable aromatic wa- 
ters, wnich prevent the nau.sea it would otherwise, 
even in small doses, be apt to occasion. 

Tar-water. 
Take of tar, 2 pints ; water, 1 gallon. Mix, by 
stirring them with a wooden rod for a quarter of I 
12 



an hour, and, after the tar has subsided, strain tha 
liquor, and keep it in well-corked phials. 

Tar-water should have the color of white wine, 
and an empyreumatic taste. It is frequently 
used as a remedy in chronic bronchitis. It acta 
as a stimulant, raising the pulse and increasing 
the discharge by the skin and kidneys. It may 
be drunk to the extent of a pint or two in the 
course of a day. 

Decoction of Sarsaparilla. 

Take of sarsiiparilla root, cut, 6 ounces; dis- 
tilled water, 8 pints. 

After macerating for two hours with a heat about 
195°, then take out the root and bruise it; add it 
again to the liquor, and macerate it for two hours 
longer; then boil down the liquor to 4 pints, and 
strain it. The dose is from 4 ounces to half a 
pint, or more, daily. 

Compound Decoction of Sarsaparilla. 

Take of sarsaparilla root, cut and bruised, 6 
ounces; the bark of sassafras root, the shavings 
of guaiacum wood, liquorice root, each 1 ounce; 
the bark of mezereon root, 3 drachms ; distilled 
water, 10 pints. 

Digest with a gentle heat for six hours; then 
boil down the liquor to one-half (or five pints), 
adding the bark of the mezereon root towards the 
end of boiling. Strain off the liquor. The dose 
is the same as the last, and for the same purposes. 

These decoctions are of use in purifying the 
blood, and resolving obstructions in scorbutic 
and scrofulous cases ; also in cutaneous eruptions, 
and many other diseases. Obstinate swellings, 
that had resisted the effects of other remedies 
for above twelve months, have been said to be 
cured by drinking a quart of decoction of this 
kind daily for some weeks. Decoctions of sarsa- 
parilla ought to be made fresh every day, for they 
very soon become quite fetid, and unfit for use, 
sometimes in less than twenty-four hours, in 
warm weather. 

Decoction of the Woods. 

Take of guaiacum raspings, 3 ounces ; raisins, 
stoned, 2 ounces; sassafras root, sliced, liquorieo 
root, bruised, each 1 ounce; water, 10 pounds. 

Boil the guaiacum and raisins with the water, 
over a gentle fire, to tbe consumption of one-half, 
adding, towards the end, the sassafras and liquor- 
ice, and strain the decoction without expression. 

This decoction is of use in some rheumatic and 
cutaneous affections. It may be taken by itself, to 
the quantity of a quarter of a pint, twice or thrice 
a day, or used as an assistant in a course of mer- 
curial or antimonial alteratives; the patient ia 
either case keeping warm, in order to promote the 
operation of the medicine. 

Water-gruel. 

Put a large spoonful of oatmeal into a pint of 
water, stir it well together, and let it boil 3 or 4 
minutes, stirring it often. Then strain it through 
a sieve, put in some salt according to taste, and, if 
necessary, add a piece of fresh butter. Stir with 
a spoon until the butter is melted, when it will be 
fine and smooth. Raisins are often added to it. 

Panada. 
Put a blade of mace, a large piece of the crumb 
of bread, and a quart of water, in a clean sauce- 
pan. Let it boil two minutes, then take out the 
bread, and bruise it very fine in a basin. Mix 
with it as much of the warm water as it will re- 
quire, pour away the rest, and sweeten it to the 
taste of the patient. If necessary, put in a piece 
of butter of the size of a walnut, but addno wine. 
Grate in a little nutmeg if requisite. 



178 



MEDICINE. 



Isinglass Jelly, etc. 
Put an ounce of isinglass and half an ounce of 
cloves into a quart of water. Boil it down to a 
pint, strnin it upon a pound of loaf sugar, and 
when cold add a little wine, when it will be fit for 
use. A very nourishing beverage may be made 
by merely boiling the isinglass with milk, and 
Bweetening with lump sugar. 

Wine Whey. 
Boil a pint of milk, and put into it a glass of 
sherry or Madeira wine. Set it over the fire till 
it boils again; then put it aside till the curd has 
settled J then strain it, and sweeten to taste. 

Beef -tea. 
Cut a pound of lean beef into small pieces, pour 
Over it a pint of cold water, and let it soak two 
hours; then boil it half an hour. Remove the 
scum that rises and all the fat or oil from the top. 
Pour off, and season with salt, but do not strain it. 

Beef-essence. 
Put a pound of lean beef, cut into pieces, into a 
porter bottle, without water; cork it loosely, and 
place it in a pot of water, which should be made 
to boil around it for an hour. The essence of the 
meat will thus be drawn out in the liquid state. 

Transparent Soup for Convalescents. 
Cut the meat from a leg of veal into small pieces, 
and break the bone into several bits. Put the meat 
into a very large jug, and the bones at top, wiih 
a bunch of common sweet herbs, a quarter of an 
ounce of mace, and half a pound of Jordan al- 
monds, finely blanched and beaten. Pour on it 
4 quarts of boiling water, and let it stand all 
night covered, close by the fireside. The next day 
put it into a well-tinned saucepan, and let it boil 
slowly, till it is reduced to 2 quarts. Be careful, 
at the time it is boiling, to skim it, and take off 
the fat as it rises. Strain into a punch-bowl, and 
when settled for two hours pour it into a clenn 
saucepan, clear from the sediments, if -any. Add 
3 ounces of rice or 2 ounces of vermicelli, previ- 
ously boiled in a little water. When once more 
bciled, it will be fit for use. 

Seidlilz Poicders. 

Take of Rochelle salts, 1 drachm ; carbonate of 
soda, 25 grains; tartaric acid, 20 grains. 

Dissolve the two first in a tumbler of water; 
then add the latter, and swallow without loss of 
time. 



SALUTARY CAUTIONS. 

Purification of Water by Charcoal. 

Nothing has been found so effectual for preserv- 
ing water sweet at sea, during long voyages, as 
charring the insides of the casks well before they 
are filled. Care ought at the same time to be 
taken that the casks should never be filled with 
sea-water, as sometimes happens, in order to save 
the trouble of shifting the ballast, because this 
tends to hasten the corruption of the fresh water 
afterwards put into them. When the water be- 
comes impure and offensive at sea, from ignorance 
of the preservative effect produced on it by char- 
ring the casks previous to their being filled, it 
may be rendered perfectly sweet by putting a 
little fresh charcoal, in powder into each cask be- 
fore it is tapped, or by filtering it through fresh- 
burnt and coarsely powdered charcoal. 

'Cleanliness. 
To pre.serve seamen in health and prevent the 
prevalence of scurvy and other diseases, it will be 



further necessary to keep the ship perfectly clean 
and to have the different parts of it daily purified 
by a free admission of air when the weather will 
admit of it, and likewise by frequent fumigations. 
This precaution will more particularly be neces- 
sary for the purification of such places as are re- 
markably close and confined. 

Prevention of Dampness and Cold. 

The coldness and dampness of the atmosphere 
are to be corrected by suflScient fires. 

Cleanliness on bonrd of a ship is highly neces- 
sary for the preservation of the health of seamen, 
but the custom of frequent swabbings or washings 
between the decks, as is too frequently practised, 
is certainly injurious, and greatly favors the pro- 
duction of scurvy and other diseases by a constant 
dampness being kept up. 

Exercise and Amusements. 

The men should be made to air their hammocks 
and bedding every fine day; they should wash 
their bodies and apparel often, for which purpose 
an adequate supply of soap ought to be allowed, 
and they should change their linen and other i 
clothes frequently. In rainy weather, on being 
relieved from their duty on deck by the succeed- 
ing watch, they should take off their wet clothes 
instead of keeping them on and lying down in 
them, as they are too apt to do. Two sets of ham- 
mocks ought to be provided for them. In fine, 
pleasant weather, and after their usual duty is 
over, they should be indulged in any innocent 
amusement that will keep their minds as well as 
bodies in a state of pleasant activity, and perhaps 
none is then more proper than dancing. This 
makes a fiddle or a pipe and tabor desirable ac- 
quisitions on board of every ship bound on a long 
voyage. 

Effects of Climate, etc. 

In warm climates the crews of ships are heal- 
thier at sea when the air is dry and serene, and 
the heat moderated by gentle breezes, than when 
rainy or damp weather prevails; and they usually 
enjoy better health when the ship is moored at a 
considerable distance from the shore, and to wind- 
ward of any marshy ground or stagnant waters, 
than when it is anchored to leeward of these and 
lies close in with the land. Masters of vessels 
stationed at or trading to any parts between the 
tropics, will therefore act prudently when they 
have arrived at their destined port, to anchor at a 
considerable distance from the shore, and as far to 
windward of all swamps, pools and lakes as can 
conveniently be done, as the noxious vapors 
which will be wafted to the crew when the ship is 
in a station of this nature will not fail to give rise 
to disease among them. 

Caution to be observed when on Shore. 

When unavoidably obliged to submit to such an 
inconvenience, some means ought to be adopted 
to prevent disagreeable consequences from ensu- 
ing. For this purpose a large sail should be 
hoisted at the foremast, or most windward part 
of the ship, so as to prevent the noxious vapors 
from coining abaft ; the cabin, steerage and be- 
tween the decks should be fumigated now and 
then, and the seamen allowed to smoke tobacco 
moderately. 

Unless absolutely necessary it will be improper 
to permit any of the crew to sleep from on board 
when stationed off an unhealthy shore, but when 
necessity obliges them to do so for the purpose 
of wooding or watering, a tent or marquee should 
be erected, if a proper house cannot be procured, 
and this should be pitched on the dryest and 
highest spot that can be found, being so situated 



SALUTARY CAUTIONS. 



179 



RS that the door shall open towards the sea. Un- 
der cover of this a sufficient number of hummocks 
are to be suspended for the accommodation of the 
men by night, as they shculd by no means be suf- 
fered to sleep on the open ground. 

If the tent happens unfortunately to be in the 
neighborhood of a morass, or has unavoidably 
been pitched on flat, moist ground, it will be ad- 
visable to keep up a constant fire in it by day as 
well as by night, and as a further preventive 
against those malignant disorders which are apt 
to arise in such situatiims, the men should be di- 
rected to smoke moderately of tobacco, and to 
take a half or a quarter of a wineglassful of the 
compound tincture of Peruvian bark every morn- 
ing on an empty stomach, and the same quantity 
again at night. 

Cautions ichen in Tropical Climates. 

In tropical climates the healthiness of seamen 
will much depend upon avoiding undue exposure 
to the sun, rain, night air, long fasting, intempe- 
rance, unwholesome shore duties, esjiecially du- 
ring the sickly season, and upon the attention paid 
to the various regulations and preventive meas- 
ures. The bad (.-fleets of remnining too long in 
port at any one time (independent of irregulari- 
ties of harbor duties, particularly after sunset, as 
well as during his meridian power) cannot be too 
strongly adverted to by the commander of every 
ship, and therefore a measure of the highest im- 
portance in the navy is the employment of ne- 
groes and natives of the country, or at least men 
accustomed to the torrid zone, in wooding, water- 
ing, transporting stores, rigging, clearing, careen- 
ing ships, etc., and in fine in all such occupations 
as might subject the seamen to excessive heat or 
noxious exhalations, which cannot fail to be highly 
dangerous to the health of the unacclimated 
seaman. 

The practice of heaving down vessels of war in 
the West Indies, in the ordinary routine of ser- 
vice at least, cannot be too highly deprecated, as 
well from the excessive fatigue and exertion it 
demands as because it is a process which requires 
for its execution local security, or in other words 
a land that is locked, and therefore generally an 
unhealthy harbor. The instances of sickness 
and mortality from the effects of clearing a foul 
hold in an unhealthy harbor are too numerous to 
be specified. 

Intoxication. 

A very productive source of disease in warm 
climates among seamen is an immoderate use of 
spirituous and fermented liquors, as they are too 
apt, whilst in a state of intoxication, to throw 
themselves on the bare ground where, perhaps, 
they lie exposed for many hours to the influence 
of the meridian sun, the heavy dews of the eve- 
ning or the dam\i, chilling air of the night. The 
commander of a ship who pays attention to the 
health of his crew, will therefore take every pos- 
sible precaution to prevent his men from being 
guilty of an excess of this nature, and likewise 
from lying out in the open air when overcome by 
fatigue and hard labor. 

The difi"erent voyages of that celebrated navi- 
gator, Captain Cook, as well as that of the unfor- 
tunate La Perouse, incontestibly prove that by due 
care and a proper regimen seamen may be pre- 
served from the scurvy and other diseases which 
have formerly been inseparable from long sea 
voyages, and that they can thus support the fa- 
tigues of the longest navigations in all climates 
. and under a burning sun. It has been thoroughly 
proved, also, that grog is not at all necessary, or, 
in the long run, beneficial to seamen. In times 



of the greatest exposure and fatigue, as during 
severe storms, hot coflFee has been found a mora 
effective stimulant than spirits, without the dan- 
gers connected with the use of the latter. 

Noxious Vapors. 
Smoking or fumigating ships with charcoal or 
sulphur, is the most effectual means of killing all 
kinds of vermin, and is therefore always resorted 
to; but it is recommended th;it no sailor or boy 
be allowed to go under the decks until the hatches, 
and all the other openings, have been for three 
hours uncovered; in that time all noxious vapors 
will be effectually dissipated. 

Captain Cook's Rules for Preserving the Healih 
of Seamen, 

1. The crew to be at three watches. The men 
will by this means have time to shift and dry 
themselves, and get pretty well refreshed by sleep 
before called aguin to duty. When there is no 
pressing occasion, seamen ought to be refreshed 
with as much uninterrupted sleep as a common 
day laborer. 

2. To have dry clothes to shift themselves after 
getting wet. One of the oflicers to see that every 
uiiin, on going wet from his watch, be immediately 
shifted with dry clothes, and the same on going 
to bed. 

3. To keep their persons, hammocks, bedding, 
and clothes clean and dry. This commander 
made his men pass in review before him one day 
in every week, and saw that they had changed 
their linen, and were as neat and clean as circum- 
stances would admit. He had also every day the 
hammocks carried on the booms, or some other 
airy part of the ship, unlashed, and the bedding 
thoroughly shaken and aired. When the weather 
prevented the hammocks being carried on deck, 
they were constantly taken down, to make room 
for the fires, the sweeping, and other operations. 
When possible, fresh water was always allowed to 
the men to wash their clothes, as soap will not 
mix with sea-water, and linen washed in brine 
never thoroughly dries. 

4. To keep the ship clean between decks. 

5. To have frequent fires between decks, and at 
the bottom of the well. Captain Cook's method 
was to have iron pots with dry wood, which he 
burned between decks, in the well, and other parts 
of the ship; during which time some of the crew 
were employed in rubbing, with canvas or oakum, 
every part that bad the least damp. Where the 
heat from the stoves did not readily absorb the 
moisture, loggerheads, heated red hot, and laid on 
sheets of iron, speedily effected the purpose. 

6. Proper attention to be paid to the ship's 
coppers, to keep them clean and free from ver- 
digris. 

7. The fat that is boiled out of the salt beef or 
pork, never to be given to the men. 

8. The men to be iiUowed plenty of fresh water, 
at the ship's return to port; the water remaining 
on board to be started, and fresh water from the 
shore to be taken in its room. 

By means of the above regulations (in addition 
to rules relative to temperance, and supplying the 
crews as much as possible with fresh meat and 
vegetables), this celebrated navigator performed a 
voyage of upwards of three years, in every climate 
of the globe, with the loss of only one man. 

To obtain Fresh Water from the Sea. 
The method of obtaining fresh water from the 
sea by distillation, was introduced into the Eng- 
lish navy in the year 1770, by Dr. Irving, for 
which he obtained a parliamentary reward of 
£5000. 



180 



MEDICINE. 



In order to give a clear notion of Dr. Irving's 
method, let us suppose a teakettle to be made 
without a fpout, and with a hole in the lid in the 
place of the knob; the kettle being filled with 
eea-water, the fresh vapor, which arises from the 
water as it boils, will issue through the bole in 
the lid ; into that hole fit the mouth of a tobacco 
pipe, letting the stem have a little inclination 
downwards, then will the vapor of fresh water 
take its course through the stem of the tube, and 
may be collected by fitting a proper vessel to its 
end. 

This would be an apt representation of Dr. Ir- 
ving's contrivance, in which he has luted or 
adapted a tin, iron, or tinned copper tube, of suit- 
able dimensions, to the lid of the common kettle 
used for boiling the provisions on board a ship; 
the fresh vapor which arises from boiling sea- 
water in the kettle passes, as by common distil- 
lation, through this tube into a hogshead, which 
serves as a receiver; and in order that the vapor 
may be readily condensed, the tube is kept cool 
by being constantly wetted with a mop dipped in 
cold sea-water. The waste water running from 
the mop may be carried off by means of two 
boards nailed together, like a spout. Dr. Irving 
particularly remarks, that only three-fourths of 
the sea-water should be distilled ; the brine is 
then to be let off and the copper replenished, as 
the water distilled from the remaining concen- 
trated brine is found to have a disagreeable taste, 
and as the farther continuation of the distillation 
is apt to be injurious to the vessels. When the 
water begins to boil, likewise, the vapor should be 
allowed to pass freely for a minute; this will 
effectually cleanse the tube and upper part of the 
boiler. 

To render Sea-water capable of Washing Linen. 

It is well known that sea-water cannot be em- 
ployed for washing clothes. It refuses to dissolve 
soap, and possesses all the properties of hard 
water. 

This is a great inconvenience to seamen, whose 
allowance of fresh water is necessarily limited, 
and it prevents them from enjoying many of those 
comforts of cleanliness which contribute not a 
little to health. The method of removing this 
defect is exceedingly simple, and by no means 
expensive. It was pointed out by Dr. Mitchell, 
of New York: — Drop into sea-water a solution 
of soda or potash. It will become milky, in con- 
sequence of the decomposition of the earthy salts, 
and the precipitation of tlie earths. This addi- 
tion renders it soft, and capable of washing. Its 
milkiness will have no injurious effect. 



PRESERVATION FROM DROWNING AND 
SHIPWRECK. 

When a Man falls Overboard. 

The instant an alarm is given that a man is 
overboard, the ship's helm should be put down, 
and she should be hove in stays; a hen-coop or 
other object that can float should also be thrown 
overboard as near the man as possible, with a 
rope tied to it, and carefully kept sight of, as it 
will prove a beacon towards which the boat may 
pull as soon as lowered down. A primary object 
is, having a boat ready to lower down at a mo- 
ment's notice, which should be hoisted up at the 
stern if most convenient; the lashings, tackle, 
etc., to be always kept clear, and a rudder, tiller, 
and spare spar to be kept in her. 'When dark, 
she should not be without a lantern and a com- 
pass. 

There should also be kept in her a rope with a 



running bowline, ready to fix in or to throw to 
the person in danger. Coils of small rope, with 
running bowlines, should also be kept in the 
chains, quarters and abaft, ready to throw over, 
as it moat generally occurs that men pass close 
to the ship's side, and have often been miracu- 
lously saved by clinging to ropes. 

Ujisettitig of a Boat. 

If a person should fall out of a boat, or the boat 
upset by going foul of a cable, etc., or should he 
fall off the quays, or indeed fall into any water, 
from which he cannot extricate himself, but must 
wait some little time for assistance — had he pres- 
ence of mind enough to whip off his hat, and hold 
it by the brim, placing his fingers within side of 
the crown (top upwards), he would be able, by 
this method, to keep his mouth above water till 
assistance should reach him. It often happens 
that danger is apprehended long before we are in- 
volved in the peril, although there may be time 
enough to prepare this, or adopt any other method. 
Travellers, in fording rivers at unknown fords, or 
where shallows are deceitful, might make use of 
this method with advantage. 

Cork Waistcoats. 

Provide a cork waistcoat, composed of four 
pieces, two for the breast, and two for the back, 
each pretty near in length and breadth to the 
quarters of a waistcoat without flaps; the whole 
is to be covered with coarse canvas, with two 
holes to put the arms through. There must be a 
space left between the two back pieces, and the 
same betwixt each back and breast piece, that 
they may fit the easier to the body. By this 
means the waistcoat is open only before, and may 
be fastened on the wearer by strings ; or if it 
should be thought more secure, with buckles and 
leather straps. This waistcoat may be made up 
at a small expense. 

If those who use the sea occasionally, and espe- 
cially those who are obliged to be almost con- 
stantly there, were to use these waistcoats, it 
would be next to impossible that they should be 
drowned. 

Further means. 

It will likewise be proper to prepare an oil-skin 
bag, on going to sea, for a temporary supply of 
provisions, in case of shipwreck. If suddenly 
plunged into the water, and unable to swim, it 
will be necessary to keep the hands and arrus 
under the water — few animals being capable of 
drowning, owing to their inability to lift their fore 
legs over their heads. 

The legs, therefore, being necessarily immersed 
in the water, the difference between the specific 
gravity of the animal and the water is sufiicient to 
enable it to keep its nostrils and mouth above the 
water, and therefore it is not suffocated by the 
fluid, but breathes freely. But man, on the con- 
trary, being able to lift bis hands over his head, 
and generally doing so in case of this accident, his 
hands and arms make up the difference in specific 
gravity, and his head, impelled by the weight of 
his hands and arms below the water, his body 
fills, and he is consequently choked and suffocated. 
The remedy therefore is, in all such cases, to keep 
down the hands and arms, and as a further secu- 
rity, to act with them under and against the 
water, it will then be impossible to sink, unless 
the weight of clothes or other circumstances ope- 
rate to the contrary. 

The Marine Spencer. 
The marine spencer is made in the form of a 
girdle, of a proper diameter to fit the body, and 
six inches broad, composed of ab( ut 500 old tav- 



MEDICINE. 



181 



♦rn corks, f?truTig upon a strong twine, well lashed 
*)f;'cther with lay-cord, covered with canvas, and 
painted in oil so as to make it water-proof. Two 
tapes or cords, about tvvo feet long, are fastened 
to the back of the girdle with loops at the ends. 
Another tape or cord of the same length, having 
a few corks strung to the middle of it, is covered 
with canvas painted. A pin of hard wood, three 
inches long, and half an inch in diameter, is fast- 
ened t<> the front of the girdle by a tape or cord, 
about three inches long. To use the spencer, it 
should be slipped from the feet close up to the 
arms, the tapes or cords are to be brought one 
over e:ich shoulder, and fastened by the loops to 
the pin ; those between the legs are to be fastened 
to the other pin. A person thus equipped, though 
unacquainted with swimming, may safely trust 
himself to the waves: for he will float, head and 
shoulders above water, in any storm, and by pad- 
dling with his hands, may easily gain the shore. 
Such a spencer may also be made of cork shavings 
put into a long canvas bag. 

It has also been suggested, that every part of 
the usual dress of the sailor should be made with 
a view to preserving his life, in cases of accident; 
and for this purpose that a quantity of cork shav- 
ings or clippings should be quilted into his jacket 
about the collar and neck, between the outside and 
inside lining ; or as a belt of considerable breadth 
across the back and shoulders, then principally 
omitted under the arms, and resumed over the 
chest and stomach, yet not so much as to create 
inconvenience. If in these, and other parts of 
his dress, so much cork could be conveniently 
worked, as would give the sailor an opportunity 
of recovering himself, and making use of his own 
powers in cases of contingency, many valuable 
lives might be saved. 

Bamhoo Habit. 
The bamboo habit is an invention of the Chi- 
nese, by the use of which a person, unskilled in the 
art of swimming, may easily keep himself above 
water. The Chinese merchants, when going on a 
voyaire, are said always to provide themselves 
with this simple apparatus, to save their lives in 
eases of danger from shipwreck. It is constructed 
by placing four bamboos horizontally, two be- 
fore, and two behind the body of each person, so 
that they project about twenty-eight inches; 
these arc crossed on each side by two others, and 
the whole properly secured, leaving an interme- 
diate space for the body. When thus forniod. the 
person in danger slips it over his head, and ties it 
securely to the waist, by which simple means he 
cannot possibly sink. 

To extricate Persons from broken Ice. 
Let two or more persons hold a rope or ropes, 
at both ends, stretched over the broken ice ; so 
that the drowning person may catch hold of it. 

The Life- Boat. 

The life-boat is generally thirty feet long, and 
in form much resembles a common Greenland 
boat, except the bottom, which is much flatter. 
8he is lined with cork, inside and outside of the 
gunwale, about two feet in breadth, and the seats 
underneath are filled with cork also. 

She is rowed by ten men, double banked, and 
steered by two men with oars, one at each end, 
both ends being alike. Long poles are provided 
for the men, to keep the boat from being driven 
broadside to the shore, eiiher in going off or land- 
ing. About si.x inches from the lower poles, it 
increases in diameter, so as to form a flat surface 
against the sand. The weight of the cork used in 
the boat seven hundredweight. 



She draws very little water, and when full is 
able to carry twenty people. The boat is able to 
contend against the most tremendous sea and 
broken water ; ^nd never, in any one instance, 
has she failed in bringing the crew in distress 
into a place of safety. The men have no dread in 
going ofi" with her in the highest sea and broken 
water; cork jackets were provided for them ; but 
their confidence in the boat is so great, that they 
do not use them. 

The success attending this expedient for dimin- 
ishing the number of unhappy individuals almost 
tlaily b.st in a watery grave a[)pears to have been 
more than equal to the most sanguine expecta- 
tions formed of its utility; and the great object in 
view, viz., the safety of those persons who hazard 
their own security to preserve others, has been 
fully accomplished. 

Safe and readily constructed Life-boat. 

In London Eng. a model of a life-boat was ex- 
hibited before the Royal Humane Society, which 
may be put together in the space of half an hour, 
in any case of shipwreck, and which cannot sink 
or overset, let the sea run ever so high. All that 
is necessary to be provided is a keel or plank of 
any convenient length, and a few pigs of iron, 
such as vessels usually carry out for ballast. The 
officers of the ship are to take care to keep two or 
three empty water-casks, perfectly tight, the bung- 
holes corked up, and a piece of tin or leather 
nailed over them. These casks are to be lashed 
with ropes to the keel, along with the pigs of iron 
for ballast; and any spare poles or spars may be 
also lashed to the sides, so as to give the raft the 
form of a vessel, and at each end make a lodgement 
for the men. Any of the square sails of the ship 
will form a lug-sail, and may speedily be adapted 
to the new life-boat, and a strong and broad spar 
may be lashed on as a rudder. 

Another. — Let a quantity of ballast, even more 
than what is commonly used for sailing, be laid in 
the bottom of the boat; over this lay bags filled 
with cork, prepared for the purpose, and num- 
bered according to their places, and if considera- 
bly higher than the gunwales, so much the better. 
A sail or part of one, folded, may be thrown over 
from stem to stern, to combine and unite the sev- 
eral parts; and, lastly, the whole is to be secured 
together by passing ropes by so many turns as 
may be deemed sufficient round and round over 
the gunwales and under the keel, and these, if 
necessary, may be hitched by a turn or two taken 
lengthwise. 

Every person either on board or holding by the 
boat, so prepared, may be absolutely certain of 
being carried safe through any beach whatever. 

When no such preparation of cork has been 
made, the following is proposed as a substitute: 

Let a quantity of ballast, as coals in canvas, be 
secured in its place, as well as circumstances will 
admit; then take an empty water-cask (beer-cask, 
or any others that are tight) and fill the boat with 
them, and if the bilge of the cask rises considera- 
bly higher than the gunwales, it will be so much 
the better; let a sail then be thrown in to jam the 
cask and ballast in their places, as well as to com- 
bine and unite the several parts by covering all 
fore and aft; and, lastly, let the whole be lashed 
and secured together, in the manner above stated. 
It is believed the boat in this trim would always 
continue upright on her keel, be lively and buoy- 
ant on the water, and have sufficient efficacy to 
support the crew of any ordinary vessel, till 
drifted within their own depth. 

It frequently happens that after men have 
gained the shore, they perish of cold for want of 



182 



MEDICINE. 



dry clothes. As a remedy for this, every man 
should try to secure one or two flannel or woollen 
shirts, by wrapping them up tightly in a piece of 
oiled cloth or silk; and, to guard against tearing, 
the last might be covered with canvas, or inclosed 
in a tin box. 

Further Method of Preservation in Cases of Ship- 
%ore<:ks. 

It being the great object, in cases of shipwreck, 
to establish a communication betwixt the vessel 
and the shore with the least possible delay, va- 
rious methods have been invented and pointed out 
for this purpose. 

A common paper kite launched from the vessel, 
and driven by the wind to the shore, has been 
supposed capable of conveying a piece of pack- 
thread, to which a larger rope might be attached 
and drawn on board. 

A small balloon, raised by rarefied air, might 
be made to answer the same purpose. 

A sky-rocket, of a large diameter, has also been 
Con.«idered as capable of an equal surface, and, in- 
deed, this method seems the best: for, besides the 
velocity of the discharge, could it be brought to 
act during the night, it must both point out the 
situation of the ship, and the direction that the 
line took in flying ashore. 

Useful Hints when a Leah is Sprung. 

When a vessel springs a leak near her bottom, 
the water enters with all the force given by the 
weight of the column of water without, which force 
is in proportion to the difference of the level be- 
tween the water without and that within. It enters 
at first therefore with more force, and in greater 
quantity than it can afterwards, when the water 
within is higher. The bottom of the vessel, too, 
is narrower, so that the same quantity of water, 
coming into that narrow part, rises faster than 
when the space for it is larger. This helps to ter- 
rify; but, as the quantity entering is less and less 
as the surfaces without and within become more 
nearly equal in height, the pumps that could not 
keep the water from rising at first, might after- 
wards be able to prevent its rising higher, and the 
people might remain on board in safety, without 
hazarding themselves in an open boat on th* wide 
ocean. 

Besides the equality in the height of the two 
surfaces, there may sometimes be other causes 
that retard the farther sinking of a leaky vessel. 
The rising water within may arrive at quantities 
of light wooden works, empty chests, and partic- 
ularly empty water-casks, which, fixed so as not 
to float themselves, may help to sustain her. 
Many bodies which compose a ship's cargo may 
be specifically lighter than water. All these, when 
out of water, are an additional weight to that of 
the ship, and she is in proportion pressed deeper 
in the water, but as soon as these bodies are im- 
mersed, they weigh no longer on the ship; but, 
on the contrary, if fixed, they help to support her, 
in proportion as they are specifically lighter than 
the water. 

Temporary NatUical Pump. 

Captain Leslie, in a voyage from North America 
to Stockholm, adopted an excellent mode of emp- 
tying water from his ship's hold, when the crew 
were insufiicient to perform that duty. About ten 
or twelve feet above the pumj he rigged out a spar, 
one end of which projected jverboard, while the 
other was fastened, as a lever, to the machinery 
of the pump. To the end which projected over- 
board was suspended a water-butt, half full, but 
corked down ; so that when the coming wave 
raised the butt-end, the other end depressed the 
piston of the pump; but at the retiring of the 



wave this was reversed, for, by the weight of the 
butt, the piston came up again, and with it the 
water. Thui, without the aid of the crew, the 
ship's hold was cleared of the water in a few 
hours. 

Another. — When a vessel springs a leak at sea, 
which cannot be discovered, instead of exhausting 
the crew by continunl working at the pumps, they 
may form, with very little trouble, a machine to 
discharge the water, which -.vill work itself, with 
out any assistance from the bands on board. 

Let a spar, or spare top -mast, be cut to th« 
length of eight or ten I'eet, or more, according to 
the size of the vessel; 'aortise four holes through 
the thickest end, through which run fuur oars, 
fixing them tight, exactly in the middle. To the 
four handles 'nail on four blades (made of staves), 
the size of the other ends, which will form a very 
good water-wheel, if the oars be strong; then fix 
into the opposite end what is commonly called a 
crank : the iron handle of a grindstone would suit 
extremly well ; if this is not to be had, any strong 
bar of iron may be bent into that form, wedging 
it tight to prevent its twisting round. Then nail 
up a new pair of chaps on the fore part of the 
pump, for a new handle to be fixed in, whiih will 
point with its outer end to the bow of the vessel. 
This handle will be short on the outside, but as 
long on the inside as the diameter of the bore of 
the pump will admit, in order that the spear may 
be plunged the deeper, and of course the longer 
stroke. The handle must be large enough to have 
a slit sawed up it, sufiicient to admit a stave edge- 
ways, which must be fastened with a strong iron 
pin, on which it may work. The lower end of the 
stave must be bored to .•■dniit the round end of the 
crank ; then fix the shaft, with the oars (or arms) 
over the gunwale, on two crotchets, one spiked to 
the gunwale, and the other near the pump, cut- 
ting in the shaft a circular notch, as well to make 
it run easier, by lessening the friction, as to keep 
the whole steady. A bolt is now to be fixed in 
each crotchet close over the shaft, to keep it from 
rising. As soon as the wheel touches the water it 
will turn round, and the crank, by means of the 
stave fixed on its end, will work the handle of the 
pump. 

To render the Sinking of a Ship Impossible. 
According to the present plan of ship-building, 
in case of a leak at sea, which cannot be kept 
under by pumping, the ship and crew must in- 
evitably be lost, to the great affliction and loss of 
thousands of families. In order to prevent such 
accidents in future, which hitherto have been too 
common, a gentleman of the name of Williams 
suggests an easy arrangement which, if univer- 
sally adopted, even under the worst circumstances, 
will enable the crew to save not only themselves, 
but the ship and cargo likewise: 

It is that every ship should be divided into four 
equal compartments, with partitions of sufficient 
strength ; the probability in ease of a leak is that 
it would take place in one of them, and, allowing 
it to fill, the safety of the ship would not be en- 
dangered, for three-fourths of the cargo would 
remain undamaged. To prove this we will sup- 
pose a vessel of 100 tons so divided (though the 
plan is as applicable to a ship of 1000 tons as to 
a canal boat), and that one of the compartments 
filled with water; this would not increase her 
weight more than from six to eight tons from the 
cargo previously occupying the space and redu- 
cing her buoyancy about one-third. Tie same 
eff'eot would take place was she sent out of port 
with only one-fourth of her hull above water, 
though vessels are commonly sent out with one- 
third, and even more. Packets, as they carry lit- 



BATHING. 



183 



tie or DO cargo, may with safety be divided into 
three CDinpartments. In cases of fire the advan- 
tage is equally obvious, as any of the quarters 
night be inundated with safety. 



BATHING. 

The Art of Swlmmitifj. 
It has been observed before that men are 
drowned by raising their arms above water, the 
unbuoyed weight of which depresses the head ; 
all other animals have neither motion nor ability 
to act in a similar manner, and therefore swim 
naturally. When a man therefore falls into deep 
water, he will rise to the surface and continue 
there if he does not elevate his hands. If he 
move his hands under the water in any manner he 
pleases his head will rise so high as to allow him 
liberty to breathe, and if he move his legs as in 
the act of walking (or rather of walking upstairs), 
his shoulders will rise above the water, so that he 
may use less exertion with his hands, or apply 
them to other purposes. These plain directions 
are recommended to the attention of those who 
have nut learned to swim in their youth, and tliey 
will, if attended to, be found highly advantageous 
in preserving life. 

If a person falls into the water or gets out of 
his depth and cannot swim, and if he wishes to 
drown himself, let him kick and splash as vio- 
lently as possible, and he will s<ion sink. On the 
contrary, if impressed with the idea that he is 
lighter than the water, he avoids all violent ac- 
tion and calmly but steadily strives to refrain 
from drawing his breath while under the water, 
and keeps his bead raised as much as possible, 
and gently but constantly moves his hands and 
feet in a proper direction, there will he a great 
probability of his keeping afloat until some aid 
arrives. 

Cramp in Bathing. 

For the cure of the eramp when swimming, Dr- 
Franklin recommends a vigorous and violent 
shock of the part atfeeted by suddenly and forci- 
bly stretching out the leg, which should be darted 
out of the water into the air if possible. 
Precautions in Bathitig. 

Never venture into cold water when the body 
is much exhausted or relaxed with heat. 

Dr. Franklin relates an instance within his own 
knowledge of four young men who, having worked 
at harvest in the heat of the day, with a view of 
refreshing themselves plunged into a spring of 
cold water; two died upon the spot, a third the 
next morning, and the fourth recovered with great 
difiiculty. 

Be very careful where you bathe, even though 
ever so good a swimmer, lest there should be weeds 
to entangle the feet, or any thing else to endanger 
life. It is by the neglect of this precaution tliat 
many good swimmers expose themselves to greater 
danger than those who cannot swim at all, their 
very expertness thus becoming fatal to them by 
tempting them into places where their destruction 
is inevitable. 

Sea-hnlhing. 

The use of the tepid salt water bath, or indeed 
«f sea-bathing itself, when the water is warm, 
(that is) betwen 60° and 70° of heat, is in many 
cases beneficial, when a colder temperature would 
be decidedly injurious. 

It may be satisfactory to know that in situa- 
tions distant from the shore, where sea- water can- 
not be had, artificial sea-water, made by dissolv- 
ing 4 pounds of bay-salt in 16 gallons of fresh 
water, possesses all the properties of the water of 



the sea, a small portion of sulphate of magnesia 
excepted. 

The Shower-hath. 
The cold shower-bath is less alarming to ner- 
vous persons and less liable to produce cramps 
than cold immersion ; it maybe considered as the 
best and safest mode ( f cold bathing, and is re- 
commended in many nervous complaints. 

It has also afforded relief in some cases of in- 
sanity. 

Substitute for a Shotcer-hafh. 
Where the saving of expense is an object, it 
may be effectually answered bj' filling a common 
watering pot with cold water. Let the patient 
sit undressed upon a stool, which may be placed 
in a large tub, and let the hair, if not cut short, 
1)6 spread over the shoulders as loosely as possi- 
ble. Now pour the water from the pot over the 
patient's head, face, neck, shoulders, and all parts 
of the body, progressively down to the feet, until 
the whole has been thoroughly wetted. 

A large sponge may, in some measure, be sub- 
stituted for the shower bath; particularly in affec- 
tions of the head which arise from intemperance, 
night-watching, study, or other perplexity. Head- 
ache, from these causes, will be greatly alleviated 
by wiping the top and fore-part of the head with 
a sponge frequently dipped in water. The cold 
thus produced will check the determination of 
blood to the head, and has often been known to 
prevent delirium and insanity. 

The Tepid-hath. 
On immersing the bi(dy in a tepid-path, which 
takes its range from 85° to 90°, no striking sen- 
sation either of heat or cold is felt. But a person 
much chilled, will on entering the tepid-bath feel 
the water warm, while another who has been 
heated by exercise, will find it insensibly cold. 

The tepid-bath is attended with several advan- 
tages : the surface of the skin is by it freed from 
that scaly matter, which always collects more or 
less on the healthiest person; the pores of the 
skin thus being free, the natural persitiration is 
promoted, the limbs are rendered supple, and any 
stiffness which may have been produced by exer- 
tion or fatigue, is removed. Such immersion has 
been found to allay thirst ; a proof that a quantity 
of water is absorbed, and enters the body through 
the skin. 

The tepid-bath seems the best adapted to the 
purposes of cleanliness and healthy exercise. To 
delicate females and young children, it is if pri- 
mary importance. Nothing can be more absurd 
than the common practice of mothers and nurses 
in washing children, no matter how sickly or un- 
well, with cold water, under the idea of bracing 
the constitution : whereas the use of tepid water 
alone, is not only the most agreeable, but the most 
proper fluid to excite the energies of the system in 
young children. 

Affusion with tepid water has generally the same 
result, excejit, that if the body continue exposed 
to the air after the affusion, a sensation of cold is 
produced, which ought to be avoided by wiping 
dry the upper part (jf the body whilst the lower 
extremities are still covered with water. 

There can be little doubt that human existence, 
by tepid bathing, temperance, and proper exer- 
cise, may be made more agreeable and also bo 
prolonged. 



GENERAL RULES FOR PRESERVING 
LIFE AND HEALTH. 

Sir R. Phillip's Pules. 

1. Rise early, and never sit up late. 

2. Wash the whole body every morning with 



184 



MEDICINE, 



cold water, by means of a large sponge, and rub 
it dry with a rough towel, or scrub the whole body 
for ten or fifteen minutes with flesh brushes. 

3. Drink water generally, and avoid excess of 
spirits, wine, and fermented liquors. 

4. Kee)i tl.o body open by the free use of the 
syringe, and remove superior obstructions by ape- 
rient pills. 

5. Sleep in a room which has free access to the 
open air. 

6. Keep the head cool by washing it when ne- 
cessary with cold water; and abate feverish and 
inflammatory symptoms when they arise by per- 
severing stillness. 

7. Correct symptoms of plethora and indigestion 
by eating and drinking less per diem for a few d.ays. 

8. Never eat a hearty supper, especially of ani- 
mal food; and drink wine, spirits, and beer, if 
these are necessary, only after dinner. 

Dr. Boerhaave's Rules. 

This great man left, as a legacy to the world, 
the following simple and unerring directions for 
preserving health; they contained the sum and 
substance of his vast professional knowledge dur- 
ing a long and useful life : — '' Keep the feet warm, 
the head cool, and the body open." If these were 
generally attended to the physician's aid would 
seldom be required. 

Clothing. 

To adapt the dress with a scrupulous nicety to 
the fluctuations of temperature every day, would 
indeed require such minute attention as hardly 
any person can bestow ; but every person may 
comply with the general rules of clothing, as far 
as not to lay aside too early the dress of the win- 
ter, nor to retain that of the summer too late : from 
a neglect of which precaution thousands of lives 
are every year sacrificed to mortality. The per- 
fection of dress, considered merely as such, is to 
fit without fettering the body 

Air. 
Nothing is more pernicious than the air of a 
place where a numerous body of people is col- 
lected together within doors, especially if to the 
breath of the crowd there be added the vapors 
of a multitude of candles, and the consumption 
of the vital air by fires in proportion. Hence it 
happens that persons of a delicate constitution 
are liable to become sick or faint in a place of this 
kind. These ought to avoid, as much as possible, 
the air of great towns; which is also peculiarly 
hurtful to the asthmatic and consumptive, as it is 
likewise to hysteric women and men of weak 
nerves. Where such people cannot always live 
without the verge of great towns, they ought at 
least to go out as often as they can into the open 
air, and if possible pass the night in the whole- 
6ome situation of the suburbs. 

Ventilation. 

Air that has long stagnated becomes extremely 
unwholesome to breathe, and often immediately 
fatal. Such is that of mines, wells, cellars, etc. 
People ought therefore to be very cautious in 
entering places of this description which have 
been long shut np. The air of some hospitals, 
j'ils, ships, eto., partakes of the same unwhole- 
some and pernicious nature, and thej' ought never 
to be destitute of ventilators — those useful con- 
trivances for expelling foul and introducing fresh 
air into its place. The same may be said of all 
places where numbers of people are crowded to- 
gether ; or where fires, especially charcoal fires, 
are burning. 

It is found that most plants have the property 
of correctmg bad air within a few hours, when 



they are exposed to the light of the sun; but 
that on the contrary, during the night or when 
flowering they corrupt the common air of the at- 
mosphere. Hence it is an unwholesome practice 
to have shrubs in an apartment that is slept in, at 
least when in bloom. 

Ventilation of Churches. 

Both in public and private buildings there are 
errors committed which affect in an extraordinary 
degree the salubrity of the air. Churches are 
seldom open during all the week ; they are never 
ventilated by fires, and rarely by o])ening the 
windows, while, to render the air of them yet 
more unwholesome, frequently no attention is paid 
to keeping them clean. The consequence of 
which is that they are damp, musty, and apt to 
prove hurtful to people of weak constitutions; 
and it is a common remark that a person cannot 
pass through a large church or cathedral, even in 
summer, without a strong feeling of chilliness. 
Ventilation of Houses. 

The gre.at attention paid to making houses close 
and warm, though apparently well adapted to the 
comfort of the inhabitants, is by no means favor- 
able to health, unless care be taken every day to 
admit fresh air by the windows. Sometimes it 
may be proper to make use of what is called 
pumping the room, or moving the door backward 
and forward for some minutes together. The prac- 
tice of making the beds early in the day, however 
it may suit convenience or delicacy, is doubtless 
improper. It would be much better to turn them 
down and expose them to the influence of the ait 
admitted by the windows. 

For many persons to sleep in one room, as in 
the ward of a hospital, is hurtful to health ; and 
it is scarcely a less injurious custom, though often 
practised by those who have splendid houses, for 
two or more to sleep in a small apartment, especi- 
ally if it be very close. 

Houses situated in low marshy countries, or near 
lakes of stagnant water, are likewise unwhole- 
some; as they partake of the putrid vapors ex- 
haled in such places. To remedy this evil, those 
who inhabit them, if they study their health, ought 
to use ai more generous diet than is requisite in 
more dry and elevated situations. It is very im- 
portant, too, in such localities to dry the house 
with a fire whenever the air is damp, even in the 
summer. 

Burying in Churches, etc. 

It was formerl}', and is now, too common to have 
church-yards in the middle of populous towns. 
This is not only reprehensible in point of taste, 
but, considering how near to the surface of the 
earth the dead bodies in many places are deposited, 
there must necessarily arise putrid vapors, which, 
however imperceptible, cannot fail to contaminate 
the air. The practice of burying in churches is 
still more liable to censure; and not many years 
ago, the pernicious efiects of this custom were so 
severely felt in France, as to occasion a positive 
edict against it. 

To Dissipate Noxious Vapors in Wells, etc. 

Procure a pair of smith's bellows, affixed on a 
wooden frame, so as to work in the same manner 
as at the forge. This apparatus being ])laced at 
the edge of the well, one end of a leathern tubo 
(the nose of a fire engine), should be closely adapt- 
ed to the nose of the bellows, and the other end 
thrown into the well, reaching within one foot of 
the bottom. 

If the well be even so infected, that a candle 
will not burn at a short disUince from the top; 
after blowing with the bellows only half an hour, 



JdEDICINE. 



185 



the candit will bum brightly at the bottom : then, 
without further difficnltj, proceed in the worfe. 

It is obviou!:, that in cleaning vaults, or working 
in any subterraneous place subject to damps, the 
same method mu^t be attended with the like bene- 
ficial effects. 

Persons whotw business reqaire3 them to attend 
ipon large quantities of fermenting liquors, or to 
work in clone places with lighted charcoal, fre- 
quently experience headache, giddiness, and other 
disagreeable effects from the noxious vapors 
which these exhale, and often have their health 
impaired, or their lives endangered by a contiou- 
anoe in the employment. In some cases, the dan- 
ger, perhaps, cannot be avoided, except by going 
into the open air, as soon as headache or giddiness 
begins, and drinking a glass of cold water, or 
washing the face and neck with the same. In the 
case of persons whose work requires charcoal fires, 
their dangerous effects may be prevented, by 
taking care not to sit near the fire when burning, 
or to burn it in a chimney, and when there is none, 
to keep the door open, and place a large tub of 
lime-water in the room. 

To Protect Gilden, Jezrelleni, and other$ from, the 
PeriiicioHi Effects of Charcoal. 
It is advisable for all those who are exposed to 
the vapors of charcoal, particularly gilders, jew- 
ellers, refiners of metal, etc., to place a flat vessel, 
filled with iime-water, near the stove in which the 
charcoal is burnt. 

The lime combines with the carbonic acid gas 
evolved by the ignited charcoal, and preserves the 
purity of the air. When the surface of the water 
becomes covered with a film, or peliiele, it mtist 
be changed fi.r a fresh qtiantity. 

To Prevent Lamp* from proving Ptmieious to 
Atthmatie People. 

The smoking of lamps is frequently disregarded 
in domestic life : bat the fumes ascending from oil, 
especially if it be tainted or rancid, are highly 
pernicious, when inhaled inro the lungs of asth- 
matic persons. To prevent this, let a sponge, 
three or four inches in diameter, be moistened 
with pure water, and in that state besnspende>i be 
a string or wire, exactly over the flame of the lamp, 
at the distance of a few inches : this substance will 
absorb all the smoke emitted daring the evening 
or night, after which it should be rinsed in warm 
water, by which means it will be again rendered 
fit for use. 

To Dinnfect Sahtiances or Placet. 

Put a saucer fall of chloride of lime on the floor 
of the ro<>m. and" renew it every two or three days. 
Or. sprink!e La^rraqae's solution of chloride of 
soda over the floor or walls. Ledoyen's solution 
of nitrate of lead will at once remove the odor of 
most foul air. But the only absolutely certain 
method of disinfection is by heat/ for example, let 
every person be removed from the tainted build- 
ing or vessel, and then, by meaus of stoves, keep 
up a temperature of lifi° Fahr., for two or three 
days. 

To Protect Gildi,n from the Pemteiotu EffeeU of 
Mercury. 

They should hare two doors in their work room, 
orr--«'*e "> each other, which they should keep 
'ere may be a free circulation of air. 
likewise have a piece of gold applied 
I _. : : f the month, during the whole time 
of the operation. This plate will attract and in- 
tercept the mercury as they breathe, and when it 
grows white they must cast it into the fire, that 
the mercury may evaporate, and replace it when 
U '■§ cool again. They ehonid, in-JeeJ, have two 



pieces of geld, that one may be put into the mouth 
whilst the other is purifying and co.-ling: by these 
means they will preserve themselves from tb9 
diseases and infirmities which mercury cecasiuos. 
Biding and Walking. 
For preserving health, there is no kind of exer- 
cise more proper than walking, ^s it gives the moat 
general action to the muscle/of the body ; but, for 
valetudinarians, riding on horseback is preferable. 
It is almost incredible how much the constitution 
may be strengthened by this exercise, when con- 
tinued for a considerable time; not so much in the 
fashionable way of a morning ride, but of making 
long journeys, in which there is the farther advan- 
tage of a perpetual change of air. Numbers of 
people, reduced to a state of great weakness, have, 
by this means, acquired a degree of vigor and 
health, which all the medical prescriptions in the 
W'.rld could not otherwise have procured. But it 
is of importance, in travelling for health, that one 
should not employ his mind in deep reflections, 
but enjoy the company of an agreeable companion, 
and gratify his sight with the prospect of the va- 
rious objects around him. In this exercise, as 
well as in every other, we ought always to begin 
gently, and Ut finish gradualiy. never abruptly j 
and proportion the exertion to the -strength. 
Exerrite after ifeah. 
Exercise is hurtful immediately after meals, 
particularly to those of nervous and irrit-able con- 
stitutions, who are thence liable to heartburn, 
i eructations, and vomiting. Indeed, the instinct of 
j the inferior animals confirms the propriety of thia 
role : for they are all inclined to indulge them- 
I selves in rest after food. At all events, fatisruing 
exercise should be delayed till digestion is per- 
formed, which generally requires three or four 
hours after eating a full meaL 

Reading aloud. 
This is a species of exercise mi^eh recommended 
by the ancient physicians : and to this may be 
joined that of speaking. They are both of great 
advantage to those who have not sufficient leisure 
or opportunities for other kinds of exercise. To 
speak very loud, however, is hurtful to weak 
longs. Singing, as by the vibratory motion of the 
air it shakes the lungs and the bowels of the ab- 
domen or belly, promotes, in a remarkable degree, 
the circulation of the blood- Hence, those seden- 
tary artificers or meehanies, who from habit al- 
most constantly sing at their work, unintention- 
ally contribute much to the preservation of their 
he«dth. 

Wind InttrHmenis. 
All these are more or less hurtful to the lungs, 
which they weaken, by introducing much air. and 
keeping that organ too long in a state of disten- 
tion. On this account, persons of weak lungs, who 
play much on the flate, hautboy, or French horn, 
are frequently afflicted with spitting of bkod, 
cough, shortness of breath, and pulmonary con- 
sumption. Blowing those instruments likewise 
checks the cirf-ulation of the blood through the 
langs. accumulates it towards the head, and dis- 
poses such persons to apoplexy. 
Erietion. 
One of the most gentle and useful kirds cf ex- 
ercise is friction of the bo<iy. cither by ;ne naked 
hand, a piece of flannel, or, what is still better, a 
flesh-brush. This was in great esteem among the 
ancients, and is so at present in the East Indies. 
The whole body may be subjected to ihit :iild 
operation, but chiefly the belly, the spiie, or back- 
bone, and the arms and legs. Friction clears the 
skin, resolves st^nating humors, promotes pei- 



186 



MEDICINE. 



gpiration, strengthens the fibres, and increases 
the warmth and energy of the whole body. In 
rheumatism, gout, palsy, and green sickness, it is 
an excellent remedy. To the sedentury, the hy- 
pochondriac, and persons troubled with indiges- 
tion, who have not leisure to take sufficient exer- 
cise, the daily friction of the belly, in particular, 
cannot be too much j-ecommended as a substitute 
for other menns, in order to dissolve the thick hu- 
mors which may be forming in the bowels, by 
stagnation, and to strengthen the vessels. But, 
in rubbing the belly, the operation ought to be 
performed in a circular direction, as being most 
favorable to the course of the intestines, and their 
natural action. It should be performed in the 
morning, on an empty stomach, or, rather, in bed 
before getting up, and continued at least for some 
minutes at a time. 

Getting Wet. 

This accident is at all times less frequent in 
towns than in the country, owing to the almost 
universal use of the umbrella in the former. 

When a person is wet he ought never to stand, 
but to continue in motion till he arrives at a place 
where he may be suitably accommodated. Here 
he should strip ofiT his wet clothes, to be changed 
for such as are dry, and have those parts of his 
body which hnve been wetted, well rubbed with a 
dry cloth. The legs, shoulders, and arms, are 
generally the parts most exposed to wet; they 
should, therefore, be particularly attended to. It 
is almost incredible how many diseases may be 
prevented by adopting this course. Catarrhs, in- 
flammations, rheumatisms, diarrhoeas, fevers, and 
constimptions, are the foremost among the train 
■which frequently follow an accident of this kind. 
Precautions in removing from a Hot to a Cold Sit- 
uotion. 

It should be a determined rule to avoid all rapid 
transitions from one extreme to another, and 
never to remove from a room highly heated to a 
fresh or cold air while the body remains warm, or 
till the necessary change to a warmer dress has 
been previously made. If, at any time, the body 
should be violently heated, during the warm wea- 
ther, it is sure to suffer by going into vaults, cel- 
lars, ice-houses, by cold bathing, or by sitting on 
cold stones, or damp earth; many lingering and 
incurable maladies have been brought on by such 
imprudence, nay, present death has, in some in- 
stances, been the consequence of such transgres- 
sion. Pulmonary consumption, which makes an- 
nually such dreadful ravages among the young 
and middle aged, has been frequently induced by 
such apparently trifling causes. 

To keep the Feet Dry. 

One method that has been found to succeed in 
keeping the feet dry is to wear, over the foot of 
the stocking, a sock made of oiled silk. To keep 
it in its proper place, it will be necessary to wear 
over it a cotton or worsted sock. India-rubber 
overshoes or boots are now generally worn. But 
they or oiled silk, as they prevent the evaporation 
of the insensible perspiration, and thus obstruct 
the f ores of the skin, should never be worn long 
at a time. 

To preserve the Eye-sight. 

1. Never sit for any length of time in absolute 
gloom, or exposed to a blaze of light. The rea- 
son on which this rule is founded proves the im- 
propriety of going hastily from one extreme to the 
other, whether of darkness or of light, and shows 
us that a southern aspect is improper for those 
whose sight is weak and tender. 

2. Avoid reading small print, and straining the 
eyes by looking at minute objects. 



3. Do not read in the dusk, nor, if the eyes be 
disordered, by candle-light. 

4. Do not permit the eyes to dwell on glaring 
objects, more particularly on first waking in tho 
morning; the sun should not of course be suf- 
fered to shine in the room at that time, and a 
moderate quantity of light only shoald be ad- 
mitted. For the same reasons, the furniture, 
walls, and other objects of a bed-room should not 
be altogether of a white or glaring color; indeed, 
those whose eyes are weak, would find considera- 
ble advantage in having green for the furniture, 
and as the prevailing color of their bed-chambers. 
Nature confirms the propriety of this direction, 
for the light of the day comes on by slow degrees, 
and green is the universal color she presents to 
our eyes. 

5. Those individuals who are rather long- 
sighted should accustom themselves to read with 
the book somewhat nearer to the eye than what 
they naturally like; while others, that are rather 
short-sighted, should use themselves to read with 
the hook as far off as possible. By these means, 
both will improve and strengthen their sight, 
while a contrary course increases its natural im- 
perfections. It is well to read or sew with the 
light above or behind, rather than in front of the 
face, or with a shade to protect the eyes from glare. 

Use of Spectacles. 
From whatever cause the decay of sight arises, 
an attentive consideration of the following rules 
will enable any one to judge for himself when his 
eye-sight may be assisted or preserved by the use 
of proper glasses : 

1. When we are obliged to remove small ob- 
jects to a considerable distance from the ej e in 
order to see them distinctly. 

2. If we find it necessary to get more light than 
formerly, as, for instance, to place the candle be- 
tween the eye and the object. 

3. If on looking at and attentively considering 
a near object it fatigues the eye and becomes con- 
fused, or if it appears to have a kind of dimness 
or mist before it. 

4. When small, printed letters are seen to ran 
into each other, and on looking steadfastly at 
them appear double or treble. 

5. If the eyes are so fatigued by a little exer- 
cise that we are obliged to shut them from time to 
time, so as to relieve them by looking at different 
objects. 

AVhen all these circumstances concur, or any of 
them separately takes place, it will be necessary 
to seek assistance from glasses, which will ease 
the eyes, and in some degree check their tendency 
to become worse, whereas if they be not assisted 
in time the weakness will be undoubtedly in- 
creased and the eyes be impaired by the efforts 
they are compelled to make. When weakness of 
the sight is not remedied by glasses, it will be ne- 
cessary to avoid all use of the eyes which gives 
pain or causes fatigue, especially at night. 
Cosmetics, 

To set off the complexion with all the advan- 
tage it can attain, nothing more is requisite than 
to wash the face with pure water, or if anything 
farther be occasionally necessary, it is only the 
addition of a little soap. [See pages 306, 465.] 



THE TEETH. 

An obje( t'ery subservient to health, and which 
merits due attention, is the preservation of the 
teeth, the care of which, considering their impor- 
tance in preparing the food for digestion, is, in 
general, far from being suflSciently attended to. 
Many persons neglect to wash their moutha 



TEETH. 



187 



in the mnrning, which ought always to be done. 
Indeed this ought to be practised at the conclu- 
Bion of every meal, where either animal food or 
yegetables are eaten, for the former is apt to leave 
behind it a rancid acrimony, and the latter an 
acidity, both of them hurtful to the teeth. Wash- 
ing the mouth frequently with cold water is not 
only serviceable in keeping the teeth clean, but 
in strengthening the gums, the firm adhesion of 
which to the teeth is of great importance in pre- 
serving them sound and secure. The addition 
of a few drops of tincture of myrrh to the water 
will make it more cleansing and sweeter to the 
breath. 

Tooth Poicdera, 

Many persons, while laudably attentive to the 
preservation of their teeth, do them hurt by too 
much (ifficiousness. They daily apply to them some 
dentifrice powder, which they rub so hard as not 
only to injure the enamel by excessive friction, but 
to hurt the gums even more than by tlje alnise of the 
the toothpick. The quality of some of the dentifrice 
powders advertised in newspapers is extremelj' 
suspicious, and there is reason to think that they 
are not altogether free from a corrosive ingre- 
dient. One of the safest and best compositions 
for the purpose is a mixture of two parts of pre- 
pared chalk, one of Peruvian bark, and one of 
hard soap, all finely powdered, which is calcula- 
ted not 'inly to clean the teeth without hurting 
them, but to preserve the firmness of the gums. 

Besides the advantage of sound teeth for their 
use in mastication, a proper attention to their 
treatment conduces not a little to the sweetness of 
the breath. This is, indeed, often afi'ected by 
other causes existing in the lungs, the stomach, 
and sometimes even in the bowels, but a rotten 
state of the teeth, both from the putrid smell 
emitted by carious bones and the impurities lodged 
in their cavities, never fails of aggravating an un- 
pleasant breath wherever there is a tendency of 
that kind. [See pages 307, 308.] 
Loose Teeth. 

When the teeth are loosened by external vio- 
lence, by falls and blows, or by the improper use 
of instruments in pulling diseased teeth in the 
neighborhood of sound ones, they may again be 
made tnlerably fast by pressing them as firmly as 
possible into their sockets, and preserving them 
so with ligatures of cat-gut, Indian weed or waxed 
silk, and keeping the patient upon spoon-meat till 
they are firm. When looseness of the teeth is 
owing to decay, nothing will fasten them till the 
cause be removed, and this ought to be done early, 
otherwise it will have no efi'ect. Frequently the 
teeth become loose from a sponginess of the gums, 
often attributed to scurvy. The best remedy is 
scarifying the gums deeply, and allowing them to 
bleed freely ; this should be repeated till they are 
fully fastened. Mild astringents, as tincture of 
bark, are here attended with good effects, though 
those of a strong nature will certainly do harm. 
The mouth should be frequently washed with cold 
■water strongly impregnated with these, and the 
patient should not use the teeth which have been 
loose till they become firm again. The loosening 
of the teeth in old age cannot be remedied, as it 
is owing to the wasting of their sockets, from 
which the teeth lose their support. 

Foul Teeth. 
The teeth sometimes become yr^w or black 
without any adventitious matter being observed 
on them ; at other times they become foul, and 
give a taint to the breath, in consequence of the 
natural mucus of the mouth, or part of the food 
remaining too long about them. The most fre- 



quent cause of foul teeth is the substance called 
tartar, which seems to be a deposition from the 
saliva, and with which the teeth are often almost 
entirely encrusted. When this substance is al- 
lowed to remain, it insinuates itself between the 
gums and the teeth, and then gets down upon the 
jaw in such a manner as to loosen the teeth. 
When they have been long covered with this or 
with any other matter, it is seldom they can be 
cleaned without the assistance of instruments. 
But when once they are cleaned they may gener- 
ally be kept so by rubbing them with a thin piece 
,of soft wood made into a kind of brush and dip- 
ped into distilled vinegar, after which the mouth 
is to be washed with common water. 
Cleaning the Teeth, 

When tno teeth are to be cleaned with instru- 
ments, the operator ought, with a linen cloth or 
with a glove, to press against the points of the 
teeth, so as to keep them firm in their sockets 
with the fingers of the one hand while he cleans 
them with the necessary instruments held in the 
other, taking care not to scrape them so hard as 
to loosen them, or to rub off the epimel. This 
being done, the teeth should be rubbed Over with 
a small brush or a piece of sponge dipped in a 
mixture of cream of tartar and Peruvian bark. 
The same application may be made to the teeth 
for a few days, when afterwards they may be kept 
clean as already directed. 

The teeth are sometimes covered over with a 
thin dark colored scurf, which has by some been 
mistaken for a wasting of the enamel, but which 
is only an extraneous matter covering it. By per- 
severance this may be cleaned off as completely as 
where the teeth are covered with tartar; but it is 
apt, after some time, to appear again. When this . 
is observed the same operation must be repeated. 

For the purpose of applying powders or washes 
to the teeth, a hard or soft brush is commonly em- 
ployed; the latter is supposed preferable, as being 
in less danger of wearing down the enamel or of 
separating the teeth. 

Tootliache. 

Toothache may be of either of three kinds : from 
irritation of the nerve, exposed in the hollow of a 
decaying tooth; from inflammation of the jaw, 
with or without a gathering at the root of a tooth j 
and from neuralgia. For the first of these, there 
is a certain cure ; but it requires care in the appli- 
cation. Wrap a small pledget of raw cotton around 
the point of a knitting or darning needle, and dip 
it in creasote; then insert the point with the cot- 
ton directly into the hollow of the aching tooth. 
If it reach the nerve, it will give relief instantly. 
The cotton may be left in for a while, covered by 
a dry piece. Care is needed not to let the creasote 
drop or run upon the lips or gums, on which it 
will act as a caustic. If a drop should escape, 
however, little or no harm will follow if the mouth 
be at once washed well with cold water. 

Weights and Meamires. 
By the following tables it will be seen that in the 
Measures of Fluids. 
1 gallon measure contains 8 pints 

1 pint " 16 ounces, 

1 ounce " 8 drachms, 

1 drachm " 60 minims. 

Weight of Dry Substances. 

1 pound contains 12 ounces, 
1 ounce " 8 drachms, 

1 drachm " 60 grains, 

1 scruple " 20 grs. cr 

1-2 of a drachm. 



188 



CULINARY ARTS. 



It is customary to distinguish quantities of 
fluids from drj- substances, by prefixing the letter 
f. i^fluid; when an ounce or drachm is mentioned 
in medical works, but in the foregoing prescrip- 



tions or formulas, this was considered to he un- 
necessary, as the slightest acquiiititance viith the 
substances to be used will point out what is im- 
plied. 



!; 


3 


3 


64 


7 


_ 


_ 


56 


G 


- 




48 


S 






40 


4r 






32 


3 




- 


24: 


2 


— 


- 


16 


1 

^■2 


= 


^ 


1 









Measuring-Glasses 

In order to measure quantities of fluids, glasses, 
graduated on their sides (according to the above 
figures), will be found useful in all families and 
private laboratories : 

No. 1, Represents a glass calculated to measure 
any quantity from two drachms to eight ounces. 

No. 2, From one drachm to two ounces. 

No. 3, From half a drachm to one ounce; and 

No. 4, Any quantity from five minims (or drops) 
to one drachm. 



Scale of Medicinal Doses. 

The following table of the gradations of doses 
of medicines for different ages, will in general be 
found pretty correct, and ought never to be devi- 
ated from, except by professional advice. 

If at the age of manhood the dose be one drachm, 
the proportions will be at 

From I't to 21 years, 2 scruples; 7 to 14 years, 
half a drachm; 4 to 7 years, 1 scruple; 4 years, 
15 grains; .3 years, half a scruple; 2 years, 8 grains; 
1 year, 5 grains ; 6 months, 3 grains; 3 months, 2 
grains; 1 month, 1 grain. 



CULINARY ^HTS. 



PLAIN COOKERY. 
To Boil 31 eats, etc. 

The most simple of culinary processes is not 
often performed in perfection, though it does not 
require so much nicety and attendance as roast- 
ing; to skim the pot well, and to keep it moder- 
ately boiling, and to know how long the joint re- 
quires, comprehends the most useful point of this 
branch of cookery. The cook must take especial 
care that the water really boils all the while she 
is cooking, or she will be deceived in the time. 
An adept cook will manage with much less fire for 
boiling than she uses for roasting,'and it will last 
all the time without much mending. When the 
water is coming to a boil there will always rise 
from the cleanest meat a scum to the top, this 
must be carefully taken ofi" as soon as it appears, 
fur on this deperds the good appearance of a 
boiled dinner. When you have skimmed it well, 
put in a little cold water, which will throw up the 
rest of it. If left alone it soon boils down and 
sticks to the meat, which, instead of looking white 
and healthful, will have a coarse and uninviting 
appearance. 

Many cooks put in milk to make what they boil 
look white, but this does more harm than good ; 
others wrap the meat in a cloth; but if it is well 
skimmed it will have a much more delicate appear- 
ance than when it is mufiled up. 

Put the meat into cold water in the proportion 
of about a quart to every pound of meat ; it should 
remain covered during the whole process of boil- 
ing; but only just so. Water beyond what is 



absolutely necessary renders the meat less savory 
and weakens the broth. 

The water should be gradually heated accord- 
ing to the thickness, etc., of the article boiled; 
for instance, a leg of mutton of ten pounds' weight 
should be placed over a moderate fire, which will 
gradually heat the water without causing it to 
boil, for about forty minutes. If the water boils 
much sooner, the meat will he hardened, and 
shrink up as if it were scorched. Reckon the 
time from its first coming to a boil; the slower it 
boils the tenderer, the plumper, and whiter it will 
be. For those who choose their food thoroughly 
cooked, twenty minutes to a pound will not be 
found too much for gentle simmering by the side 
of the fire. Fresh killed meat will take much 
longer time boiling than that which has been kept 
till what the butchers call ripe ; if it be fresh killed 
it will be tough and hard if stewed ever so long, 
and ever so gentlj'. The size of the boiling pots 
should be adapted to what thej' are to contain; 
in small families we recommend block-tin sauce- 
pans, etc., as lightest and safest, taking care that 
the covers fit close, otherwise the introduction of 
smoke may be the means of giving the meat a bad 
taste. Beef and mutton a little u'Mlcrdnne is not 
a great fault, but lamb, pork, and veal ure uneat- 
able and truly unwholesome, if not thoroughly 
boiled. Take care of the liquor in which poultry 
or meat has been boiled, as an addition of peas, 
herbs, etc., will convert it into a nourishing soup. 
To Bake Meats, etc. 

This is one of the cheapest and most convenieni 



MEATS. 



189 



ways of dressing a dinner in small families, and 
although the general superiority of roasting must 
be allowed, still certain joints and dishes, such as 
^gs and loins of pork, legs and shoulders of mut- 
ton, iind fillets of veal, will bake to great advan- 
tage if the meat be good. Besides those joints 
above-mentioned, we shall enumerate a few l)aked 
dishes which may be particularly recommended. 

A pig when sent to the baker prepared for 
baking, should have its ears and tail covered with 
buttered paper, and a bit of butter tied up in a 
piece of linen to baste the back with, otherwise it 
will be apt to blister. If well baked it is con- 
sidered equal to a roast one. 

A goose prepared the same as for roasting, or a 
duck placed upon a st.md and turned, as soon as 
one side is done upon the other, are equally good. 

A buttock of beef, prepared as follows, is par- 
ticularly fine: After it has been put in salt about 
a week, let it be well washed and put into a brown 
earthen pan with a pint of water; cover the pan 
tight over with two or three thicknesses of cap 
paper, and give it four or five hours in a mod- 
erately heated oven. 

A ham, if not too old, put in soak for an hour, 
taken out and baked in a moderately heated oven, 
cuts fuller of graver, and of a finer flavor, than a 
boiled one. 

Codfish, haddock, and mackerel should have a 
dust of flour and some bits of butter spread over 
them. Eels, when large and stufled, herrings and 
sprats are put in a brown pan, with vinegar and a 
little spice, and tied over with paper. 

A hare, prepared the same as for roasting, with 
a few bits of butter and a little milk, put into the 
dish and basted several times, will be found nearly 
equal to roasting. In the same manner, legs and 
ghins of beef will be equally good with proper 
vegetable seasoning. 

To Roast Meats, etc. 

The first thing requisite for roasting is to have 
a strong, steady fire, or a clear brisk one, accord- 
ing to the size and weight of the joint that is put 
down to thp spit. A cook, who does not attend to 
this, will prove herself totally incompetent to 
roast victuals properly. All roasting should be 
done opeu to the air, to ventilate the meat from 
its gross fumes; otherwise it becomes baked in- 
stead of roasted. The joint should be put down 
at such a distance from the *ire as to imbibe the 
heat rather quicklj-; otherwise its plumpness and 
good quality will be gradually dried up, and it 
will turn shrivelly, and look meagre. When the 
meat is first put down, it is necessary to see that 
it lies level in the pan, otherwise the process of 
cooking will be very troublesome. When it is 
warm, begin to baste it well, which prevents the 
nutritive juices escaping; and, if required, addi- 
tional dripping must be used for that purpose. 

As to sprinkling with salt while roasting, most 
able cooks dispense with it, as the penetrating 
particles of the salt have a tendency to draw out 
the animal juices. However, a little salt thrown 
on, when first laid down, is sometimes necessary, 
with strong meats. When the smoke draws to- 
wards the fire, and the dropping of the clear gravy 
begins, it is a sure sign that the joint is nearly 
done. Then take oft" the paper, baste well, and 
dredge it with flour, which brings on that beauti- 
ful brownness which makes roasted meals look so 
inviting. 

With regard to the time necessary for roasting 
rarious meats, it will vary according to the dif- 
ferent sorts, the time it has been kept, and the 
temperature of the weather. In summer twenty 
minutes may be reckoned equal to half an hour in 



winter. A good screen, to keep oflF the chilling 
currents of air, is essentially useful. The old 
housewife's rule is to allow rather more than a 
quarter of an hour to each pound, and in most 
instances it proves practically correct. 

In roasting mutton or lamb, the loin, the chine, 
and the saddle, must have the skin raised, and 
skewered on, and, when nearly done, take off this 
skin, and baste and flour to froth it up. 

Veal requires roasting brown, and, if a fillet or 
loin, be sure to paper the fat, that as little of it 
may be lost as possible. When nearly done baste 
it with butter and dredge with flour. 

Pork should be well done. When roasting a 
loin, cut the skin across with a sharp knife, other- 
wise the crackling is very awkward to manage. 
Stuff the knuckle part with sage and onion, and 
skewer it up. Put a little drawn gravy in the dish, 
and serve it up with apple-sauce in a tureen. A 
spare-rib should be basted with a little butter, a 
little dust of flour, and some sage and onions 
shred small. Apple-sauce is the only one which 
suits this dish. 

Wild fowls require a clear brisk fire, and should 
be roasted till they are of a light brcjwn. but not 
too much; yet it is a common fault to roast them 
till the gravy runs out, thereby losing their fine 
flavor. 

Tame fowls require more roasting, as the heat 
is longer in penetrating. They should be often 
basted, in order to keep up a strong iVoth, and to 
improve their plumpness. The seasoning of the 
dressing or stuffiing of a fowl is important to its 
flavor. The dressing should consist of bread 
crumbs, seasoned with black pepper, salt, and no 
herb but thyme. 

Pigs and geese should be thoroughly roasted 
before a good fire, and turned quickly. 

Hares and rabbits require time and care, espe- 
cially to have the ends sufficiently done, and to 
remedy that raw discoloring at the neck, etc., 
which proves often so objectionable at table. 

To regulate Time in Cookery. 

Mutton. — A leg of 8 pounds will require two 
hours and a half. A chine or saddle of 10 or 11 
pounds, two hours and a half, A shoulder of 7 
pounds, one hour and a half. A loin of 7 pounds, 
one hour and three quarters. A neck and breast, 
about the same time as a loin. 

Beef. — The sirloin of 15 pounds, from three 
hours and three-quarters to four hours. . Ribs of 
beef, from 15 to 20 pounds, will take three hours 
to three hours and a half. 

Veul. — A fillet, from 12 to 16 pounds, will take 
from four to five hours, at a good fire. A loin, 
upon the average, will take three hours. A shoul- 
der, from three hours to three hours and a half. 
A neck, two hours. A breast, from an hour and 
a half to two hours. 

Lamb. — Hind quarter of 8 pounds will take 
from an hour and three-quarters to two hours. 
Fore quarter of 10 pounds, about two hours. Leg 
of 5 pounds, from an hour and a quarter to an 
hour and a half. Shoulder or breast, with a quick 
fire, an hour. 

Pork. — A leg of 8 pounds will require about 
three hours. Griskin, an hour and a half. A 
spare-rib of 8 or 9 pounds will take from two hours 
and a half to three hours to roast it thoroughly. 
A bald spare-rib of 8 pounds, an hour and a quar- 
ter. A loin of 5 pounds, if very fat, from two 
hours to two hours and a half. A sucking pig, ot 
three weeks old, about an hour and a half. 

Poultry. — A very large turkey will require about 
three hours; one of 10 pounds two hours; a small 
one an hour and a half. 



190 



PLAIN COOKERY. 



A full-grown fowl, an hour and a half; a mod- 
erate sized one an hour and a quarter. 

A pullet, from half an hour to forty minutes. 

A goose, full grown, two hours. 

A green goose, forty minutes. 

A duck, full size, from an hour and a quarter to 
one hour and three-quarters. 

yeiiifioii. — A buck haunch which weighs from 
20 to 25 pounds will take about four hours and a 
half roasting ; one from 12 to 18 pounds will take 
three hours and a quarter. 

To Broil. 

This culinary branch is very confined, but ex- 
cellent as respects chops or steaks, to cook which 
in perfection the fire should be clear and brisk, 
and the grid-iron set on it slanting, to prevent the 
fat dropping in it. In addition, quick and fre- 
quent turning will insure good flavor in the taste 
of the article cooked. 

To Fry Meats, etc. 

Be always careful to keep the frying-pan clean, 
and see that it is properly tinned. When frying 
any sort of fish, first dry them in a cloth, and then 
flour them. Put into the pan plenty of dripping, 
or hog's lard, and let it be boiling hot before put- 
ting in the fish. Butter is not so good for the 
purpose, as it is apt to burn and blacken, and 
make them soft. When they are fried, put them 
in a dish or hair-seive, to drain, before they are 
sent to table. Olive oil is the best article for fry- 
ing, but it is very expensive, and bad oil spoils 
every thing that is dressed with it. Steaks and 
chops should be put in when the liquor is hot, and 
done quickly, of a light brown, and turned often. 
Sausages should be done gradually, which will 
prevent their bursting. 

Corned Beef. 

Fifty pounds of beef, three pounds of coarse 
salt, one ounce of saltpetre, three-quarters of a 
pound of sugar, two gallons of water. Mix the 
above ingredients together and pour over the 
meat. Cover the tub closely. 

To Pot Beef. 
Cut it small, add to it some melted butter, two 
anchovies boned and washed, and a little of the 
best pepper, beat fine. Put them into a marble 
mortar, and beat them well together till the meat 
is yellow; put it into pots and cover with clarified 
butter. 

To Pot Leg of Beef. 

Boil a leg of beef till the meat will come off the 
bone easily; then mix it with a cow heel, previ- 
ously cut into thin pieces, and season the whole 
•with salt and spice; add a little of the liquor in 
which the leg of beef was boiled, put it into a 
cheese-vat, or cullender, or some other vessel that 
will let the liquor run off; place a very heavy 
weight over it, and it will be ready for use in a 
day or two. It may be kept in souse made of 
bran boiled in water, with the addition of a little 
vinegar. 

Dried Beef. 

Have the rounds divided, leaving a piece of the 
sinew to hang up by ; lay the pieces in a tub of 
cold water for an hour ; then rub each piece of 
beef that will weigh fifteen or twenty pounds, with 
a handful of brown sugar and a tablespoonful of 
saltpetre, pulverized, and a pint of fine salt; 
sprinkle fine salt in the bottom of a clean tight 
barrel, and lay the pieces in, strewing a little 
coarse salt between each piece ; let it lie two days ; 
then make the brine in a clean tub, with cold 
water and ground alum salt — stir it well; it must 
b« strong enough to bear an egg half up ; put in 



half a pound of best brown sugar and a table, 
spoonful of saltpetre to each gallon of the salt and 
water, pour it over the beef, put a clean large 
stone on the top of the meat to keep it under the 
pickle (which is very important!, put a cover on 
the barrel, exiiniine it occasionally to see that the 
pickle does not leak, and if it should need more, 
add of the same strength. Let it stand six weeks, 
then hang it up in the smoke-house, and after it 
has drained, smoke it moderately for ten days, it 
should then hang in a dry place. Before cooking 
let it soak for twenty-four hours ; a piece that 
weighs fifteen or twenty pounds should boil two 
hours — one half the size, one hour; and a small 
piece should soak six or twelve hours, according 
to size. 

Potted Lobster or Crab. 

This must be made with fine hen lobsters when 
full of spawn, boil them thoroughly ; when cold, 
pick out all the solid meat, and pound it in a mor- 
tar; it is usual to add, by degrees, (a very little) 
finely powdered mace, black or Cayenne pepper, 
salt, and, while pounding, a little butter. When 
the whole is well mixed, and beat to the consist- 
ence of paste, press it down hard in a preserving- 
pot, pour clarified butter over it, and cover it with 
wetted bladder. 

To Pot Shad. 

Clean the shad, take off the tail, head, and all 
the fins, then cut it in pieces, wash and wipe it 
dry. Season each piece well with salt and Cay- 
enne pepper. Lay them in layers in a stone-jar, 
place between eaeh two layers some allspice, cloves, 
and stick-cinnamon. Cover them with good cider- 
vinegar, tie thick paper over the jar, place them 
in a moderate oven, and let them remain three or 
four hours. 

To make Bologna Sausages. 

Take a pound of beef suet, a pound of pork, a 
pound of bacon fat and lean, and a pound of beef 
and veal. Cut them very small. Take a handful 
of sage leaves chopped fine, with a few sweet herbs. 
Season pretty high with pepper and salt, take a 
large well-cleaned gut and fill it. Set on a sauce- 
pan of water, and when it boils, put it in, first 
pricking it to prevent its bursting. Boil it one 
hour. 

To make Oxford Sausages. 

Take 1 pound of young pork, fat and lean, with- 
out skin or gristle ; 1 pound of beef suet, chopped 
fine together; put in i pound of grated bread; 
half the peel of a lemon, shred ; a nutmeg grated j 
6 sage leaves, chopped fine; a teaspoonful of 
pepper; and 2 of salt; some thyme, savory, and 
marjoram, shred fine. Mix well together and put 
it close down in a pan till used. Roll them out 
the size of common sausages, and fry them, in 
fresh butter, of a fine brown, or broil them over a 
clear fire, and send them to table hot. 

To make Epping Sausages. 

Take 6 pounds of young pork, quite free from 
skin, gristle, or fat; cut it small, and beat it fine 
in a mortar. Chop 6 pounds of beef suet very fine, 
shred a handful of sage leaves fine, spread the meat 
on a clean dresser, and shake the sage over it. 
Shred the rind of a lemon very fine, and throw it 
with sweet herbs on the meat. Grate 2 nutmegs, 
to which put a teaspoonful of pepper, and a table- 
spoonful of salt. Throw the suet over it, and mix. 
all well together. Put it down close in the pot, 
and when used, roll it up with as much egg as 
will make it smooth. 

Hog's Head Clieese. 

Take off the ears and noses of four heads, and 



OYSTEES. 



191 



pick out the eyes, and lay them in salt and water 
ail ni);ht, then wash and put them on to boil, tiike 
out the bones carefully, chop and season them 
well, and pack it in bowls ; they will turn out 
whole, and may be eaten cold with vinegar, or 
fried as sausage. 

Bouilli. 

Take the thin ends of prime ribs; bubble them 
slowly with a little salt, pepper, 3 bay leaves, 1 
onion stuck with cloves, and a bunch of sweet 
herbs. Remove all the scum, and bubble till a 
skewer will penetrate without force. 

Scrayple. 
Take 8 pounds of scraps of pork, that will not 
do for sausage, boil it in 4 gallons of water; when 
tender, chop it fine, strain the liquor and pour it 
back into the pot; put in the meat, season it with 
sage, summer savory, salt and pepper to taste, 
stir in a quart of corn meal; after simmering a 
few minutes, thicken it with buckwheat flour very 
thick; it requires very little cooking after it is 
thickened, but must be stirred constantly. 

To Stew Oyaters. 
Put your oysters with all their liquor into a 
saucepan; no water; to every dozen add a lump 
of butter size of a walnut, salt, black pepper, a 
blade of mace, two bay leaves; bubble for five 
minutes, add a little cream, shake all well together. 
and turn them out, grating a little nutmeg on 
each oyster as it lies in the sauce. 

Slewed Oysters. 

One hundred oysters, i a pint of cream, 2 ounces 
of butter, beat the butter smooth with a little flour. 
Put the oysiters in a pan over the fire ; when they 
become hot, stir in the cream, butter, and flour. 
Season to your taste with salt, mace, and pepper. 
They should be served as soon as they are taken 
off the fire. 

Oysters Roasted. 

Roast your oysters over a quick fire till they are 
done dry, but not scorched; turn them out on the 
plate of a brazier, without any of their liquor ; add 
a large lump of butter. Set the plate over the 
lamp when the butter is melted, add a gill of Ma- 
deira, a little salt and Cayenne. 

Another Mode. 
Put the oysters alive in the shell upon a good 
fire and leave them till their shells open o little; 
then take them off, open them on a plate, and 
season with salt and pepper only. Thus they are 
excellent for delicate stomachs. 

Scalloped Oysters. 
One hundred oysters, a baker's loaf crumbed, 
four eggs boiled hard; salt and cayenne pepper 
to taste. Chop the eggs very fine and mix with 
the crumbs, which season highly with cayenne 
and s;ilt. Cover the bottom of a deep pie-dish 
with the eggs and crumbs ; then with a fork, phice 
a layer of oysters with two or three small pieces 
of butter, and so continue until all are in, reserving 
sufficient crumbs for the cover. For those who like 
U, a little mace may be added. Bake in a quick 
Dven three-quarters of an hour. Serve hot. 

Fried Oysters. 

Take fine large oysters, free them from all the 
email particles of shell, then place them on a clean 
towel and dry them. Have ready some crackers 
made very fine, which season with a little salt, 
black and cayenne pepper of equal proportions. 

Leat as many eggs and cream mixed, as will 
moisten all the oysters required, then with a fork 
dip each one in the egg a/^ lay them on the 



cracker, and with the back of a spoon pat the 
cracker close to the oyster; lay them on a dish, 
and so continue until are done. Put in a frying- 
pan an equal portion of butter and lard or sweet 
oil boiling hot, then put in as many oysters as the 
pan will hold without allowing them to touch, and 
fry quickly a light brown on both sides. A few 
minutes will cook them. Send to table hot. 

Panned Oysters. 

Take fifty large oysters, remove every particle 
of shell which may adhere to them, put them into 
a colander and pour over a little water to rinse 
them. After letting them drain, put them into a 
stewpan with a quarter of a pound of butter, salt, 
black and red pepper to taste. Put them over a 
clear fire, and stir while cooking. As soon as they 
commence to shrink remove them from the fire, 
and send to table hot in a well (covereil) heated 
dish. 

Codfish-Cakes. 

Wash the fish, and after remaining in water all 
night, boil it. Take out all the bones, cut up very 
fine and mix with an equal quantity of potatoes; 
add a piece of butter, cayenne, and a little more 
salt, if necessary. Then make it out into small 
round cakes, and fry in butter or beef drippings, 
a light brown on both sides. 

To Boil Lobsters. 

The medium sized are best ; put them alive into 
a kettle of boiling water which has been salted, 
and let them boil from half an hour to three-quar- 
ters, according to their size. When done take 
them out of the kettle, wipe them clean, and rub 
the shell with a little sweet oil, which will give a 
clear red appearance. 

Crack the large claws without mashing them, 
and with a sharp knife split the body and tail 
from end to end. Send to table and dress as 
follows : after mincing it very fine add salt, cay- 
enne pepper, mustard, salad oil, and vinegar to 
taste, observing to mix all well together. 

To Pickle Oysters. 
Drain off the liquor from one hundred oysters, 
wash them and put to them a table-spoonful of 
salt and a tea-cup of vinegar; let them simmer 
over the fire about ten minutes, taking off the 
scum as it rises ; then take out the oysters and 
put to their own liquor a tablespoonful of whole 
black pepper and a teaspoonful of mace and 
cloves; let it boil five minutes, skim and pour it 
over the oysters in ajar. 

To Spice Oysters. 

One hundred oysters, one dozen cloves, two 
dozen allspice, mace, cayenne pepper, and salt to 
taste. 

Strain the liquor through a sieve, put it in a 
saucepan, and add the oysters, spice, pepper, salt, 
and half a pint of cider vinegar. Place them over 
a slow fire, and as soon as they boil take them off. 
Pour them into a large bowl and set them away to 
cool. When cold cover them close. 

Flounders — a la creme. 

Scale, clean, and wrap your fish in a cloth, boil 
it gently in plenty of water well salted; whea 
done drain it carefully without breaking, lay it 
on your dish and mask it with cream or white 
onion sauce. 

French Stew of Peas and Bacon. 

Cut about one-quarter of a pound of fresh bacon 
into thin slices, soak it on the fire in a stewpan 
until it is almost done ; then put about a quart of 
peas to it, a good bit of butter, a bunch of parsley, 
and two spoonfuls of catsup; simmer on a slow 



192 



PLAIN COOKERY. 



fire and reduce the sauce ; take out the parsley 
and serve the rest together. 

New Enfilnnd Chowder. 
Have a good haddock, cod, or any other solid 
fish ; cut it in pieces three inches square, put a 
pound of fat salt pork in strips into the pot, set 
it on hot coals and fry out the oil ; take out the 
pork and put in a layer of fish, over that a layer 
of onions in slices, then a layer of fish with slips 
of fat salt pork, then another layer of onions; and 
so on alternately until your fish is consumed ; mix 
some flour with as much water as will fill the pot, 
season with black pepper and salt to your taste, 
and boil it for half an hour. Have ready some 
crackers (Philadelphia pilot bread if you can get 
it) soaked in water till they are a little softened, 
throw them into your chowder five minutes before 
you take it up. Serve in a tureen. 

Daniel Webster's Chowder. 
Four tablespoonfuls of onions, fried with pork ; 
a quart of boiled potatoes well mashed ; IJ pounds 
of sea biscuit broken; 1 teaspoonful of thyme, 
mixed with one of summer savory ; i bottle of 
mushroom catsup; one bottle of port or claret; i 
of a nutmeg, grated; a few cloves, mace, and all- 
spice; 6 pounds fish (sea-bass or cod), cut into 
slices ; 25 oysters, a little black pepper, and a few 
slices of lemon. The whole put in a pot and 
covered with an inch of water, boiled for an hour 
and gently stirred. 

Soup Maigre. 
Take of veal, beef cut into small pieces, and 
scrag of mutton, 1 pound each; put them into a 
saucepan, with 2 quarts of water; put into a clean 
cloth 1 ounce of barley, an onion, a small bundle 
of sweet herbs, 3 or 4 heads of celery cut small, a 
little mace, 2 or 3 cloves, 3 turnips pared and each 
cut in two, a large carrot cut into small pieces, and 
a young lettuce. Cover the pot close, and let it 
stew very gently for six hours. Then take out 
the spice, sweet herbs, and onion, and pour all 
into a soup-dish, seasoned with salt. 

Another Soup Maigre. 

(^tarter of a pound of butter placed in a stew- 
pan, add to it 2 tablespoonsful of flour, i pint of 
milk. Then add cold vegetables chopped very 
fine, and stew together a quarter of an hour. Be- 
fore sent up, beat the j'olks of two eggs, add i 
of a pint of cream, and a little pepper and salt to 
taste. 

Portable Soup. 

Cut into smoll pieces 3 large legs of veal, 1 of 
beef, and the lean part of a ham ; lay the meat in 
a large cauldron, with a quarter of a pound of but- 
ter at the bottom, 4 ounces of anchovies, and 2 
ounces of mace. Cut small 6 heads of clean washed 
celery, freed from green leaves, and put them into 
the cauldron, with 3 large carrots cut thin. Cover 
all close, and set it on a moderate fire. When the 
gravy begins to draw, keep taking it off till it is 
all extracted. Then cover the meat with water, let 
it boil gently for four hours, then strain it through 
a hair-sieve into a clean pan, till it is reduced to 
one-third. Strain the gravy drawn from the meat 
into a pan, and let it boil gently, until it be of a 
glutinous consistence. Tak* care and skim (jfi" all 
the fat as it rises. Watch it when it is nearly done, 
that it does not burn ; next season it with Cayenne 
pepper, and pour it on flat earthen dishes, a quar- 
ter of an inch thick. Let it stand till the next day, 
and then cut it out by round tins larger than a 
eilver dollar. Set the cakes in dishes in the sun 
to dry, and turn them often. When fully dried, 
put them into a tin box with a piece of clean white 



paper between each, and keep them in a dry place 
If made in frosty weather it will soon become 
solid. This kind of soup is exceedingly coTire- 
nient for private families, for by putting one of 
the cakes in a saucepan with about a quart of 
water, and a little salt, a basin of good broth may 
be made in a few minutes. It will likewise mako 
an excellent gravy for roast turkeys, fowls, and 
game. 

Asparagus Soup. 

Put a small broiled bone to 1^ pints of peas, 
and water in proportion, a root of celery, a small 
bunch of sweet herbs, a large onion, Cayenne 
pepper, and salt to taste; boil it briskly for five 
hours, strain and pulp it; then add a little spin- 
ach-juice, and asparagus boiled and cut into small 
pieces. A teaspoonful of walnut soy, and a tea- 
spoonful of mushroom catsup, answers as well as 
the bone. 

Giblet Soup. 

Take 4 pounds of gravy beef, 2 pounds of scrag 
of mutton, and 2 pounds of scrag of veal ; boil 
them in 2 gallons of water, stew them gently till 
it begins to taste well, pour it out and let it stand 
till cold, skim ofi' all the fat. Take 2 pair of gib- 
lets well scaled, put them to the broth, and sim- 
mer them till they are very tender. Take them 
out and strain the soup through a cloth. Put a 
piece of butter rolled in flour into the stewpan, 
with some fine chopped parsley, chives, a little 
pennyroyal, and sweet marjoram. Place the soup 
over a slow fire, put in the gildets, fried butter, 
herbs, a little Madeira wine, some salt, and Cay- 
enne pepper; when the herbs are tender, send the 
soup and giblets intermixed to table. This forms 
a very savory dish. 

Charitable Sotip. 

Take the liquor of meat boiled the day before, 
with the bones of leg and shin of beef; add to the 
liquor as much as will make 130 quarts, also the 
meat of 10 stones of leg and shin of beef, and 2 
ox-heads, all cut in pieces ; add 2 bunches of car- 
rots, 4 bunches of turnips, 2 bunches of leeks, i a 
peck of onions, 1 bunch of celery, i a pound of 
pepper, and some salt. Boil it for six hours. 
Either oatmeal or barley may be put in to thicken 
it, if thought necessary. This soup may be used 
at any gentleman's table. 

Veal Gravy Soup. 

Garnish the bottom of the stewpan with thin 
pieces of lard, then a few slices of ham, slices of 
veal cutlet, sliced onions, carrots, parsnips, celery, 
a few cloves upon the meat, and a spoonful of 
broth ; soak it on the fire in this manner till the 
veal throws out its juice; then put it on a stronger 
fire, till the meat catches to the bottom of the pan, 
and is brought to a proper color; then add a 
sufiicient quantity of light broth, and simmer it on 
a slow fire till the meat is thoroughly done; add 
a little thyme and mushrooms. Skim and sift it 
clear for use. 

Beef 6r(wy Soup. 

Cut slices of lean beef, according to the quan- 
tity wanted, which place in a stew-pan, upon 
sliced onions and roots, adding two spoonsful of 
fat broth ; soak this on a slow fire for half an hour, 
stirring it well ; when it catches a proper color 
add thin broth made of suitable herbs, with a little 
salt over it. 

A Cheap Rice and Meat Soup. 

Put a pound of rice and a little pepper and 
broth herbs into two quarts of water, cover them 
close, and simmer very softly; put in a little cin- 
namon, two pounds of good ox-cheek, and boil the 
whole till the goodness is incorporated by the liquor. 



SOUPS. 



193 



Another Cheap Sniip. 
Take an ox-eheek, 2 pecks of potatoes, J of a 
peck of onions, J of a pound of salt, an. I IJ ounces 
of pepper — to be boiled in 90 pints of wnter, on a 
flow tire until reduced to 60. A pint of this soup, 
with a small piece of meat, is a good meal for a 
hearty working man. Some of every vegetable, 
with a few herbs, may be added. 

Herring Soup. 

Take 8 gallons of water, and mix it with 5 
pounds of barley-meal. Boil it to the consistence 
of a thick jelly. Season it with salt, pepper, 
vinegar, sweet herbs, and, to give it a gratifying 
flavor, add the meat of 4 red herrings pounded. 
To jyrepare a Nutritions Soup. 

A pound of Scotch barley, with sufficient time 
allowed in the cooking, will make a gallon of water 
into a tolerable pudding consistency. A pint ba- 
sin filled with it will hold a spoon upright, when 
at its proper degree of warmth for eating. Thor- 
oughly steeped, it will produce a rich pulp, the 
form of the grains being nearly lost. Five hours' 
exposure, in a moderately heated oven, will be 
sufflcient; and it may be improved by an hour or 
two more. 

Amongst other means for such preparation, 
when a baker's oven has been emptied of its 
bread, a pan of 1 gallon size may be put in to 
steep its contents during the preceding night, and 
then renew the usual baking in the morning. 
What has been lost by evaporation, may be re- 
stored by the addition of warm water. All the 
seasoning requisite to make it as savory as plain 
family dishes generally are, will be about 3 large 
onions, 1 ounce of salt, and ^ of an ounce of pep- 
per. This seasoning should be put in before send- 
ing it to the oven. 

Scotch Broth, 

Set on the fire 4 ounces of pearl barley, with 6 
quarts of salt water; when it boils skim it, and 
add what quantity of salt beef or fresh brisket 
you choose, and a marrow-bone or a fowl, with 
2 pounds of either lean beef or mutton, and a 
good quantity of leeks, cabbages, or savoy, or you 
may use turnips, onions, and grated carrots ; keep 
it boiling for at least 4 or 5 hours ; but, if a fowl 
be used, let it not be put in till just time enough 
to bring it to table when well done, for it must be 
served separately. 

A Vegetable Soup. 

Take 1 onion, 1 turnip, 2 pared potatoes, 1 car- 
rot, 1 head of celery; boil them in 3 pints of 
water till the vegetables are cooked ; add a little 
salt; have a slice of bread toasted and buttered, 
put it into a bowl, and pour the soup over it. 
Tomatoes, when in season, form an agreeable 
addition. 

Pea Soup. 

Leave 1 pint of peas in the pot with the water 
they were boiled in; make a thickening of flour, 
milk and butter, seasoned with salt, pepper, par- 
•Icy and thyme; toast 2 or 3 slices of bread; cut 
it up in the tureen ; and when the soup has boiled 
about 10 minutes, pour it over. 

Children are mostly fond of pea soup, and it 
•eldom disagrees with them. A few slices of fat 
ham will supply the place of butter. 

Corn Soup. 
To each quart of young corn, cut from the cob, 
allow 3 pints of water. Put the corn and water 
on to boil, and as soon as the grains are tender, 
have ready 2 ounces of sweet butter mixed with 
1 tabiespoonful of flour. Stir the flour and butter 
iBto the corn and water, and let it boil 10 or 15 
13 



minutes longer. Just before the soup is taken out 
of the pot beat up an egg, and stir into it, with salt 
and pepper to your taste. 

Noodles for Soup. 
Beat up an egg, and to it add as much flour aa 
will make a very stiff" dough. Roll it out in a thin 
sheet, flour it, and roll it up clusely, as you would 
do a sheet of paper. Then with a sharp knife cut 
it in shavings about like cabbage for sliiw; flour 
these cuttings to prevent them from adhering to 
each other, and add them to your soup whilst it is 
boiling. Let them boil 10 minutes. 

Pepperpot. 

Cut in small pieces 3 pounds of tripe, put it on 
to boil in as much water as will cover it, allowing 
a teaspoonful of salt to every quart of water. Let 
it boil 3 hours, then have ready 4 calves'-feet, 
which have been dressed with the tripe, and add 
as much water as will cover them; also 3 onions 
sliced, and a small bunch of sweet herbs chopped 
fine. Half an hour before the pepperpot is done 
add four potatoes cut in pieces ; when these are ten- 
der add 2 ounces of butter rolled in flour, and 
season the soup highly with Cayenne pepper. 
Make some dumplings of flour and butter and a 
little water — drop them into the soup ; when the 
vegetables are sufficiently soft, serve it. 

The calves'-feet may be served with drawn but- 
ter. Any kind of spice may be added. If all- 
spice or cloves are used, the grains should be put 
in whole. 

Clam Soup. 

Wash the shells and put them in a kettle. Put 
the kettle where it will be hot enough to cause a 
steam from the clams, which will open them. T« 
1 quart of clams put 2 quarts of water, and then 
proceed as for oyster soup. 

Oyster Soup. 
To 1 quart of oysters add 1 quart of water. 
Pour the water on the oysters and stir them. 
Then take them out one at a time, so that no small 
particles of shell may adhere to them. Strain the 
liquor through a sieve, put it in a stew-pan over 
the fire with a little mace, and season with red 
pepper and salt to your taste. AVhen this boils 
put in your oysters. Let them boil again; then 
add i pint of cream and serve hot. 

Chicken Soup. 

Clean and wash a large fat chicken, put it on to 
boil in about 4 quarts of water, to which add i a 
teacupful of rice, 1 onion cut fine, 4 or 5 turnips 
pared and cut into small pieces, 1 dessertspoonful 
of white sugar (a little sugar, not more than a 
tabiespoonful to 3 or 4 quarts, may be added, 
scorched brown, to any soup while boiling, with 
advantage), a little sweet marjoram, with salt and 
red-pepper to taste. After boiling over a slow 
fire for rather more than an hour, put in 6 
white potatoes, pared, washed, and cut in quar- 
ters, which, as soon as done, add a little parsley 
minced fine. When done, if not sufficiently sea- 
soned, more may be added. Place the chicken ob 
a dish, which garnish with sprigs of double pars- 
ley, the soup in a tureen, and send to table hot. 
Chicken Broth. 

Take a nice tender chicken, and after cleaning 
it very nicely, cut it into quarters, and put it into a 
soup-kettle with 3 quarts of water, 2 tablespoons- 
ful of rice, or pearl-barley, and salt to taste. Let? 
it boil slowly, and as the scum rises remove it. 
When thoroughly done place the chicken on a dish, 
garnish with double parsley, and eat with drawn 
butter, and serve the broth in a deep-covered china 
bowl or tureen, and send to table hot. 



194 



PLAIN COOKERY. 



Mutton Broth. 
Take 3 pounds of the scrag-end of a neck of 
very fresh mutton, cut it into several pieces, wash 
them in cold water, and put them into a stewpan 
with 2 quarts of cold spring water ; place the stew- 
pan on the fire to boil, skim it well, and then add 
a couple of turnips cut into slices, a few branches 
of parsley, a sprig of green thyme, and a little 
gait. When it has boiled gently by the side of 
the stove for an hour and a half, skim off the fat 
from the surface, and then let it be strained 
through a lawn sieve into a basin and kept for use. 

Drawn Butter. 
Half pint of boiling water, 2 teaspoonsful of 
flour, and 2 ounces of butter. Mix the flour and 
butter together until they are perfectl}' smooth. 
Stir this into the boiling water, and add salt to 
taste. If made with milk in place of water, less 
butter will answer. 

Common Sauce. 
Soak slices of veal, ham, onions, parsnips, 2 
cloves of garlic, 2 heads of cloves, then add broth, 
a glass of white wine, and 2 slices of lemon ; sim- 
mer it over a slow fire, skim it well, and sift it. 

Miser's Sauce. 
Chop 5 or 6 large onions, mix a little verjuice, 
or vinegar, pepper, salt, and a little butter; serve 
it up either warm or cold. 

Parson's Sauce, 
Chop lemon-peel very fine, with 2 or 3 pickled 
cucumbers, a bit of butter, salt, and coarse pep- 
per; a little flour, with 2 spoonsful of catsup, and 
stew it on the fire without boiling. 
Nonpareil Sauce. 
Take a slice of boiled ham, as much breast of 
roasted fowl, a pickled cucumber, a hard yolk of 
an egg, one anchovy, a little parsley, and a head 
of shallot, chopped very fine; boil it a moment in 
good catsup, and use it for meat or fish. 
Nivernoise Sauce. 
Put in a small stewpan a couple of slices of 
ham, a clove of garlic, 2 cloves, a laurel-leaf, 
sliced onions, and roots ; let it catch the fire a 
little. Then add a small quantity of broth, 2 
spoonsful of catsup, and a spoonful of the best 
vinegar. Simmer it for an hour on the side of the 
stove, then sift it in a sieve, and serve it for a high- 
flavored sauce. 

Gravy Calces. 
Chop 2 legs of beef in pieces, put them into a 
pot of water, stew it over a slow fire a day and a 
night; then add onions, herbs, and spices as for 
gravy ; continue stewing it till the meat is oS' the 
bones, and the gravy quite out; then strain the 
liquor into a milk-pan, to which quantity it should 
be reduced ; when cold, take ofi" the fat, put it into 
a saucepan, and add whatever is required to flavor 
it; simmer it on a slow fire till reduced to about 
12 saucers two-thirds full, put them in an airy 
place till as dry as leather, put them in paper bags, 
and keep in a dry place. 

Sailor's Sauce. 
Chop a fowl's liver with 2 or 3 shallots, and a 
couple of truffles or mushrooms ; simmer these in 
a spoonful of oil, 2 or Z spoonsful of gravy, a glass 
of wine, a little salt and coarse pepper; simmer it 
about half an hour, and skim it very well before 
using. 

Queen's Sauce. 

Simmer crumbs of bread in good gravy, until it 

is quite thick, take it off the fire, and add a few 

sweet almonds pounded, 2 hard yolks of eggs, 

aad a breast of fowl roasted, all pounded very fine ; 



boil a sufiicient quantity of c: earn to your sanco, 
and sift all together, then add pepper and salt; 
and warm it without boiling. 

Tomato Catsup. 
Boil tomatoes, full ripe, in their juice, to nearly 
the consistence of a pulp, pass them through a 
hair sieve, and add salt to the taste. Aromatize 
it sufBciently with clove, pepper, and nutmegs. 
Catsup for Sea-stores. 
Take a gallon of strong stale beer, a pound of 
anchovies washed from the pickle, the same of 
shallots peeled; ^ an ounce of mace, ^ an ounce 
of cloves, i of an ounce of whole pepper, 3 or 4 
large races of ginger, and 2 quarts of large mush- 
room flaps, rubbed to pieces. Cover these close, 
and let it simmer till half wasted. Then strain it 
through a flannel bag; let it stand till quite cold, 
and then bottle it. This may be carried to any 
part of the world ; and a spoonful of it to a pound 
of fresh butter melted, will make a fine fish sauce, 
or will supply the place of gravy sauce. The 
stronger and staler the beer the better will be the 
catsup. 

Another. — Chop 24 anchovies, having first boned 
them; put to them 10 shallots cut small, and a 
handful of scraped horse-radish, J of an ounce 
of mace, a quart of white wine, a pint of water, 
and the same quantity of red wine ; a lemon cut 
into slices, 4 a pint of anchovy liquor, 12 cloves, 
and the same number of peppercorns. Boil them 
together till it comes to a quart, then strain it off, 
cover it close, and keep it in a cold dry place. 
Two spoonsful of it will be sufiicient for a pound 
of butter. It is a good sauce for boiled fowls, or, 
in the room of gravy, lowering it with hot water, 
and thickening it with a piece of butter rolled in 
flour. 

Fish Sauce. 
Take 1 pound of anchovies, a quart of claret, f 
of a pint of white wine vinegar, ^ an ounce of 
cloves and mace, 2 races of ginger sliced, a little 
lilack pepper, the peel of a lemon, a piece of horse- 
radish, a large onion, a bunch of thyme and 
savory ; set all these over a slow fire to simmer 
an hour, then strain it through a sieve; when 
cold put it in a bottle with the spice, but not the 
herbs. To a large coff"ee-cupful cold, put a pound 
of butter; stir it over the fire till it is as thick as 
cream; shako the bottle when used, and put no 
water to the butter. 

Cream Sauce for a Hare. 
Run the cream over the hare or venison just 
before frothing it, and catch it in a dish ; boil it 
up with the yolks of two eggs, some onion, and a 
piece of butter rolled in flour and salt. Half a 
pint of cream is the proportion for two eggs. 
Apple Sauce. 
Pare and core tart apples, cut them in slices, 
rinse and put them in an earthern stewpan, set 
them on the fire, do not stir them until they burst 
and are done; mash them with a spoon, and when 
perfectly cool sweeten with white sugar to taste. 
Siceet Satice. 
Mix 2 glasses of red wine, one of vinegar, 3 tea- 
spoonsful of cullis, a bit of sugar, 1 sliced onion, 
a little cinnamon, and a laurel-leaf; boil them a 
quarter of an hour. 

Nun's Butter. 
Four ounces of butter; six ounces of sugar; as 
much wine as the butter will take. Beat the but- 
ter and sugar together, and gradually add the 
wine and a little nutmeg. 

Brown Sauce. 
Mix together one tablespoonful of moist sugar, 



POTATOES. 



195 



two of French vinegar, three of salad oil, a tea- 
Bpoonful of mixed mustard, some pepper and salt, 
and serve. 

A Dish of Macaroni. 

Boil 4 ounces of macaroni till it is quite 
tender, then lay it on a sieve to drain, and put it 
into a stewpan with about a gill of cream, and a 
piece of butter roiled in flour; stew it live min- 
utes and pour it on a plate. Lay Parmesan cheese 
toasted all over it, and send it up in a water-plate. 

Cole-Slaw. 

Get a fresh cabbage, take off the outside leaves, 
cut it in half, and with a sharp knife shave it into 
fine slips. Put it into a deep dish, and pour over 
it a dressing prepared in the foUnwing manner: 

Beat up 2 eggs, add to it 1 gill of vinegar 
and water mixed; place it on the range; when it 
begins to thicken stir in a piece of butter the size 
of a small walnut, a little 4alt; when cold pour it 
over the cabbage and stir it together; and befure 
sending to table sprinkle with a little black 
pepper. 

To boil Peas. 

Early peas require about half an hour to boil, 
and the later kinds rather longer; the water 
should boil when they are put in ; when they are 
tough and yellow, they may be made tender and 
green by putting in a little pearl-ash or ashes tied 
up in a bag, just before they are taken up; this 
will tender all green vegetables, but do not put 
too much; when done dip them out; drain and 
season them with butter, pepper and salt; put a 
bunch of parsley in the middle of the dish. 

String Beans. 
These, to be tender, should be boiled from three 
to four hours, after the strings have been very 
carefully removed. Add a little butter, salt and 
black pepper when they are dished. 

Potatoes. — Fourteen xcays of Dressing Them. 

General Instructions. — The vegetable kingdom 
affords no food more wholesome, more easily pre- 
pared, or less expensive than the potato; yet, 
although this most useful vegetable is dressed 
almost every day, in almost every family — for one 
plate of potatoes that comes to table as it should, 
ten are spoiled. 

Be careful in your choice of potatoes ; no vege- 
table varies so much in color, size, shape, consist- 
ence and flavor. 

Choose those of a large size, free from blem- 
ishes, and fresh, and buy them in the mould ; they 
must not be wetted till they are cleaned to be 
cooked. Protect them from the air and frost by 
laying them in heaps in a cellar, covering them 
with mats, or burying them in sand or in earth. 
The action of frost is most destructive; if it be 
considerable, the life of the vegetable is destroyed, 
and the potato speedily rots. 

1. Potatoes boiled. — Wash them, but do not 
pare or cut them unless they are very large; fill 
a saucepan half full of potatoes of equal size (or 
make them so by dividing the larger ones), put to 
them as much cold water as will cover them about 
an inch : they are sooner boiled, and more savory 
than when drowned in water; most boiled things 
are spoiled by having too little water, but pota- 
toes are often spoiled by too much ; they must 
merely be covered, and a little allowed for waste 
in boiling, so that they may be just covered at the 
finish. 

Set them on a moderate fire till they boil, then 
take them off, and set them by the side of the fire 
to simmer slowly till they are soft enough to ad- 
mit a fork (place no dependence on the usual test 



of their skin cracking, which, if they are boiled 
fast, will happen to some potatoes when they are 
not half done, and the inside is quite hard); then 
pour the water off (if you let the potatoes remaia 
in the waiter a moment after they are done enough 
they will become waxy and watery), uncover the 
saucepan, and set it at such a distance from the 
fire as will secure it from burning; their super- 
fluous moisture will evaporate, and the potatoes 
will be perfectly dry and mealy. 

You may afterwards place a napkin, folded up 
to the size of the saucepan's diameter, over the 
potatoes, to keep them hot and mealy till wanted. 

This method of managing potatoes is in every 
respect equal to steaming them; and they are 
dressed in half the time. 

There is such an infinite variety of sorts and 
sizes of potatoes, that it is impossible to say how 
long they will take to cook ; the best way is to try 
them with a fork. Moderate sized potatoes will 
generally be done in fifteen or twenty minutes. 

2. Cold Potatoes Fried. — Put a bit of clean 
dripping into a fryingpan ; when it is melted, 
slice in your potatoes with a little pepper and salt, 
put them on the fire, keep stirring them; when 
they are quite hot they are ready. 

3. Potatoes Boiled and Broiled. — Dress your 
potatoes as before directed, and put them on a 
gridiron over a very clear and brisk fire; turn 
them till they are brown all over, and send them 
up dry, with melted butter in a cup. 

4. Potatoes Fried in Slices or Shavings. — Peel 
large potatoes, slice them about a quarter of an 
inch tliick, or cut them in shavings round and 
round as you would peel a lemon; dry them well 
in a clean cloth, and fry them in lard or dripping. 
Take care that your fat and fryingp.an are quite 
clean ; put the pan on a quick fire, watch it, and as 
soon as the lard boils, and is still, put in the slices 
of potatoes, and keep moving them till they are 
crisp ; take them up and lay them to drain on a 
sieve : send them up with a very little salt sprinkled 
over them. 

5. Potatoes Fried Whole. — When nearly boiled 
enough, as directed in No. 1, put them into a stew- 
pan with a bit of butter, or some nice clean beef 
drippings; shake them about often (for fear of 
burning them) till they are brown and crisp; drain 
them from the fat. 

It will be an improvement to the three last 
receipts, previously to frying or broiling the pota- 
toes, to flour them and dip them in the yolk of an 
egg, and then roll them in fine sifted bread- 
crumbs. 

6. Potatoes Mashed. — When your potatoes are 
thoroughly boiled, drain dry, pick out every 
speck, etc., and while hot rub them through a col- 
ander into a clean stewpan ; to a pound of pota- 
toes put about half an ounce of butter, and a table- 
spoonful of milk; do not make them too moist; 
mix them well together. 

7. Potatoes Mashed with Onions. — Prepare some 
boiled onions, by putting them through a sieve, 
and uiix them with potatoes. In proportioning 
the onions to the potatoes, you will be guided by 
your wish to have more or less of their flavor. 

8. Potatoes Escnloped. — Mash potatoes as di- 
rected in No. 6, then butter some nice clean scal- 
lop shells, or patty-pans; put in your potatoes, 
make them smooth at the top, cross a knife over 
them, strew a few fine bread-crumbs on them, 
sprinkle them with a paste brush with a few drops 
of melted butter, and then set them in a Dutch 
oven ; when they are browned on the top, take 
them carefully out of the shells, and brown the 
other side. 

9i. Colcannon. — Boil potatoes and greens, or 



196 



PLAIN COOKERY. 



spinach, separately ; mash the potatoes, squeeze 
the greens dry, chop them quite fine, and mix 
them with the potatoes with a little butter, pepper 
and salt; put it into a mould, greasing it well 
first; le* it stand in a hot oven for ten minutes. 

10. Pntntoeo Rtiasied. — Wash and dry your po- 
tatoes (all of a size), and put them in a tin Dutch 
oven, or cheese toaster; take care not to put them 
too near the fire, or they will get burnt on the 
outside before they are wanned through. 

Large potatoes will require two hours to roast 
them. 

11. Potatoes Boosted under Meot. — Half boil 
large potatoes, drain the water from them, and 
put them into an earthern dish, or small tin pan, 
under meat that is roasting, and baste them with 
seme of the dripping; when they are browned on 
oiiC side, turn them and brown the other; send 
tbem up round the meat, or in a small dish. 

12. Potato Balls. — Mix mashed potatoes with 
tie yolk of an egg, roll them into balls, flour 
them, or egg and bread-crumb them, and fry 
them in clean drippings, or brown them in a Dutch 
o^en. 

13. Potato Snow. — The potatoes must be free 
from spots, and the whitest you can pick out; put 
them on in cold water ; when they begin to crack 
strain the water from them, and put them into a 
clean stewpan by the side of the fire till they are 
quite dry and fall to pieoes; rub them through a 
wire sieve on the dish they are to be sent up in, 
and do not disturb them afterwards. 

14. Potato Pie. — Peel and slice your potatoes 
very thin into a pie dish ; between each layer of 
potatoes put a little chopped onion (three-quarters 
of an ounce of onion is sufficient for a pound of 
potatoes), between each layer sprinkle a little 
pepper and salt, put in a little water, and cut 
about two ounces of fresh butter into little bits, 
and lay it on the top, cover it close with puflf 
paste. It will take about an hour and a half to 
bake it. 

To Broil Towatoes. 
Wash and wipe the tomatoes, and put them on 
the gridiron over live coals, with the stem down. 
When that side is brown turn them and let them 
cook through. Put them on a hot dish and send 
quickly to table, to be there seasoned to taste. 

To Bake Tomatoes. 
Season them with salt and pepper; flour them 
•ver, put them in a deep plate with a little butter, 
and bake in a stove. 

To Steam Potatoes. 

Put them clean-washed, with their skins on, into 
a steam saucepan, and let the water under them 
be about half boiling ; let them continue to boil 
rather quickly, until they are done. If the water 
once relaxes from its heat the potato is sure to be 
afifected, and to become soddened, let the quality 
be ever so good. A too precipitate boiling is 
equally disadvantageous, as the higher parts to 
the surface of the root begin to crack and open, 
while the centre part continues unheated and un- 
decomposcd. 

Mushrooms. 

Be careful in gathering mushrooms that you 
have the right kind : they are pink underneath 
and white on the top, and the skin will peel off 
easily, but it sticks to the poisonous ones; and the 
smell and taste of the good ones are not rank. 
After you have peeled them, sprinkle them with salt 
and pepper, and put them in a stewpan, with a little 
water and a lump of butter. Let them boil fast 
ten minutes, and stir in a thickening of flour and 
oream. They may be fried in butter, or broiled 



on a gridiron. They are sometimes verj' abun- 
dant in the fall, on ground that has not been 
ploughed for several years; they appear after a 
warm rain. They may be peeled, salted, and al- 
lowed to stand for some hours before cooking. 

Chicken Pot-pie. 
Take a pair of tender, fat chickens, singe, open, 
and cut them into pieces, by separating all the 
joints. Wash them through several w;iters, with 
eight or ten pared white potatoes, which put into 
a pan, and, after seasoning highly with salt and 
black pepper, dredge in three tablespoonsful of 
flour. Stir well together; then line the sides 
(halfway up) of a medium-sized stew-kettle with 
paste made with two pounds of flour and one of 
butter. Put the chicken nnd potato into the kettle, 
with water just sufficient to cover them. Eoll out 
some paste for a cover, the size of the kettle, and 
join it with that on the sides; cut a small opening 
in the centre, cover the kettle, and hang it over a 
clear fire or set it in the oven, as most convenient; 
turn the kettle round occasionally, that the sides 
may be equally browned. Two hours over a clear 
fire, or in a quick oven, will cook it. When done, 
cut the top crust into moderate-sized pieces, and 
place it round a large dish; then, with a perfor- 
ated skimmer, take up the chicken and potatoes 
and place in the centre ; cut the side crust and lay 
it on the top ; put the gravy in a sauce-tureen, 
and send all to table hot. 

Oatmeal Grnel. 
Boil a handful of raisins in a pint of water for 
ten minutes. Mix 2 tablespoonsful of good oat- 
meal with a little cold water, and pour it into a 
saucepan, and boil fifteen or twenty minutes. Salt 
a little, and sweeten to taste. 

Arrow-root. 
Mix 2 tablespoonsful of arrow-root (Bermuda is 
the best) in a little water to- a paste. Add a little 
lemon or orange peel to a pint of boiling water, 
and stir in the arrow-root while boiling. Cook it 
till clear, and season with nutmeg and sugar to 
taste, and wine, if desired. Half milk and half 
water, or all milk, may be used instead of water. 

Tapioca. 
Cover 3 tablespoonsful of tapioca with water, 
and soak it two or three hours. Add a little water 
to it, and boil till clear. Sweeten to taste, and eat 
alone or with cream. 

Tapioca Jelly. 

Wash thoroughly 2 tablespoonsful of tapioca ; 
pour over it a pint of water, and soiik for three 
hours. Place it then over a slow fire and simmer 
till quite clear. If too thick, add a little boiling 
water. Sweeten with white sugar, and flavor with 
a little wine. 

Apple Tapioca. 

Pare, core, and quarter 8 apples; take ^ table- 
spoonful tapioca which has been all night soaking 
in water: add i teacupful white sugar, and a little 
nutmeg or cinnamon. Put the tapioca into a stew- 
pan to simmer 10 minutes; then add the apples, 
and simmer ten minutes more. When cold it will 
form a jelly around the apples. 

To make Dr. Kitchener's Pudding. 

Beat up the yolks and whites of 3 eggs ; strain 
them through a sieve, and gradually add to them 
about a quarter of a pint of milk. Stir these well 
together. Mix in a mortar 2 ounces of moist sugar 
and as much grated nutmeg as will lie on a six- 
pence; stir these into the eggs and milk; then 
put in 4 ounces of flour, and beat it intc a smooth 
batter ; stir in, gradually, 8 ounces of very fine- 



PUDDINGS. 



197 



•hopped suet and 3 ounces of bread-crumbs. Mix 
all thoroughly together, at least half an hour be- 
fore putting the pudding into the pot. Put it into 
an earthenware mould that is well buttered, and 
tie a pudding-cloth over it. 

Noltiiufham Pudding. 

Peel 6 good apples ; take out the cores with the 
point of a small knife, but be sure to leave the ap- 
ples whole; fill up where the core was taken from 
with sugar, place them in a pic-dish, and pour over 
them a nice light batter, prepared as for batter 
pudding, and bake them an hour in a moderate 
oven. 

To nialce Yorkshire Pudding. 

This nice dish is usually baked under meat, and 
is thus made. Beat 4 large spoonsful of flour, 
2 eggs, and a little salt for fifteen minutes; put 
to them .3 pints of milk, and mix them well to- 
gether ; then butter a dripping-pan, and .«et it 
under beef, mutton, or veal, while roasting. When 
it is brov^rn, cut it into square pieces, and turn it 
over, and, when the under side is browned also, 
send it to the table on a dish. 

Dutch Pudding. 

Cut a round piece out of the bottom of a Dutch 
loaf, and put that and the piece that was cut out 
into a quart of cold new milk, in the evening, and 
let it stand all night. If the milk is all soaked up 
by the morning, add some more. Put the piece in 
the bottom again, tie the loaf up in a cloth, and 
boil it an hour. Eat it with sugar, or with melted 
butter, while wine, and sugar sauce. 

To make a Dish of Frumenty. 

Boil an approved quantity of wheat; when soft, 
pour ofi' the water, and keep it for use as it is 
wanted. The method of using it is to put milk 
to make it of an agreeable thickness ; then, warm- 
ing it, adding some sugar and nutmeg. 
To make a Windsor Pudding. 

Shred half a pound of suet very fine, grate into 
it half a pound of French roll, a little nutmeg, and 
the rind of a lemon. Add to these half a pound 
of chopped apples, half a pound of currants, clean 
washed and dried, half a pound of jar raisins, 
stoned and chopped, a glass of rich sweet wine, 
and 5 eggs, beaten with a little salt. Mix all thor- 
oughly together, and boil it in a basin or mould 
for three hours. Sift fine sugar over it when sent 
to table, and pour white-wine sauce into the dish. 

A Cheshire Pudding. 

Make a crust as for a fruit pudding, roll it out 
to fourteen or fifteen inches in length and eight or 
nine in width ; spread with raspberry jam or any 
other preserve of a similar kind, and roll it up in 
the manner of a collared eel. Wrap a cloth round 
it two or three times, and tie it tight at each end. 
Two hours and a quarter will boil it. 
To make a Plain Pudding. 

Weigh three-quarters of a pound of any odd 
scraps of bread, whether crust or crumb, cut them 
small, and pour on them a pint and a half of boil- 
ing water to soak them well. Let it stand till the 
*ater is cool, then press it out, and mash the bread 
emooth with the back of a spoon. Add to it a tea- 
spoonful of beaten ginger, some moist sugar, and 
three-quarters of a pound of currants. Mix all 
well together, and lay it in a pan well buttered. 
Flatten it down with a spoon, and lay some pieces 
of batter on the top. Bake it in a moderate oven, 
and serve it hot. When cold it will turn out of 
the pan, and eat like good plain cheesecakes. 

Transparent Pudding. , 

Beat up 8 eggs, put them into a stew-pan with 



half a pound of sugar, the same of butter, and 
some grated nutmeg, and set it on the fire, stir- 
ring it till it thickens ; then pour it into a basin 
to cool. Set a rich paste round the edge of your 
dish, pour in your pudding, and bake it in a mod- 
erate oven. A delicious and elegant article. 

A Potato Rice Padding. 

Wash a quarter of a pound of whole rice ; dry 
it in a cloth and beat it to a powder. Set it upon 
the fire, with a pint and a half of new milk, till it 
thickens, but do not let it boil. Pour it out, and 
let it stand to cool. Add to it some cinnamon, 
nutmeg, and mace, pounded; sugar to the taste; 
half a pound of suet shred very small, and 8 eggs 
well beaten with some salt. Put to it either half 
a pound of currants, clean washed and dried by 
the fire, or some candied lemon, citron, or orange 
peel. Bake it half an hour with a pufi" crust 
under it. 

Swiss Pudding. 

Butter your dish ; lay in it a layer of bread- 
crumbs, grated very fine; then boil 4 or 5 apples 
very tender; add a little butter, nutmeg, and fine- 
sifted sugar. Mix all up together, and lay on the 
bread-crumbs, then another layer of the crumbs; 
then add pieces of fresh butter on the top, and 
bake in a slow oven for a quarter of an hour, until 
it becomes a delicate brown. It may be eaten hot 
or cold. 

Carrot Pudding. 

Take i peck of carrots, boil and mash them 
well ; then add i pound flour, i pound currants, 
i pound raisins, J pound suet chopped fine, i cup 
of sugar, 2 tablespoonsful of cinnamon, 1 tea- 
spoonful of allspice. Boil four hours, and serve 
hot with sauce flavored with Madeira wine. 
Piain Rice Pudding. 

One quart ol milk, i a teacupful of rice, 2 tea- 
spoonsful of sugar, i of a nutmeg, grated ; a small 
piece of butter, size of hickory-nut. Pick and 
wash the rice; add all the ingredients. Stir all 
well together, and put in a slack oven one and a 
half to two hours. When done pour it in a pud- 
ding-dish, and serve when cold. If baked in an 
oven, take ofi' the brown skin before it is poured 
in the pudding-dish, and replace it on the top of 
the pudding as before. 

Indian Pone. 

Put on one quart of water in a pot; as soon as 
it boils stir in as much Indian meal as will make 
a very thin batter. Beat it frequently while it is 
boiling, which will require ten minutes ; then take 
it ofi", pour it in a pan, and add one ounce of but- 
ter, and salt to taste. When the batter is luke- 
warm, stir in as much Indian meal as will make 
it quite thick. Set it away to rise in the evening; 
in the morning make it out in small cakes, butter 
your tins, and bake in a moderate oven. Or the 
more common way is to butter pans, fill them threa 
parts full, and bake them. 

This cake requires no yeast. 

Blackberry Mush. 

Put your fruit in a preserving kettle; mash it 
to a pulp, with sugar enough to make it quite 
sweet. Set it over the fire, and, as soon as it be- 
gins to simmer, stir in very gradually two tea- 
spoonsful of flour to a quart of fruit. It should 
be stirred all the time it is boiling. Serve it either 
warm or cold, with cream. 

Raspberries may be cooked in the same way. 

Potato Pudding. 
Take 5 potatoes, boil, and mash them through 
a colander, with a little salt and 1 teacupful of 
milk or cream; i pound of butter, i pound of 



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V'l. iinikr Himiihrni/ mid l'iv„m '/'.iiIh. 
Kill! mil, lliiii piiir piiNin, liiy il, in a pally piin; 
pill, ill I'liHplirri iim, miil nIitw linnxiiKm' iivtii' Hiniii. 
I'lil, mi a lill, anil wIikii liakiiil, iiiil II. upini, mul 

{ml in >i a pint nl' iirumii, Ilio yiilliH of 2 tiKK" vviill 
iniiimi, mill a III I In nii^iii'. 

7'. miil.i< I'lmlt^ I'm- Turin. 
I'nl all oiiiinn III' liiaf kiiuiii', Imal, iiiiil Mil'ltiil, In 
1 pmiiiil III' linn llmir. Miilin II iiilii a Hiill' piinlr, 
willl II pill III' l><iiliii){ lui'iiiii, mill .'I miiini<n ul liiil 
liir. Wmli il woll, mill mil il, vi<iy Mini. 

/',-■ CriiHl. 

Hil'l a puiiiiil iinil a liiiiriir llotir, and liilut mil, a 
((iiarlm' I'm' lulling', oiil in il a i|iiiiili<i' ul' a pmiiul 
of liinl, liii\iiil willl wiilrr mill rnll il mil ; ml hull' 
II, pmiiiil III' liiillrr, aiiil juil il ill ill. Iwii iiilliiif.' '< 
Willi Mill llmii' Muil, wan lull, inil. 

Ii'iir niiiliinff Mm liuMuin hI'IImI ul' piuM, pill liiill'ii 
)iuiinil III' liii'il inlu a, pminil ul' lluiir, willi ii III (in 
mill, nii.H il. I'lill', ami ^■'•'X'*" ll><* pliitxti liul'iiru yuii 
liliiKo piiiH; iilwayN inalio ymir piiNln in a imiIiI 
|ilii(<«, ami lialui II, huuii, Huinit porniiiiH jn'ol'tii' 
iiilxliiK oriihl, willl milk liiHluail ul' watnr. 

7(1 Hii(/'« (I i/itiiil I'linlii fitr hitryu l'ii<». 

I'nl III a pKuk III' Hour .'I kkki*. Hk^k P»I i» Imll'ii 
pi. mill III' niidl, ami a puiiml iiml a liall' of IiiiIIki. 
Work il, up Willi ami roll il mil. 

Aiiolhir iiiilliiiil, 'I'akii a pi'nk ol' llnnr, anil (t 
]iminilH III' IiiiIIki', liuiloil in ii giillmi ul' waliir, Mmn 
Kkiiii il ulV inl.ii Mi« Hour, willi mn lilllu ul' llin liipim' 
UN pohriililK. Work il up wi'il inlu a piinlK, pull it 
inlu piooiiM lill oolil, Mmn iiiiiko il, into Mm diiHii'ml 
form. 

/•-I//' I'nHl^. 

Sill a puiiml ol' llmir. Diviilo I pmiml ol' luiMur 
inio Imir pmin, mil mm pail of I hit liiilli<r inlu lli<< 
Hour \vilh II knU'ii ; iiiiiko il into iIoiikIi willi wiilm', 
roll It, ami Hako II, with pari, of llm biiltnr. Do 
tliii* H)(iiin mill Mf(iiin Mil it, Ih all In. 'I'IiIh will 
inakii i<iimi)j,li oniNl lor iil \i<i\M. t«n piill'H. Iliiko 
with II (|ulok linal, lor li>ii or IHInoii iniiiiil,ii.H. 



To mnffn II Puff Piinlr, 
'I'akn a i|iiitrl<ir nl' pni'k of llmir, iiml iiili il, into 
It poiiml ol' liiillni' vnry liim. Makn il. up into n 
IIkIiI pa.-ilo wilh I'ohl walnr Jii.il, nI.IH' ('iioii).^h li> 
work il, lip. 'I'lirii lay il, mil, ulioul, an think un it 
Hilviir ilollar; (iiit a liiynr ul' liiillnr all uviii, Mmn 
Hpiinkln on a litlln Hour, iluiililti il, up, ami rull it 
mil aj{ain. Dmililu mul roll il. wil.li liiynrH ul hiil- 
1,111' Ul nil) UiiiiiH, anil il will Im lit. for iihii. 

Million I'iin, mil ttrrij rirh, 
'I'likii I pmimlM III' IiiidI' al'lnr il. Iiaii Imitn huilnil 
mill (iliuppnil, I pmiriil oriiiml, 'Jt pminil.'^ of nii/^ur, 
'.', poiimln of niliiiiiH, mul I pminiln of nhoppitil up- 
piii:i, iiil,<( Ihiinii fo^rllmr Willi a piiil, of wiim ami 
iililm. III imikti il, Milii ttiimiKh ; Hiiiinon lo ymir 
tiiNln with inimii, iiiiliim;{, ami oraiif^ii pnnl ; If il !■ 
not, nwniit, iinoii){li, piil, in nioro i^iigiir. Warm Mm 
piiiM liiifmu limy ant union. Wlmi« piu.imirt am 
not fmiil of Miml, put, luillitr Innliiail, ami nIhw llitt 
applitn iiinlitiiil of ,iii iniiuli itiilnr, 

7'o »..«/.■« .( Sliorl Ih'Hul. 
I'll! n miimiiH of liiitlnr lo H oiiiiuitH of lliiiir, and 
Work timiii wull lo^ullmr; Mmn \n\\ il, up with im 
lilMn wiifnr iiH poN^iliiit, ho iih lo liavti il a nl.ilhnh 
paNl,o; Mum roll if mif Ihin for iirin. 

l.riiiiiH /'ilililiilij. 
<'ul, oil llm rimi of .'I lommin, lioil llmm Iniiiliir, 
poiiml Ihi'iii in a iiimliir, ami mi.x Mmin vviMi a 
ipiarfiir of ii pminil of NapliiN liirioiiiU, tiuilml up in 
a ipiarl, of milk ur itritmn ; liital, up 12 yiilkii iiml I) 
wliilitH ul i%ni*. Mull. II, ((iiarlur ul a pmiml nl' frriili 
liiilliti, mill put, in hull a pmiml of tiiif^iir, iiml ii 
IIHIk ormiKii llowi'i' wiifur. Mi.t( nil wnll lo^itllmr, 
lilir If iiviir Mm Urn fill think, anil Hi|iinii'/,n in Mio 
jiiirn III' half a litimm. I'nl, pull piiHln rmiml 111* 
ili.th, timii pour in Mm pmlilin^; niif namlinil Mwiml,- 
nmiil.i, ami Mlrnw ovnr, ami haUii il for thrnu qiiar- 
Ini'H of an hour. 

tl.ilhr I 'mill !,!</. 
'I'akn (1 oiimtitH of Ilim Hour, a lifMn rtiill iiml H 
i'KK"> '"'"I 'M' ^"" ^'I'l '*' llll'l" milk, aililml hy 
ilit|j;rnnn till Mm liiiMnr Ih l|Uiln niiiouMi, niiikn It 
llm IhirklinriH iif niitiini, pill ililo a lint Inrnil pin- 
ili.-ili, mill liiikit Ihrnn i|iiiirfiirH uf nn hmir, m into 
a lull Ininil mill timirnil liaHin Mnil iivnr li^lif wllil 
a niolli, lioil lino ami a half or Iwu liiium. 

Ni:ii<miii/iil I' mill in;/. 

fill on to hull II pint of f<ooil milk, with half A 

loll poll, 11 III I In itiiiiimiiun, hiiil gniilly fur llvo 

or Inn iiiiiiiilnH, Mwitnli'ii willl loaf Niiffiir, lii'nak I ho 
yolkfi of (i mill Mm vvliilnn of ;) i'KK" ''iIu a luiMiii, 
liniil llmm wnll, mul mill Mm milk, liniil all wnll 
lu^nMinr, ami nti'iiin Mii'uiif(h a llim hair Hiiivn, have 
Moinn lirniiil iiml hiillnr niil vnry thin, lay a iaynr 
of it ill II, pin ilinli, mill limn a liiynr of itnrranlM, 
mill MO on lill ihniliMli iri immly full, Mmn puur MiO 
riii'fmil iivnr it, mill hakn half an hunr. 

Nrivi'iiHll,', or Ciihiiivl I'liddiiiij. 

Iliitlnr a hull' ninlun mmilil, or i|iiarl liiiHin, iiml 
Nfink all rmiml wilh ilrinil nhnrrinH, or linn rniHinn, 
anil nil lip willl liritiiil iiml luiltitr, nlo., an in Iho 
iiliovn, ami Miniini il an hour ami a hall'. 
Wriiilrrlli I'llditiiiij. 

Itiiil a pinl of milli, with Inimm pnnl ami niiiiia- 
mon, Hwnnlnn with liuif nii;:;iii', ^<lrlllll Miron;<li m 
Nlnvn, mill mill a ipimlnr of a pmiml of vni ininnlll, 
lioil Inn iiiiniilnM, Ihon pill in Mm yiiIkH of f) ami 
llinwhilnH III' .'I n^^N, mi.x wnll loj^nl hur, ami Hinaiil 
it mm hour anil a i(nai'lnr ; Mm Hiinm miiy im l> ilnil 
half an liuur. 

IhiHul r„d,H<i,,. 

Miikn II pinl of liruail-cniuili.i, piil llmm iiilo a 



PUDDINGS. 



]'.)'.) 



•t*irp«n M t.h &« rijijch milW a« will tovf.r tJi<;r«, lh«s 
p««l <>r a kiii'/ii, itri') a lit'U uututntf i^rHtmi, u 
•wall pi^^ of ciriniKO'/n ; l><>il about Usii miuuttt*; 
tmufXitn with (>' wiierntl \<>*f uuffnr ; Ink*: out th<: 
eifirnuH'/o, aii'l ()iit in 4 ej<(<« ; l>«!«l all w«!ll t**- 
f tllKjr, Jifi'l bak«! half an h'/ur, or h<;il ratL«;r ««Of«s 
thart an hour. 

/Vh«( J'luliliutj. 

HikML, quarter of a pouri'l ; flour, 3 VMnnfi'ion- 
fnli!; •j^fCi 5!; a'i'l a liitl*; graf^'l gifj;f<?r; i/jilk, 
bilf a j(int, Mi»)';«; th<-. c'i'.-t a* fllit a* poiiiiil<l«, 
roll it with the fiWinji, \>iu no ax t/j loix it w<;ll 
with th<! flour; >>«at uj> th« fsKlC, tnis tUtin with 
tb<; luilk, arxl th<-r< «ulx all V>\[jnU*:r ', wex jrour 
cloth w<:il in l><yiliri}; wat^sr, flour it, ti<« it loo«<;, 
put int'^ boiling wat<;r, an'l hoil an bour ao'l a 
quarter. 

(,'iuilard I'ti/ldin'j, 

\^tt\\ a pint of milk, ari<l a i\*in.r^i^f of a pint of 
§^oit'i itf.uw ; tU'f.ktm with flour an<l wat«r, ma/li; 
IMsrfwtly smooth, till it U etiflT tnonyh Vt h«;ar an 
*KK '"' '^! hr«^k in th* yolk* of 5 <ficx*, nvftct-tMii 
with f><iwiif.rifl \h!i,f *n'f4r, uritUi in a litll« uuiw.k, 
ao'l th<; p<'<;i of a iniiion ; a^l'i half a ji(laa>« of )('/0'l 
brandy, th"-n whip tlx; ynUi^Ait of th«s .0 «i^;r>! till 
quiU; vtiff, and wtx f[*;ut\y H.\\ Ut'/f.*\tf,r ; lin« a pi<;- 
dixh with goo'l putt' pai-t<-, and h:ik<; half uu hour. 

<iround ri'^. potJit/* fl'ur, pana'ia, and all pud- 
<lin{r» inadi; from powd'jrii, af«?, or may St*-,, p»(i!par«jd 
ill the itHiui: way, 

lioiliA (Umlnrdh. 

Put a quart of new wilk inb</ a ttewpan, w^b 
the )[><'/«! of a lemon eut sf.T)/ tbin, a li«()e )ij»Xa'A 
ntitiiif-jc, a (fwall ttiek of einn.-imon; »<;t it over a 
qui';k fire, hut J>e '-areful it doe* not t/oil over; 
when it iMU, wet, it hei-id* the fire, and «immer 
t«D Hiinuteis; break the yo)k» of ><, and the wbil** 
of 4 ej^gt int<> a haxm, t^at tbew w«!l, then pour 
in the milk a little at a time, Kirr'tir/; it aitquxikly 
tM pofeihle lyi prevent tbn t'/z/t «urdlin)f ; »el It on 
the fire attain, and ttir well with a wo'fUtti ep'/'/n ; 
Ud it have ju«t one (>'/il; i/ami it through a fine 
»M;ve; when e^Wd, a4d a little brandy, or wbit* 
wine, a* may Uj mott agreeabU t/* palate; «<rrv« 
U)/ in glateeii, or eupx. 

t'umpkiu Ptfl/iiuf/. 

two and a half poundu of pumpkin, ^ oa»e<!» 
of butter, C exg', I table><poonful of wine, 2 b^bJe- 
ifpoonfulu of brandy, liugar t/y taiste, 1 teai^poon- 
ful of cinnamon, and half a tea*poonful of gin;f«r. 
Cut the pumpkin in i-' ' ■ !- out the 

(««di! and •(/(ft part«; -: '"en, and 

Diew it in very little Wat' ■ ten'ler; 

tiuen prerK it in a f/Aawiiei until <|Mit« 'iry, turn it 
out in a pan. i>ut in the butter and a little «alt, 
/- ' "■.'-.. When <'y'f<A, whi»k the ejrgi: 

r in; then add jiujfar Vj tade, 
»• . wine, and xpi/je, 'J'hiii ii« euttj- 

•«e(ii i'/t ibiee or four puddingit. iyirte your f/lnUe» 
with paHe, and b:)k« in a qui<;k oveu. 
Jt'/iUA I'wJjliwj. 

(in*; quart of milk, 5 egg«, 12 Large tabl*«p<<<yn«- 
fol of flour. 

Whiifk the eggi! st:ry light, then put in the fi'ivr; 
•dd a little of the milk, arid l>eat the whole f>«r- 
fertly i<mo'/tb. Then [/'yur, in the reuiai«<ier of 
the milk and *«'*mj^ ^aif juft •', tuvte. Iiiu«e 
your f ud'i r,d flour it weli 

iu'ide. P', ow a ra/sancy 

of from tw '.vp of titf. bag, 

iM tb« piKldiUK wiii aweU jm cooh m it iMgiu* t<y 
b'/il. 

i>, t:»rt;f ' ' -J put it imme- 

diatj-ly in • »vat^r, J^rl it 

4»oiJ i'ji tw. c taken out of 



the kettle, dip it for an Inutant Int'> a pan of coW 
water. '/"hi« prevrnte the pudding from a^lhering 
V) the bag. Httrvi it imme/Jiately. »i« it would ej/oil 
by standing. It may be eai>en with wine «aii<^, or 
any other iiiau''.e which may he preferred. 
htilitin M'.iil I'mldiiiij. 
()iiti quart of milk, 4 tj«blei!poonfuli! of vt^ry fin<l 
Indian meal, Z oun'ie* of butter, .0 eg/«, i of « 
pound of liutrar, a little KJilt, h.ilf a gill of brandy, 
half a grat<;d nutmeg, a little cinnamon, lioil tb« 
milk and ijtir in the meal, ait if f>>r mu«b. 

I/et it hoil fiffci-.j;n minute*, and l*eat it pttrfwtlj 
limooth. 

Add the isalt and butUrr wbil« it i» hot. An noon 
ai! It be'X/me* cool istir in the eggs, which har« 
been i/eaten vttry Uikk, and then the other ingr**- 
dientK, If the nunrVnr of a pound of xugar doon 
not make the mixture uufficiently Kweet, more muy 
be a/ided. 

Jiake in a light pa>«.e like other pudding*. 

Jthahnrh I'U-M. 
Take off the *kin from the *Xx.\k*, cut them into 
»mall picfci! ; w:i»h aod put them t<< »!t*w with no 
j more water than that which a-lhereie Vi tU»!m ; 
\ when done, math them fine and put in a fmall 
! pie'-.e of SiuUf.r, and when <^*ol «we«ten t<i taxts 
; and a/Id a little imtiitf.i, Line your pla»>;i! with 
I pa>te, put in the filling, and bake in a quick oven. 
! When done liift whit.e fugar over, 

A///jU /juni/j(in(/». 

I'arc and '-^/r*; large tart apple*. An apple-corw 
it! )>ett.er than a knite U> nut out the aee/ln, a« it d'>«« 
not divide the ai>ple. Make a pa«te of 1 pouu4 
of flour and i pound of butU;r; cover the appM 
with the pai-ti!, tic thewi in cJotb«, but do uot 
I swjuee/.e them tightly. 

Tender api^le* will boil in three-quarter* of an 
hour. Hcnd {/> the table hot. Ka» with butter ftud 
' luoituneit, or sugar and cream. 
I /'aii'-.'ik';*. 

! On« pound of flour, !} egg>i bca>^;n very light, M 
, much milk a« will make it a« thick a« cr<-am, a 
I little «alt. Add the e/g« Ui the flour with th« 
j milk; Kftlt Ui tmVt. Ht'ir all well t//gc(iier until 
f/erfe<!tly nm'tittU, Put in the pan a pi«;«e of lard 
I about the u'i/m of a cheijtnut; tut tufiu n* it iii h'/t 
; put in two table Kpi^oneful of the batter, and mov« 
' the pan al>'^ut Ut cauise tiie batter in itprea/l, Wltea 
I done i/u one xi'le torn it over. Herve them hot 
with any mmi/* you plea*«. 

One pound and a quarter of flour, 3 baJf pint* 

of milk, 4 eyg>, IJeat the egg» until thuik, Ut 

wUi-M a/Jd the milk. i'la/;e the flour in a pan 

and by degree*: ttir in the egg and milk, i>eatinj; 

the whole until vary >m'/oth. Halt t>> iM*iM. M'iib 

a tableiip'/'yn drop them int/y hot lard, and fry * 

light brown on both «i/l*«. Kend Ui tabbj hot, awl 

eat with nun'« butter, or butter and *H.ol»«»e«, 

C'oW CmUtrd, 

Tal« i of a eair« renrwst, wa*h it well, eat it in 

I vU^-AM and put it iiit<> a <l«eanter with a pint of 

I I/i«bott wine. In a day or two it will U fit for 

uae. To one p'"* of milk a/ld a U:iuf>'ftiifu\ '/f (h« 

I , ' ■ ; , , ■■■,,» 

I Wine. ' ' 

la/ld '• '■ 

; Pour ,' .:''■'' 

i a C/ld |/la/-/e, an'l m a i«.-w min*»l*« *l »»*Ji i^Aitux. a 
} euttau'l. It makeit a firmer eord t/> put in th# 
j wine omitting the tugar. It way i>e eaten with 
I «ugar and cream. 
' (}fr€n Oooi^.herry f'lcfJim:, 

'I'-Akf. *> pound* of ijun\)*t rough g'/'/»el>errie», eut 
/ oil tlxe blo»e'/Mi« a<id tteiuit, aod put ti*««» iw <//«! 



200 



PLAIN COOKERY. 



water for an hour or two ; then take them out, 
bruise them in a marble mortar, and put them into 
a brass pan or kettle over a clear fire, stirring 
them till tender; then add 4k pounds of lump 
sugar pounded, and boil it till very thick and of 
a fine green color, stirring it all the time. 

Ale Posset. 
Take a small piece of white bread, put it into a 
pint of milk and set it over the fire. Then put 
some nutmeg and sugar into a pint of ale, warm 
it, and when the milk boils pour it upon the ale. 
Let it stand a few minutes to clear. 

Coffee for Th irty People. 
Put 1 pound of best coffee into a stewpan suf- 
ficiently large to hold 7 quarts of water; put it on 
the fire to dry, or roast the coftoe (be sure to 
shake it for fear it should burn) ; then take it off 
the fire and put the whites of two eggs into it, 
stir it till it is mixed, then pour on it 6 quarts of 
water boilimj ; let it stand i of an hour covered 
closely, then strain it through a jelly-bag, or let 
it stand awhile to settle; pour into an urn and 
serve hot for use. 

Cocoa, 

Grind one teacupful of cocoa into a coffee-mill. 
Put it in a small bag made of very thin muslin, 
tie it close; put it in a pot with three half pints 
of boiling water and 1 pint of boiling milk. Boil 
the whole for half an hour, then pour it into an- 
other pot and send it to table. This will be found 
to suit invalids much better than chocolate, as it 
contains no butter. 

Wine Whey. 

Boil a pint of milk and pour into it a gill of wine 
(Madeira or Sherry), and let it boil again; take it 
from the fire and stand a few moments without 
stirring. Remove the curd and sweeten the whey. 

Milk Punch. 
Into a tumbler full of milk put 1 or 2 tablespoons- 
ful of brandy, whiskey, or Jamaica rum. Sweeten 
it well, and grate nutmeg on the top. 

Egg and Wine. 
Beat a fresh raw egg well, and add 1 or 2 table- 
spoonsful of wine. Sweeten to taste. 

Icing for Cakes. 

Put 1 pound of fine sifted, treble-refined sugar 
into a basin, and the whites of three new-laid 
eggs ; beat the sugar and eggs up well with a 
silver spoon until it becomes very white and thick ; 
dust the cake over with flour and then brush it 
off, by way of taking the grease from the outside, 
which prevents the icing from running; put it 
on smooth with a palette knife, and garnish ac- 
cording to fancy ; any ornaments should be put 
on immediately, for if the icing gets dry it will not 
stick on. 

A Plain Poundcake. 

Beat 1 pound of butter and 1 pound of sugar 
in an earthen pan until it is like a fine thick 
cream, then beat in 9 whole eggs till quite light. 
Put in a glass of brandy, a little lemon-peel 
shred fine, then work in IJ pound of flour; put 
it into the hoop or pan and bake it for an hour. 
A pound plum-cake is made the same with putting 
li pound of clean washed currents, and i pound 
of candied lemon-peel. 

Plain Gingerbread. 
Mix 3 pounds of flf)ur with 4 ounces of moist 
sugar, i ounce of powdered ginger, and IJ pounds 
of warm molasses; melt 4 pound of fresh butter 
in it, put it to the flour and make it a paste ; then 
form it into nuts or cakes, or bake it in one cake. 



Another Method. 

Mix 6 pounds of flour with 2 ounces of caraway 
seeds, 2 ounces of ground ginger, 2 ounces of 
candied orange-peeel, the same of candied lemon 
peel cut in pieces, a little salt, and 6 ounces of 
moist sugar; iiielt 1 pound of fresh butter in about 
i a pint of milk, pour it by degrees into 4 pounds 
of molasses, stir it well together, and add it, a 
little at a time, to the flour; mix it thoroughly, 
make it into a paste; roll it out rather thin and 
cut it into c.Tkes with the top of a dredger or wine 
glass ; put them on floured tins, and bake them 
in rather a brisk oven. 

Gingerbread Poundcake. 

Six eggs, 1 pint molasses, i pound sugar, J pound 
butter, wineglass of brandy, ] lemon, 1 nutmeg, 3 
tablespoonsful of ginger, 2 teaspoonfuls of ground 
cloves, 1 tablespoonful of cinnamon, 1 teaspoonful 
of soda. Flour enough to make a stiff batter. 
Bath Cakes. 

Mix well together i pound of butter, 1 pound 
of flour, 5 eggs, and a cupful of j'east. Set the 
whole before the fire to rise, which effected add a 
i of a pound of fine powdered sugar, 1 ounce of 
caraways well mixed in, and roll the paste out 
into little cakes. Bake them on tins. 
Shrewsbury Cakes. 

Mix i pound of butter well beaten like cream, and 
the same weight of fitmr, 1 egg, 6 ounces of beaten 
and sifted loaf sugar, and ^ ounce of caraway 
seeds. Form these into a paste, roll them thin, 
and lay them in sheets of tin ; then bake them in 
a slow oven. 

Portugal Cakes. 

Mix into a pound of fine flour a pound of loaf 
sugar, beaten and sifted, and rub it into a pound 
of butter, till it is thick, like grated white bread; 
then put to it 2 tablespoonfuls of rose-water, 2 of 
sack, and 10 eggs; work them well with a whisk, 
and put in 8 ounces of currants. Butter the tin 
pans, fill them half full, and bake them. 

Ginger Cakes without Butter, 
Take 1 pound of sugar, i of a pound of ginger, 
1 ^int of water, 2 pounds of flour, and 8 caps of 
orange-peel. Pound and sift the ginger, and add 
1 pint of water ; boil it 5 miiyites, then let it stand 
till cold. Pound the preserved orange-peel, and 
pass it through a hair-sieve ; put the flour on a 
pasteboard, make a wall, and put in the orange- 
peel and ginger with the boiled water,' mix this 
up to a paste and roll it out, prick the cakes before 
baking them. 

Savoy Cakes. 
To 1 pound of fine sifted sugar put the yolks 
of 10 eggs (have the whites in a separate pan), 
and set it, if in summer, in cold water, if there is 
any ice set the pan on it, as it will cause the eggs 
to be beat finer. Then beat the yolks and sugar 
weir with a wooden spoon for 20 minutes, and put 
in the rind of a lemon grated ; beat up the whites 
with a whisk, until they become quite stiff and 
white as snow. Stir them into the batter by de- 
grees, then add J of a pound of well-dried flour; 
finally, put it in a mould in a slack oven to bake. 

Bice Cakes. 
Beat the yolks of 15 eggs for nearly ^ an 
hour with a whisk, mix well with them 10 ounces 
of fine sifted loaf sugar, put in ^ a pound of 
ground rice, a little orange-water or brandy, and 
the rinds of 2 lemons grated, then add the whites 
of 7 eggs well beaten, and stir the whole together 
for J of an hour. Put them into a hoop and set 
them in a quick oven for i an hour, when they 
will be properly done. 



CAKES AND BUNS, 



201 



Banhury Cahet. 
Take 1 pound of dough made for white bread, 
roll it out, and put bits of butter upon the same as 
for puff-iiaste, till 1 pound of the same has been 
worked in ; roll it out very thin, then cut it into 
bits of an oval size, according as the cakes are 
wanted. Mix some good moist sugar with a little 
brandy, sufficient to wet it, then mix some clean 
washed currants with the former, put a little upon 
each bit of paste, close them up, and put the side 
that is closed next the tin they are to be baked 
upon. Lay them separate, and bake them mode- 
rately, and afterwards, when taken out, sift sugar 
over them. Some candied-peel may be added, or 
a few drops of the essence of lemon. 
Cream Calces. 
Beat the whites of 9 eggs to a stiff froth, stir it 
gently with a spoon lest the froth should fall, and 
to every white of an egg grate the rinds of 2 
lemons; shake in gently a spoonful of double re- 
fined sugar sifted fine, lay a wet sheet of paper on 
a tin, and with a spoon drop the froth in little 
lumps on it near each other. Sift a good quantity 
of sugar over them, set them in the oven after the 
bread is out, and close up the mouth of it, which 
will occasion the froth to rise. As soon as they 
are colored they will be sufficiently baked ; lay 
them by 2 bottoms together on a sieve, and dry 
them in a cool oven. 

Cnimpetg. 
Set 2 pounds of flour with a little salt before the 
fire till quite warm ; then mix it with warm milk 
and water till it is as stiff as it can be stirred ; let 
the milk be as warm as it can be borne with the 
finger, put a cupful of this with 3 eggs well beaten, 
and mixed with 3 teaspoonfuls of very thick yeast; 
then put this to the batter and beat them all well 
together in a large pan or bowl, add as much milk 
and water as will make it into a thick batter; 
cover it close and put it before the fire to rise; 
put a bit of butter in a piece of thin muslin, tie it 
up, and rub it lightly over the iron hearth or fry- 
ing-pan, then pour on a sufficient quantity of 
batter at a time to make one crumjiet; let it do 
slowly, and it will be very light. Bake them all 
the same way. They .should not be brown, but 'Jf 
a fine yellow. 

Muffins. 

Mix a quartern of fine flour, li pints of warm 
milk {ffid water, with J of a pint of good yeast, 
and a little salt; stir them together fori of an 
hour, then strain the liquor into J of a peck of 
fine flour; mix the dough well and set it to rise 
for an hour, then roll it up and pull it into small 
pieces, make them up in the hand like balls and 
lay a flannel over them while rolling, to keep 
them warm. The dough should be ehisely covered 
up the whole time; when the whole is rolled into 
balls, the first that are made will be ready for 
baking. When they are spread out in the right 
form for muffins, lay them on tins and bake them, 
and as the bottoms begin to change color turn 
them on the other side. 

Another Recipe. 
One quart of milk, 1 ounce of butter, 3 eggs, 4 
t'jblespoonfuls of yeast; salt to taste; flour suffi- 
cient to make a thick batter. Warm the milk and 
butter together; when cool, whisk the eggs, and 
Btir in. Then put IJ pounds of flour in a pan, to 
wliich add the milk and eggs gradually. If not 
sufficiently thick for the batter to drop from the 
Bjxion, more flour may be added until of proper 
consistence, after beating well ; then add the salt 
and yeast. Cover, and set the batter to rise in a 
Warm place ; when light, grease the muffin-rings 



and griddle, place the rings on, and fill them half- 
full of batter; when they are a light-brown, turn 
them over, ring and muffin together. The griddle 
should not be too hot, or else the muffin will be 
sufficiently browned before cooked through. Send 
to table hot; split open, and eat with butter. 

Flannel Cakes. 
One pint of fine Indian meal, 1 pint of wheat 
flour, 1 teaspoonful of salt, 2 gills of yeast. Mix 
the wheat and Indian meal together, with as much 
tepid water as will make it into a hatter, not quite 
as thin as for buckwheat cakes; then add the salt 
and yeast, and set them in a moderately warm 
place to rise. When light, bake them on a grid- 
dle ; butter, and send to table hot. 

Common Buns. 

Hub 4 ounces of butter into 2 pounds of flour, a 
little salt, 4 ounces of sugar, a dessertspoonful of 
caraways, and a teaspoonful of ginger; put some 
warm milk or cre<am to 4 tablespooiisful of yeast; 
mix all together into a paste, but not too stiff; cover 
it over and set it before the fire an hour to rise, 
then make it into buns, put them on a tin, set 
them before the fire for J of an hour, cover over 
with flannel, then brush them with very warm 
milk and bake them of a nice brown in a mode- 
rate oven. 

Cross Buns. 

Put 2i pounds of fine flour into a wooden bowl, 
and set it before the fire to warm ; then add i a 
pound of sifted sugar, some coriander seed, cinna- 
mon and mace, powdered fine ; melt i a pound of 
butter in i a pint of milk ; when it is as warm as 
the finger can bear, mix with it 3 tablcspoonfuls 
of very thick yeast, and a little salt ; put it to the 
flour, mix it to a paste, and make the buns as di- 
rected in the last receipt. Put a cross on the top, 
not very deep. 

Busks. 

Beat up 7 eggs, mix them with J a pint of warm 
new milk, in which J of a pound of butter has been 
melted, add J of a pint of yeast, and 3 ounces of 
sugar ; put them gradually into as much flour as 
will make a light paste nearly as thin as batter; 
let it rise before the fire i an hour, add more flour 
to make it a little stifiFer, work it well and divide 
it into small loaves or cakes, about 5 or 6 inches 
wide, and flatten them. When baked and cold put 
them in the oven to brown a little. These cakes, 
when first baked, are very good buttered for tea; 
they are very nice cold. 

Buckwheat Cakes. 

One quart of buckwheat meal, 1 pint of wheat 
flour, i a teacupful of yeast; salt to taste. Mix 
the flour, buckwheat and salt with as much water, 
moderately warm, as will make it into a thin bat- 
ter. Beat it well, then add the yeast; when well 
mixed, set it in a warm place to rise. As soon as 
they are very light, grease the griddle, and bake 
them a delii'ate brown, butter them with good 
butter, and eat while hot. 

Sugar Biscuit. 

Three pounds of flour; three-quarters of a pound 
of butter: one pound of. sugaf,; one quart of 
sponge. Rub the flour, butter and sugar together, 
then add the sponge, with as muih milk as will 
make a soft dough. Knead well and replace it in 
the pan to rise. This must be done in the after- 
noon; next morning knead lightly, make it into 
small cakes about the size of a silver dollar, and 
half an inch in thickness; place them on slightly 
buttered tins, one inch apart each way, set them 
in a warm place to rise; when light bake them in 
a quick oven ; when done wash them over with a 



202 



PLAIN COOKERY. 



little water, not having the brush too wet, and let 
thorn remain on the tins until cool. 

Dried Husks. 

Take sugar biscuits which have been baked the 
day previous; cut them in half between the upper 
and under crusts with a sharp knife. Place them 
on tins, and soon after the fire has ignited in the 
oven put them in, and as the heat increases they 
become gradually dried through. When a light 
brown they are dune. These are universally liked 
bj' the sick. 

English 3facaroo7is. 

One pound of sweet almonds; 1 pound and a 
quarter of sugar; 6 whites of eggs ; and the rasp- 
ings of 2 lemons. Pound the almonds very fine 
with 6 whites of eggs, feel the almonds, and if 
thej are free from lumps they will do ; then add 
the powdered sugar, and mi.x it well with the 
lemon raspings. Dress them in wafer paper of 
the required shape; bake them in a moderate 
heat, then let them stand till cold, cut the wafer 
paper round them, but leave it on the bottoms. 

Sponge Biscuits. 

Beat the yolks of 12 eggs for half an hour; then 
put in lip unds of beaten sifted sugar, and whisk 
it till it rises in bubbles; beat the whites to a 
strong froth, and whisk them well with the sugar 
and yolks; work in 14 ounces of flour, with the 
rinds of 2 lemons grated. Bake them in tin 
moulds buttered, in a quick oven, for an hour; 
before they are baked sift a little fine sugar over 
them. 

Bread Cheesecakes. 

Slice a penny loaf as thin as possible; pour on 
it a pint of boiling creiim, and let it stand two 
hours. Beat together 8 eggs, half a pound of 
butter, and a grated nutmeg; mix them into the 
cream and bread with half a pound of currant-s, 
well washed and dried, and a spoonful of white 
■wine or brandy. Bake them in patty-pans, on a 
raised crust. 

Rice Cheesecakes. 

Boil 4 ounces of rice till it is tender, and then 
put it into a sieve to drain; mix with it 4 eggs 
well beaten up, half a pound of butter, half a pint 
of cream, 6 ounces of sugar, a nutmeg grated, a 
glass of brandy or ratafia water. Beat them all 
well together, then put them into raised crusts, 
and bake them in a moderate oven. 

Apple Cakes. 
Take half a quartern of dough, roll it out thin ; 
spread equally over it 5 ounces each of coffee and 
sugar, a little nutmeg or allspice, and 2 ounces of 
butter; then fold and roll it again two or three 
times, to mix well the ingredients. Afterwards 
roll it out thin, and spread over it 4 rather large 
apples, pared, cored, and chopped small ; fold it 
up, and roll until mixed. Let it stand to rise 
after. Half a pound of butter may be added. 

Bread Cakes. 

Take 1 quart of milk; stir in enough bread- 
crumbs to make a thin batter. Beat 3 eggs well 
and stir them in, adding a little salt; add 2 table- 
spoonfuls of flour. Bake them on the griddle 
and serve hot. 

Waffles. 

One quart of milk; 5 eggs: 2 ounces of butter. 
Warm the milk sufficiently to melt the butter; 
when cool separate the eggs and beat the yolks in 
the milk, with as much flour as will make it into 
a thick batter, then salt to taste; lastly, beat the 
whites until stiff and dry, which stir in, half at a 
time, very lightly. Bake in irons. This method is 
Tery good ; by it they may be made in a short time. 



Sally Lnnn, 
Rub 3 ounces of butter into a pound of flour; 
then add 3 eggs beaten very light, a little salt, 1 
gill of yeast, and as much milk as will make it 
into a soft dough. Knead it well. Put it in a 
buttered pan, cover it, aiid set it in a warm place 
to rise. Bake in a moderate oven, and send to 
table hot. To be eaten with butter. 

A Cheap Fruit-Cake. 

Take 4 pounds of fl<iur, 3 of butter, 3 of sugar, 
2 of raisins, 1 of currants, 2 dozen eggs, an ounce 
of mace, 3 nutmegs, and a half pint of brandy. 
If you want it dark put in a little molasses. Mix 
the ingredients together, and bake it from two to 
three hours. 

Common Jumbles. 

Take a pound of flour, half a pound of butter, 
and three-quarters of a pound of sugar, 3 eggs, a 
little nutmeg, and rose brandy. Mix the imtter 
and sugar together, and add the flour and eggs; 
mould them in rings, and bake them slowly. 
Giiiger-^uts. 

Half a pound of butter, half a pound of sugar, 
1 pint of molasses, 2 ounces of ginger, half an 
ounce of ground cloves and allspice mixed, 2 
tablespoont'uls of cinnamon, as much flour as will 
form a dough. Stir the butter and sugar tugether; 
add the spice, ginger, molasses, and flour enough 
to form a dough. Knead it well, msike it out in 
small cakes, bake them on tins in a very moderate 
oven. Wash them over with molasses and water 
before they are put in to bake. 



TO MAKE PUNCH. 

For a gallon of punch take six fresh Sicily lem- 
ons; rub the outsides of them well over with 
lumps of double-refined loaf-sugar, until they be- 
come quite yellow; throw the lumps into the 
bowl; roll your lemons well on a clean plate or 
table ; cut them in hiilf and squeeze them with a 
proper int^trument over the sugar; brui.se the 
sugiir, and continue to add fresh portions of it, 
mixing ttie lemon pulp and juice well with it. 
Much of the goodness of the punch will dcjiend 
upon this. The quantity of sugar to be added 
should be great enough to render the mixture 
without water pleasant to the palate even of a 
child. When this is obtained, add gradually a 
small quantity of hot water, just enough to render 
the syrup thin enough to pass through the strsiiner. 
Mix all well together, strain it, and try if tliere be 
sugar enough; if at all sour add more. When cold 
put in a little cold water, and equal quantities of 
the best cogniac brandy and old Jauiaiia rum, 
testing its strength by that infallible guide the 
palate. A glass of calvcs'-foot jelly added to the 
syrup when warm will not injure its qualities. 

The great secret of making good punch may be 
given in a few words : a great deal of fresh lemon- 
juice— r»(ore than enough of good sugar — a fair 
proportion of brandy and rum, and very little 
water. 

To make Nectar. 

Put half a pound of loaf sugar into a large 
porcelain jug ; add one pint of cold water; bruise 
and stir the sugar till it is completely dissolved; 
pour over it half a bottle of hock and one bottle 
of Madeira. Mix them well together, and grate 
in half a nutmeg, with a drop or two of the es- 
sence of lemon. Set the jug in a bucket of ice for 
one hour. 



TO MAKE COFFEE. 

The best cofi'ee is imported from Mocha. It is 
said to owe much of its superior quality to being 



COFFEE. 



203 



kept long. Attenfion to the following circum- 
Btances is likewise necessary. 1. The plant should 
be grown in a dry situation and cliin;ite. 2. The 
berries ought to be thoroughly ripe before they 
are gathered. 3. They ought to be well dried in 
the sun ; and 4. Kept at a di.stance from any sub- 
stance (as spirits, spices, dried fish, etc.} by which 
the taste and flavor of the berry may be injured. 

To drink coffee hi peifectinn, it should be made 
from the best Mocha or Java, or both mi.xed, care- 
fully roasted, and after cooling for a few minutes, 
reduced to powder, and immediately infused; the 
decoction will then be of a superior description. 
But for orilinary use, Java, Laguayra, Maracaibo, 
Rio and ether grades of coffee may be used. An 
equal mixture of Mocha, Java and Laguayra 
make an excellent flavor. AVe have been recently 
shown (1865) some samples of African coffee from 
Liberia, which is said to possess a very superior 
flavor. The following mode of preparing it may 
be adopted : 

1. The berries should be carefully roasted, by a 
gradual application of heat, browning, but not 
burning them. 

2. Grinding the coffee is preferable to pounding, 
because the latter process is thought to press out 
and leave on the sides of the uiortar souie of the 
richer oily substances, which are not lost by 
grinding. 

5. A filtrating tin or silver pot, with double 
sides, between which hot water must be poured, to 
prevent the coffee from cooling, as practised in 
Germany, is good. Simple decoction, in this im- 
plement, with boiling water, is ail that is required 
to make a cup of good coffee ; and the use of isin- 
glass, the white of eggs, etc., to fine the liquor, is 
quite unnecessary. By this means, also, coffee is 
made quicker than tea. 

Generally, too little powder of the berry is 
given. It requires about one small cup of ground 
coffee to make four cups of decoction for the table. 
This is at the rate of an ounce of j^ood powder 
to four common coffee cups. When the powder is 
put in the bag, as many cups of boiling water are 
poured over it as may be wanted, and if the quan- 
tity wanted is very small, so that after it is fil- 
trated it does not reach the lower end of the bag, 
the liquor must be poured back three or four 
times, till it has acquired the necessary strength. 

Another Method. — Pour a pint of boiling water 
on an ounce of coffee; let it boil five or si.v min- 
utes, then pour out a cupful two or three times, 
and return it again ; put two or three isinglass 
chips into it, or a lump or two of fine sugar; boil 
it five minutes longer. Set the pot by the fire to 
keep hot for ten minutes, and the coffee will be 
beautifully clear. Some like a small bit of va- 
nilla. Cream or boiled milk should always be 
served with coffee. 

In Egypt, coffee is made by pouring boiling 
water upon ground coffee in the cup; to which 
only sugar is added. For those who like it ex- 
tremely strong, make only eight cups from three 
ounces. If not fresh roasted, lay it before a fire 
till hot and dry; or put the smallest bit of fresh 
butter into a preserving-pan; when hot throw 
the coffee into it, and toss it about till it be fresh- 
ened. 

Coffee most certainly promotes wakefulness, or, 
in other words, it suspends the inclination to sleep. 

A very small cup of coffee, holding about a 
■wineglassfull, called by the French nne denii tasse, 
drunk after dinner very strong, without cream or 
milk, is ai)t to promote digestion. 
• Persons afflicted with asthma have found great 
relief, and even a cure, from drinking very strong 
coffee, and those of a phlegmatic habit would du 



well to take it for breakfast. It is of a rather 
drying nature, and with corpulent habits it would 
also be advisable to take it for breakfast. 

Aitthian Method of Prepan'mj diffce. 

The Arabians, when they take their coffee off 
the fire, immediately wrap the vessel in a wet 
cloth, which fines the liquor instantly, makes it 
cream at the top, and occasions a more pimfrent 
steam, which they take great pleasure in snuffing 
up as the coffee is pouring into the cups. They, 
like all other nations of the East, drink their coffee 
without sugar. 

People of the first fashion use nothing but Sul- 
tana coffee, which is prepared in the following 
manner: Bruise the outward husk or dried pulp, 
and put it into an iron or earthen pan, which ia 
placed upon a charcoal fire; then keep stirring it 
to and fro, until it becomes a little brown, but not 
of so deep a color as common coffee; then throw 
it into boiling water, adding at least the fourth 
part of the inward husks, which is then boilcil to- 
gether in the manner of other coffee. The husks 
must be kept in a very dry place, and fiacked up 
very close, for the least humidity spoils the flavor. 
The liquor prepared in this manner is esteemed 
preferable to any other. The French, when they 
were at the court of the king of Yemen, saw no 
other coffee drank, and they found the flavor of it 
very delicate and agreeable. There was no occa- 
sion to use sugar, as it had no bitter taste to cor- 
rect. Coffee is less unwholesome in tropical than 
in other climates. 

In all iirobability the Sultana coffee can only be 
made where the tree grows ; for, as the husks have 
little substance if they are much dried, in order 
to send them to other countries, the agreeable fla- 
vor they had when fresh is greatly impaired. 
Iiiiproveme}it in making Coffee. 

The process consists in simmering over a small 
but steady flame of a latnp. To accomplish this 
a vessel of peculiar construction is requisite. It 
should be a straight-sided pot, as wide at the top 
as at the bottom, and inclosed in a case of similar 
shape, to which it must he soldered air-ti>cht at the 
top. The case to be above an inch wider than the 
pot, and descending scmiewhat less than an inch 
below it. It shmild be entirely open at the bot- 
tom, thus admitting and confining a body of hot 
air round and underneath the pot. The lid to be 
double, and the vessel, of course, furnished with a 
convenient handle and spout. 

The extract may be made either with hot water 
or cold. If wanted for speedy use, hot water, not 
actually boiling, will be proper, and the powdered 
coffee being added, close the lid tight, stop the 
spout with a cork, and place the vessel over the 
lamp. It will soon begin to simmer, and may re- 
main unattended, till the coffee is wanted. It 
may then be strained through a bag of stout, close 
linen, which will transmit the liquid so perfectly 
clear as not to contain the smallest particle of the 
powder. 

Though a fountain lamp is preferable, any of 
the common small lamps, seen in every tin shop, 
will answer the purpose. Alcohol, pure sperma- 
ceti oil, or some of the recent preparations of 
petroleum are best, and if the wick be too high, or 
the oil not good, the consequence will be smoke, 
soot, and extinction of the aroma. The wick 
should be little more thai? one-eighth of an inch 
high. In this process, no trimming is required. 
It may be left to simmer, and will continue sim- 
mering all night without boiling over, and with- 
out any sensible diminution of quantity. 
Parisian Mrthod of makini/ Coffee. 

In the first place, let coffee be of the prime quality. 



204 



COOKERY. 



grain small, round, hard, and clear; perfectly 
dry and sweet; and at least three years old — let it 
be gently roasted until it be of a light brown 
color ; avoid burning, for a single scorched grain 
will spoil a pound. Let this operation be per- 
formed at the moment the coffee is to be used; 
then grind it while it is yet warm, and take of the 
powder an ounce for each cup intended to be made ; 
put this along with a small quantity of shredded 
saffron into the upper part of the machine, called 
a cpecque or biggin ; that is, a large coffee-pot with 
an upper receptacle made to fit close into it, the 
bottom of which is perforated with small holes, 
and containing in its interior two movable metal 
strainers, over the second of which the powder is to 
be placed, and immediately under the third : upon 
this upper strainer pour boiling water, and con- 
tinue doing so gently until it bubbles up through 
the strainer; then shut the cover of the machine 
clT)se down, place it near the fire, and so soon as 
the water has drained through the coffee, repeat 
the operation until the whole intended quantity 
be passed. Thus all the fragrance of its perfume 
will be retained with all the balsamic and stimu- 
lating powers of its essence ; and in a few mo- 
ments will be obtained — without the aid of isin- 
glass, whites of eggs, or any of the substances 
with which, in the common mode of preparation, 
it is uii.xed — a beverage for the gods. This is the 
true Parisian mode of preparing coffee; the in- 
vention of it is due to M. de Belloy, nephew to 
the Cardinal of the same name. 

A coffee-pnt upon an entirely new plan, called 
the Old Dominion, and made in Philadelphia, Pa., 
is very much liked by some. Perhaps, however, 
the old mode of boiling and clearing with egg, or 
the French mode, with the biggin or strainer, is 
the best. 

Sufficient attention is not, however, paid to 
the proper roasting of the berry, which is of the 
utmost importance; to have the berry done just 
enough and not a grain burnt. It is customary 
now in most large cities for grocers to keep coffee 
ready roasted, which they have done in large wire 
cylinders, and generally well done, but not always 
fresh. 

Coffee Milk. 

Boil a dessertspoonful of ground coffee in about 
a pint of milk a quarter of an hour; then put in 
it a shaving or two of isinglass, and clear it; let 
it boil a few minutes, and set it on the side of the 
fire to fine. Those of a spare habit, and disposed 
towards affections of the lungs, would do well to 
use this for breakfast, instead of ordinary coffee. 



COOKERY. 

It was the intention in our article on Cookery 
to divide it into two parts, separating fine from 
plain, every-day receipts; but this was found im- 
practicable, no two judgments agreeing upon the 
proper division, hence our abandonment of the 
plan, and leaving to each reader his or her own 
judgment. 

To make a Savory Dish of Veal. 

Cut some large scallops from a leg of veal, 
spread them on a dresser, dip them in rich egg 
batter; season them with cloves, mace, nutmeg, 
and pepper beaten fine: make force-meat with 
some of the veal, some beef suet, oysters chopped, 
sweet herbs shred fine; strew all these over the 
coUops, roll and tie them up, put them on skewers 
and roast them. To the rest of the force-meat 
add two raw eggs, roll them in balls and fry them. 
Put them into the dish with the meat when 
roasted ; and make the sauce with strong broth, 
ftD anchovy or a shallot, a little white wine and 



some spice. Let it stew, and thicken it with a 
piece of butter rolled in flour. Pour the sauce 
into the dish, lay the meat in with the force-meat 
balls, and garnish with lemon. 

Lnmh's Kidneys, an vin. 

Cut your kidneys lengthways, but not through, 
put 4 or 5 on a skewer, lay them on a gridiron 
over clear, lively coals, pouring the red gravy into 
a bowl each time they are turned; five minutes 
on the gridiron will do. Take them up, cut them 
in pieces, put them into a pan with the gravy you 
have saved, .a large lump of butter, with pepper, 
salt, a pinch of flour, glass of Madeira (champagne 
is better), fry the whole for two minutes, and serve 
very hot. 

Breast of Veal, glaeee. 

Cut your breast as square as possible; bone it 
and draw the cut pieces together with a thread; 
put it into a pan with a ladle of veal bouillon, 
cover it with slices of salt pork and a buttered 
paper, previously adding 2 carrots in bits, 4 onions 
in slices, 2 bay leaves, 2 cloves, pepper and salt; 
put some coals on the lid as well as below; when 
two-thirds done take out the vegetables, reduce 
your gravy to jelly, turn your meat, and set on 
the cover till done ; it takes in all two hours and 
a half over a gentle fire. 

Shoiihter en Galantine. 

Bone a fat, fleshy shoulder of veal, cut off the 
ragged pieces to make your stuffing, viz., 1 pound 
of veal to 1 pound of salt pork minced extremely 
fine, well seasoned with salt, pepper, spices, and 
mixed with .3 eggs, spread a laj'er of this stuffing 
well minced over the whole shoulder to the depth 
of an inch; over this mushrooms, slips of bacon, 
slices of tongue, and carrots in threads, cover this 
with stuffing as before, then another layer of 
mushrooms, bacon, tongue, etc., when all your 
stuffing is used, roll up your shoulder lengthways, 
tie it with a thread, cover it with slips of lardino 
and tie it up in a clean white cloth ; put into a pot 
the bones of the shoulder, 2 calves'-feet, slips of 
bacon, 6 carrots, 10 onions, 1 stuck with 4 cloves, 
4 bay leaves, thyme, and a large bunch of parsley 
and shallots, moisten the whole with bouillon; 
put in your meat in the cloth and boil steadily for 
three hours. Try if it is done with the larding 
needle; if so, take it up, press all the liquor from 
it and set it by to grow cold ; pass your jelly 
through a napkin, put 2 eggs in a pan, whip them 
well and pour the strained liquor on them, mixing 
both together, add peppercorns, a little of the 4 
spices, a bay leaf, thyme, parsley ; let all boil 
gently for half an hour, strain it through a nap- 
kin, put your shoulder on its dish, pour the jelly 
over it and serve cold. 

Slionkler of Mutton. 

Bone the larger half of your shoulder, lard the 
inside with well seasoned larding, tie it up in the 
shape of a balloon, lay some slips of bacon in your 
pan, on them your meat, with 3 or 4 carrots, 5 
onions, 3 cloves, 2 bay leaves, thyme, and the 
bones that have been taken out moisten with bouil- 
lon, set all on the fire and simmer for three hours 
and a half; garnish with small onions. 

Slierp'a Tongues. 
Fifteen tongues are sufficient for a dish r wash 
and clean them well, throw them into hot water 
for twenty minutes, wash them again in cold 
water, drain, dry and trim them neatlj', lard them 
with seasoned larding and the small needle; lay 
in your pan slips of bacon, 4 carrots in pieces, 4 
onions, 1 stuck with 2 cloves, slips of veal, 2 bay 
leaves, thyme, and a faggot of shallots and 
parsley; put your tongues in, cover' them with 



MEATS. 



205 



slips of larding, moisten the whole with bouillon, 
and let it simmer five hours. 

To make an Excellent Ragout of Cold Yeal, 
Either a neck, loin, or fillet of veal will furni.=h 
this excellent ragout, with a very little expense or 
trouble. 

Cut the veal into handsome thin cutlets; put a 
piece of butter nr eleiin dripping into a fryingpan ; 
as soon as it is hot, flour and fry the veal of a light 
brown ; take it out, and if you have no gravy ready, 
put a pint of boiling water into the fryingpan, give 
it a boil up for a minute, and strain it into a basin 
while you make some thickening in the following 
manner : Put about an ounce of butter into a stew- 
pan ; as soon as it melts, mix with it as much 
flour as will dry it up ; stir it over the fire for a 
few minutes, and gradually add to it the gravy 
you made in the fryingpan ; let them simmer 
together for ten minutes (till thoroughly incor- 
porated) ; season it with pepper, sak, a little mace, 
and a wineglass of mushroom catsup, or wine; 
strain it through a tammy to the meat: and stew 
very gently till the meat is thoroughly warmed. 
If you have any ready boiled bacon, cut it in 
slices, aud put it to warm with the meat. 
To make Veal Cuke. 
Take the best end of a breast of veal, bone and 
cut it into three pieces ; take the yolk out of eight 
eggs boiled hard, and slice the whites, the j'olks 
to be cut through the middle, two anchovies, a 
good deal of parslej' chopped fine, and some lean 
ham cut in thin slices; all these to be Well sea- 
soned separately with Cayenne, black pepper, salt 
and a little nutmeg ; have ready a mug the size 
of the intended cake, with a little butter rubbed 
on it, put a layer of veal on the bottom, then a 
layer of egg and parsley, and ham to fancy; re- 
peat it till all is in, lay the bones on the top and 
let it be baked three or four hours ; then take off 
the bones and press down the cake till quite cold. 
The mug must be dipped in warm water and the 
cake turned out with great care, that the jelly may 
not be broken which hangs round it. 
To make Dry Devih. 
These are usually composed of the broiled legs 
and gizzards of poultry, fish bones, or biscuits, 
sauce piqnante. Mix equal parts of fine salt, Cay- 
enne pepper and curry powder, with double the 
quantity of powder of truffles; dissect a brace of 
woodcocks rather under roasted, split the heads, 
subdivide the wings, etc., etc., and powder the 
whole gently over with the mixture; crush the 
trail and brains along with the yolk of a hard 
boiled egg, a small portion of pounded mace, the 
grated peel of half a lemon and half a spoonful 
of soy, until the ingredients be brought to the 
consistence of a fine paste; then add a table- 
spoonful of catsup, a full wineglass of Madeira 
and the juice of two Seville oranges; throw the 
sauce along with the birds into a stew-dish, to be 
heated with spirits of wine; cover close up, light 
the lamp and keep gently simmering, and occa- 
sionally stirring until the flesh has imbibed the 
greater part of the liquid. When it is completely 
saturated, pour in a small quantity of salad oil, 
stir all once more well together, put out the light 
and serve it round instantly. 

To make an Olio. 
Boil in a broth pot a fowl, a partridge, a small 
Ip.g of mutton, five or six pounds of large slices 
of beef and a knuckle of veal; soak all these 
without broth for some time, turn the meat to give 
it a good color, and add boiling water; when it 
has boiled about an hour, add all sorts of best 
broth herbs; this broth, when good, is of a fine 
brown color. 



To make Beef a la Mode. 
Take 11 pounds of the mouse buttock, or clod 
of beef, cut it into pieces of 3 or 4 ounces each; 
put 2 or 3 large onions and 2 ounces of beef drip- 
ping into^ large, deep stewpan ; as soon as it is 
quite hot flour the meat and put it into the stew- 
pan ; fill it sufficiently to cover the contents with 
water and stir it continually with a wooden spoon ; 
when it has been on a quarter of an hour, dredge 
it with flour, and keep doing so till it has been 
stirred as much as will thicken it; then cover it 
with boiling water. Skim it when it boils, and 
put in 1 drachm of black ground pepper, 2 of all- 
spice and 4 bay leaves ; set the pan by the side 
of the fire to stew slowly about 4 hours. This is 
at once a savory and economical dish. 
Beef a la Mode. 
Take out the bone from a round, and with a 
sharp knife cut many deep incisions in the meat. 
Then wash and season well with salt and pejiper. 
Crumb the soft part of a loaf of bread, to which 
add one teaspoonful of sweet marjoram, the same 
of sweet basil, one small onion minced fine, two 
or three small blades of mace finely powdered, 
with sufficient salt and pepper to season it. Rub 
all well together with five ounces of fresh butter 
Mix all those ingredients well together. With 
this dressing fill all the incisions and fasten well 
with skewers. Tie a piece of t.ipe round the nu'at 
to keep it in shape. Cut 3 or 4 thin slices of pickled 
pork, which place in a large stewkettle with 3 
half-pints of water; put in the meat, stick 6 or 
8 cloves over the top; cover the kettle very close 
and set it in a quick oven. It will take several 
hours to cook, as it requires to be well done. 
When sufficiently cooked place it on a heated dish, 
remove the pork from the kettle, and, if not suffi.- 
cient gravy, add a little boiling water and dredge 
in sufficient flour to make the gravy of a proper 
thickness ; then stir in 1 dessertspoonful of sugar 
browned a very dark color, and season to taste. 
As soon as it comes to a boil add 1 gill of Madeira 
wine. After letting it simmer a short time put it 
in a sauce tureen, remove the skewers and tape 
from the meat, pour over the top 2 or 3 table- 
spoonfuls of gravy and send all to table hot. 
Boiiilli en llatelotte. 
Peel a handful of small onions, fry them in but- 
ter till they are of alight brown, throw in a hand- 
ful of flour, shake the pan well, add a glass of red 
wine, a pint of (bouillon) mace, salt, pepper, thyme, 
and 2 bay leaves; bubble the whole gently till 
the onions are tender, and pour it over slices of 
cold bouilli. Set all in a saucepan well covered 
on hot ashes, to stand for 15 minutes. Take care 
it docs not boil. 

Beef en Daiibe. 
Prepare a round or rump as for beef a la mode, 
well larded wiih the largest needle ; put it into 
j-our pot with a spoonful of lard. Set the pot on 
hot coals, dust it with flour, turn your beef till it 
is well browned on both sides ; have ready a kettle 
of boiling water, cover your meat, add in bits 6 
large onions, 2 bunches of carrots and an egg 
plant in slices. Put on your lid and bubble slowly 
but steadily for 4 hours (for 16 pounds of beef, 
longer if heavier) or till the skewer will pass easily 
into it. About half an hour before serving throw 
in a pint of small mushrooms, season with pep- 
per and s.alt, a dozen bay leaves and all kinds of 
spice. Set your beef in a deep dish and cover 
with the sauce. 

Beef's Tongue aux Champignons. 
Wash your tongue well and boil for half an 
hour; season some larding with salt, pepper, all 
kinds of spice, shallots and chopped parsley j lard 



>06 



COOKERY. 



your tongue across ; put it in a stewpan with a few 
slices of bac(in ;ind beef, carrots, onions, thyme, 3 
bay leaves, 3 cloves; cover with bouillon and stew 
very gently for 4 hours: when done, skin j'our 
toni^ue atid cut it up lengthways in the middle and 
under part, but uot thrmujh, so tb;it you can bend 
it up anil lay it on your dish in the shape of a 
heart. H<ive ready a quantity of button mush- 
rooms fried in butter, with a sprinkle of lemon 
juice moistened with bouillon, and bubbled to a 
proper consistence. Pour it over your tongue and 
eerve hot. 

Fish en Mntelotle. 

Almost every kind of fish answers for this dish. 
Scale, clean and cut them in pieces ; put them 
into a pan with a handful of small onions pre- 
viously fried whole in butter, two bay leaves, a 
bunch of shallots and parslej', small mushrooms, 
thyme, salt and pepper; pour over the whole as 
much red wine as will cover it; set 3'our pan on a 
quick fire; when the wine is one-half gone, mix a 
spoonful of flour with a lump of butter, roll it in 
little balls and put them one by one into 3'our 
sauce, stirring it the whole time. Arrange your 
fish handsomely on a deep dish, pour over it the 
sauce and garnish with slices of lemon. 
To Fry Sweeihrends. 

Boil them in salt and water about a quarter of 
an hour; then take them out and let them cool. 
Skin and cut them in half, season with pepper 
and salt, and dust a little flour over and fry them 
slowly in equal portions of butter and lard. When 
of a fine brown, place them on a dish ; then dust 
a little flour into the pan with the fat they were 
fried in ; stir it well and pour in about a gill of 
hot water ; season the gravy to your taste with 
salt and pepper, and as soon as it boils pour it over 
the sweetbreads and serve them hot. 
Veal Cutlets. 

Pound them well with a rolling-pin or potato- 
masher; then wash and dry them on a clean towel, 
and season with pepper and salt. Have ready J 
a pint of fine powdered cracker, which season 
with salt and pepper. Whisk 2 eggs with 1 gill 
of milk, and pour over the cutlets ; then take 1 at 
a time and place in the crumbs, pat well with the 
back of a spoon, in order to, make the cracker ad- 
here close to the meat. Put them into hot lard, 
and fry slowly until well done and handsomely 
browned on both sides. 

Steak a la Soyer. 

The rump-steak to be broiled, and to be dressed 
with pepper, salt, Cayenne and flour, all in a 
dredge-box together; keep constantly turning the 
steak and dredging it; chop up 1 small shallot, 
put it in a stewpan with a little catsup; when 
the steak is sufiiciently done add a little butter to 
it; strain the sauce through a small sieve, and 
serve up very hot. 

Kidneys a la Brochette. 

Let your kidneys steep 5 minutes in cold water 
to soften the skin ; remove it and split each ; 
through the middle put a wooden or silver skewer, 
if you have it; when they are skewered, sea- 
son them with pepper and salt. Dip each into oil 
or melted butter, and broil them on a gridiron. 
Before you serve remove the skewers, unless they 
are of silver, and serve them on a dish with butter 
and fine herbs. 

JSeef Sanders. 

Mince cold beef small with onions, add pepper 
and salt and a little gravy; put into a pie-dish or 
scallop-shells, until about 3 parts full. Then fill 
np with mashed potatoes. Bake in an oven or 
before the fire until done a light brown. Mutton 
may be cooked in the same way. 



Timballe of Macaroni, with ChirJcen and Ham, 
Simmer i pounil macaroni in plenty of water, 
and a tablespoonful of salt till it is tender; but 
take care not to have it ton soft ; strain the water 
from it; beat up 6 yolks and the whites of 2 
eggs ; take ^ a pint of the best cream, and the 
breast of a fowl and some slices of ham. Minoe 
the breast of the fowl and some slices cf ham; 
add them, with from 2 to 3 tnblespoonful of finely 
grated Parmesan cheese, and season with pepper 
and salt. Mix all these with the macaroni, and 
put into a pudding-mould, well buttered. Let 
it strain in a stewpan of boiling water about 1 
hour, and serve quite hot, with rich gravy It is 
very good cold. 

Sweetbreads, French Style. 
Take 3 large sweetbreads, put them into hot 
water, and let them boil 10 minutes; when cool, 
skin, but do not break them. Season with salt 
and pepper, and dredge over a little flour; then 
fry them slowly in butter a light brown on both 
sides. When done, place them on a dish, and re- 
move all the brown particles from the pan (retain- 
ing the butter); then pour in, while otf the fire, 
1 gill of boiling water, and dredge in 1 dessert- 
spoonful of browned flour, stirring it all the time. 
Then season with salt and water to taste; mix 
well, and, just before removing it from the fire, 
stir in gradually 2 tablespoonsful of Madeira wine. 
After dredging in the flour, and seasoning the 
gravy, as soon as it comes to a boil, stir in the 
wine; while boiling hot, pour it over the sweet- 
breads, and send to table in a well-heated (cov- 
ered) dish. 

Boiled Leg of Mutton a V Anglaise. 
Select a leg of mutton, rather fat, and net 
kept above 3 or 4 days ; trim it, and put it on 
to boil in a stock-pot or braizing-pan, filled 
up with cold water; when it boils, remo\c the 
scum, and put it on the side of the stove to con- 
tinue gently boiling for about 2i hours ; a hand- 
ful of salt and a couple of turnips and carrots 
should be put into the pot to boil with the leg. 
When the mutton is done, drain and dish it up, 
garnish it round with mashed turnips, dressed 
with a little sweet cream, a pat of butter, pepper 
and salt; mould the mashed turnips in the shape 
of large eggs, with a tablespoon, and place these 
closely round the leg of mutton, introducing be- 
tween each spoonful of mashed turnips a carrot 
nicely turned, that has been boiled, either with 
the mutton, or in some broth separately ; pour 
some gravy under it, put a paper ruffle on the 
bone, and send it to table, accompanied with a 
sauce-boat of caper-sauce. 

Roasted Suclcing-Pig a V Anglaise. 
In selecting a sucking-pig for the table, those 
of about 3 weeks old are generally preferred, their 
meat being more delicate than when allowed to 
grow larger. Let the pig be prepared for dress- 
ing in the usual way, that is, scalded, drawn, etc., 
pettitoes cutoff', and the paunch filled with stuffing 
previously prepared for the purpose as follows : 
chop 2 large onions, and 12 sage-leaves, boil them 
in water for 2 minutes, and after having drained 
the sage and onions on to a sieve, place it in a 
stewpan with a pat of butter, pepper and salt, and 
set the whole to simmer gently for 10 minutes on 
a very slow fire; then add a double handful of 
bread-crumbs, 2 pats of butter, and the yolks of 2 
eggs ; stir the whole over the fire for 5 minutes, 
and then use the stuffing as before directed. 
When the sucking-pig is stuffed, sew the paunch up 
with twine ; spit the pig for roasting, carefully 
fastening it on the spit at each end with email 



BRAIZED HAM, ETC. 



207 



iron skewers, which should be run through the 
shoulders and hips to secure it tightly, so that it 
may on no account slip round when down to roast. 
The pig will require about 2 hours to roast thor- 
oughh'. and should be frequentlj* basted with a 
paste-brush dipped in salad oil. Oil is better 
adapted for this purpose than either dripping or 
butter, giving more crispness to the skin ; when 
basted with oil, the pig will, while roasting, ac- 
quire a more even and a finer color. When d<ine, 
take it up from the fire on the spit, and imme- 
diately cut the head off with a sharp knife, and 
lay it on a plate in the hot closet. Next, cut the 
pig in two, by dividing it first with a sharp knife 
straight down the back to the spine, finishing with 
a meat-saw ; a large dish should be held under 
the pig while it is thus being divided, into which 
it may fall when completely cut through ; place 
the two sides back to back on the dish, without 
disturbing the stuflSng, split the head in two;' put 
the brains in a small stewpan, trim off the snout 
and jaws, leaving only the cheeks and ears, place 
these one at each end of the dish, surround the 
remove with a border of small potatoes, fried of a 
light color, in a little clarified butter; pour under 
some rich brown gravy, and send to table with 
the following sauce : to the brains, put into a small 
stewpan as before directed, add a spoonful of 
blanched chopped parsley, pepper and salt, a 
piece of glaze the size of a large walnut, some 
well-made butter-sauce, and the juice of a lemon; 
stir the whole well together over the fire, and when 
quite hot, send it to table separately, in a boat, to 
be handed round with the sucking-pig. 

Braized Ham, icith Spinach, etc. 

When about to dress a ham, care must be taken 
after it has been trimmed, and the thigh-bone 
removed, that it be put to soak in a large pan 
filled with cold water; the length of time it should 
remain in soak depending partly upon its degree 
of moisture, partly upon whether the ham be 
new or seasoned. If the ham readily yields to 
the pressure of the hand, it is no doubt new, and 
this is the case with most of those sold in the 
spring seas(m ; for such as these a few hours' 
soaking will suflBce ; but when hams are properly 
seasoned, they should be soaked for 24 hours. 
Foreign hams, however, require to be soaked 
much longer, varying in time from 2 to 4 days 
and nights. The water in which they are soaked 
should be changed once every 12 hours in win- 
ter, and twice during that time in summer; it is 
necessary to be particular also in scraping off the 
slimy surface from the hams, previously to re- 
placing them in the water to finish soaking. 

When the ham has been trimmed and soaked, 
let it be boiled in water for an hour, and then 
scraped and washed in cold water; place it in a 
braizing-pan with 2 carrots, as many onions, 1 
head of celery, 2 blades of mace, and 4 cloves; 
moisten with sufliicient common broth to float the 
ham, and then set it on the stove to braize very 
ge»tly for about four hours. To obtain tender- 
ness and mellowness, so essential in a well-dressed 
ham, it must never be allowed to boil, but merely 
to simmer very gently by a slow fire. This rule 
applies also to the braizing of all salted or cured 
meats. When the ham is done, draw the pan in 
which it has braized away from the fire, and set 
it to cool in the open air, allowing the ham to re- 
main in the braize. B3' this means it will retain 
all its moisture; for when the ham is taken out 
of the braize as soon as done, and put on a dish 
to get cold, all its richness e.\udes from it. The 
ham having partially cooled in its braize, should 
be taken out and trimmed, and afterwards placed 



in a braizing-pan with some of its own stock ; and 
about three-quarters of an hour before dinner put 
either in the oven or on a slow fire. When warmed 
through place the ham on a baking-dish in tho 
oven to dry the surface, then glaze it; replace it 
in the oven again for about three minutes to dry 
it, and glaze it again; by that time the ham, if 
properly attended to, will present a bright appear- 
ance. Put it now on its dish, and garnish it with 
well-dressed spinach, placed round the ham in 
tablespoonfuls, shaped like so many eggs, pour 
spme sauce round the base, put a rufile on the 
bone, and serve. 

JVofe. — Any of our home-cured hams, dressed 
according to the foregoing directions, may also be 
served with a garnish of asparagus-peas, young 
carrots, green peas, broad beans, French beans or 
Brussels sprouts. 

Roast Turkey, a V Amjlaise. 

Stuff a turkey with some well-seasoned veal 
stufiing, let it be trussed in the usual manner, and 
previously to putting it down to roast cover it 
with thin layers of fat bacon, which should be 
secured on with buttered paper tied round the 
turkey, so as entirely to envelop it on the spit; 
then roast it, and when done dish it up, garnish 
with stewed chestnuts and small pork sausages, 
nicely fried; pour a rich sauce round it, glaze the 
turkey, and send to table. 

Plain Rnmp Steak. 

The steak should be cut rather thick, neatly 
trimmed, seasoned with a little pepfier and salt, 
and broiled over a clear fire; when done remove 
it carefully from the gridiron, in order to preserve 
the gravy which collects on its upper surface. 
Place the steak on its dish, rub a small pat of 
fresh butter over it, garnish round with grated 
horse-radish, and send some beef gravy separately 
in a sauce-boat. Epicures, however, prefer the 
gravy which runs out of a juicy steak when well 
broiled to anj- other addition. Small ribs of beef, 
and especially steaks cut from between the small 
ribs, form an excellent substitute for rump steaks; 
both, when nicely broiled, may be served with 
cold JlJuitre d' Hotel butter, anehovj- ditto. 
Beef Steak, a la I'ra]i<;aifie. 

Cut one pound of trimmed fillet of beef across 
the grain of the meat into three pieces; flatten 
these with the cntlet-bat, and trim them of a round 
or oval form ; then cut and trim three pieces of 
suet, half the size of the former: dip the steaks 
in a little clarified butter, season with pepper and 
salt, and place them on the gridiron over a clear 
fire to broil; when done glaze them on both sides, 
dish them up on two ounces of cold 3hntre d'H6tel 
butter, garnish round with fried potatoes, and 
serve. These potatoes must be cut or turned in the 
form of olives, and fried in a little clarified butter. 
Hashed Beef, Plain. 

Slice the beef up in very thin pieces, season 
with pepper and salt, and shake a little flour over 
it. Next chop a middle-sized onion, and ))ut it 
into a stewpan with a tablespoonful of Harvey 
sauce, and an equal quantity of mushroom catsup; 
boil these together for two minutes, and then add 
half a pint of broth or gravy ; boil this down to 
half its quantity, throw in the beef, set the hash 
to boil on the stove fire for five minutes longer, 
and then serve with sippets of toasted bread 
round it. 

Sliees of Braized Beef, a la Claremont. 

Take braized beef remaining from a previous 
day's dinner, and cut in rather thin round or oval 
slices, placed in a saucepan in neat order, and 
warmed with a gravyspoonful of good stock ; these 



208 



COOKERY. 



must til en be dishod up in a circle, overlapping 
each other closely; pour some sauce over them, 
and serve. 

N<ite. — Slices of braized beef wnrmed and dished 
up, as in the forejfoing case, may be greatly varied 
by being afterwards garnished with macaroni 
prepared with grated cheese, a little glaze and 
tomato-sauce, also with all sharp sauces, with 
purees of vegetables, and with vegetable gar- 
nishes. 

Bubble and Sqiienk. 

Cut some slices (not too thin) of cold boiled 
round or edge-hone, of salt beef; trim them neatly, 
as also an equal number of pieces of the white fat 
of the beef, and set them aside on a plate. Boil 
two summer or Savoy cabbages, remove the stalks, 
chop them fine, and put them into a stewpan with 
four ounces of fresh butter and one ounce of 
glaze ; season with peiiper and salt. When about 
to send to table, fry the slices of beef in a sauce 
or fryingpan, commencing with the pieces of fat; 
stir the cabbage on the fire until quite hot, and 
then pile it up in the centre of the dish; place 
the slices of beef and the pieces of fat round it, 
pour a little brown sauce over the whole, and 
serve. 

Jlhitton Cutlet^, Plain. 

Choose a neck of mutton that has been killed 
at least four days, saw off the scrag end, and as 
much of the rib-bones as may be necessary in 
order to leave the cutlet-bones not more than 
three inches and a half long; the spine-bones 
must also he removed with the saw, without dam- 
aging the fillet. Ne.xt cut the neck of mutton 
thus trimmed into as many cutlets as there are 
bones ; detach the meat from the upi)er part of 
each bone, about three-quarters of an inch, then 
dip them in water and flatten them with a cutlet- 
bat, trim away the sinewy part, and any super- 
fluous fat. The cutlets must then be seasoned 
with pepper and salt, passed over with a paste- 
brush dipped in clarified butter, and nicely broiled 
over or before a clear fire. When they are done 
dish them up neatly, and serve with plain brown 
gravy under them. 

Cutlets prepared in this way may also be served 
with either of the following sauces : Poor-man's, 
Poivrade ; for which see another page. 
Mutton Cutlets, Bread-crumbed and Broiled tcith 
Shallot Gravy. 

Trim the cutlets in the usual manner, and sea- 
son them with pepper and salt; then egg them 
slightly over with a paste-brush dipped in two 
yolks of eggs, beaten upon a plate for the purpose ; 
pass each cutlet through some fine bread-crumbs; 
then dip them sej)arately in some clarified butter, 
and bread-crumb them over once more; put them 
into shape with the blade of a knife, and lay them 
on a gridiron to be broiled over a clear fire, of a 
light-brown color ; then glaze and dish them up, 
and serve them with plain or shallot gravy. These 
cutlets may also be served with any of the sauces 
directed to be used for plain broiled cutlets. 
Sweetbreads Larded with Stewed Peas. 

Three heart sweetbreads generally sufiice for a 
dish. They must be procured quite fresh, other- 
wise they are unfit for the table, and should be 
steeped in water for several hours, and the water 
frequently changed; the sweetbreads are then to 
be scalded in boiling water for about 3 minutes, 
and immersed in cold water for half an hour, 
after which they must be drained upon a napkin, 
trimmed free from any sinewy fat, and put be- 
tween two dishes to be slightly pressed flat, and 
then closely larded with strips of bacon in the 
usual manner. The sweetbreads must next be 



placed in a deep saucepan on a bed of thinly- 
sliced carrots, celery and onions, with a garnished 
faggot of parsely and green onions placed in the 
centre and covered with thin layers of fat bacon. 
Moisten with about a pint of good stock, place a 
round of buttered paper on the top, cover with the 
lid, and after having put the sweetbreads to boil 
on the stove-fire, remcjve them to the oven or on 
a moderate fire (in the latter case live embers of 
charcoal must be jilaced on the lid) and allow them 
to braize rather briskly for about twenty minutes, 
frequently basting them with their own liquor. 
When done remove the lid and paper covering 
and set them again in the oven to dry the surface 
of the larding; glaze them nicely and dish them 
up on some stewed peas (which see). 

Sweetbreads prepared in this way may .also be 
served with dressed asparagus, peas, French beans, 
scallops of cucumbers, braized lettuce, celery, and 
also with every kind of vegetable puree. To raise 
the sweetbreads above the garnish, or sauce served 
with them, it is necessary to place as many foun- 
dations as there are sweetbreads in the dish ; these 
may be made either by boiling some rice in broth 
until it becomes quite soft, then working it into a 
paste ; after this has been spread on a dish about 
an inch thick, a circular tin cutter must be used to 
stamp it out. They may also be prepared from 
veal force-meats, or even fried crdutous of bread 
will serve the purpose. 

Lamb Cutlets Bread-crnmhed, with Asparagus- 
Peas. 

Trim the cutlets, season with pepper and salt, 
rub them over with a paste-brush dipped in yolks 
of eggs and roll them in bread crumbs ; then dip 
them in some clarified butter and bread-crumb 
them over again; put them in shape with the 
blade of a knife and place them in neat order in 
a saucepan with some clarified butter. When 
about to send to table fry the cutlets of a light 
color, drain them upon a sheet of paper, glaze and 
dish them up ; fill the centre with asparagus-peas, 
pour some thin sauce around them and serve. 

Pork Cutlets Plain-broiled, icith Gravy, etc. 

These cutlets must be cut from the neck or loin 
of dairy-fed pork, not too fat; they should be 
trimmed but very little, the rough part of the 
chine-bone only requiring to be removed; the skin 
must be left on and scored in six places. Season 
the cutlets with pepper and salt, and broil them 
on a gridiron over a clear fire; coke makes a bet- 
ter fire than coal for broiling, as it emits no gas 
and causes less smoke. Take care that they are 
thoroughly done and not scorched; dish them up 
with any of the following gravies or sauces, and 
serve : Sage and onion, shallot, onion, fine herbs, 
gravies, or essences, tomato sauce. 
Venison Scallops. 

Venison for this purpose ought to be kept until 
it has become quite tender; a piece of the end of 
the neck may be used. Cut the fillet from the 
bone, with all the fat adhering to it; remove the 
outer skin, and then cut it into scallops, taking 
care not to trim off more of the fat than is neces- 
sary ; place them in a saucepan with clarified but- 
ter, season with pepper and salt, and fry them 
brown on both sides ; pour off all the grease, add 
some scallops of mushrooms, a piece of glaze and 
a glass of Port wine ; simmer the whole together 
over a stove-fire for about 3 minutes, and then 
pour in some Poivrade sauce ; toss the scallops in 
the sauce on the fire until quite hot, and then 
dish them up with a border of quenelles of pota- 
toes and serve. These scallops may also be served 
with sweet sauce, in which case the mushrooms 
must bo omitted. 



MEATS. 



209 



Veniscn Chops. 
Cut the chops about an inch thick from the end 
of the himnch or the best end of the neck, flatten 
them a little with a cntlet-bat, trim theui without 
Waste, season with pepper and salt and broil them 
on a gridiron over a clear fire of moderate heat, 
turning them over every .H minutes while on the 
fire ; when done through with their gravy in them, 
lift them carefully off the gridiron without spill- 
ing the griivy that may be swimming on the sur- 
face, dish them up with a little rich brown gravy 
under them, and serve some currant jelly or veni- 
son sweet sauce separately in a boat. 

Fricasiee o/ Chickens with Mushrooms, etc. 
Procure 2 fat, plump chickens, and after they 
have been drawn singe them over the flame of a 
charcoal fire, and then cut up into small members 
or joints in the following manner: First remove 
the wings at the second joint, then take hold of 
the chicken with the left hand, and with a sharp 
knife make 2 parallel cuts lengthwise on the back 
about an inch and a half apart, so as partly to 
detach or at least to mark out where the legs and 
wings are to be removed; the chicken must next 
be placed upon its side on the table, and after the 
les and fillet (with the pinion left on the upper 
side) have been cut, the same must be repeated on 
the other, and the thigh-bones must be removed. 
Then separate the back and breast, trim these 
without waste and cut the back across into 2 
pieces; steep the whole in a pan containing clear 
tepid water for about 10 minutes, frequently 
squeezing the pieces with the hand to extract all 
the blood. Next strew the bfjttom of a stewpan 
with thinly-sliced carrot, onion and a little celery, 
3 cloves. 12 pepper-corns, a blade of mace and a 
garnished faggot of parsley; place the pieces of 
chicken in close and neat order upon the vegeta- 
bles, etc.; moisten with about a quart of boiling 
broth from the stockpot, or failing this, with wa- 
ter; cover with the lid and set the whole to boil 
gently by the side of the stove-fire for about ha'lf 
an hour, when the chicken will be done. They 
must then be strained in a sieve and their broth 
reserved in a basin ; next immerse the pieces of 
chicken in cold water, wash and drain them upon 
a napkin, and afterward trim them neatly and 
place them in a stewpan in the larder. Then put 
2 ounces of fresh butter to melt in a stewpan ; to 
this add 2 tablespoonfuls of flour, and stir the 
mixture over the fire for 3 minutes without allowing 
it to acquire any color ; it should then be removed 
from the stove, and the chicken broth being 
poured into it the whole must be thoroughly mixed 
together into a smooth sauce ; throw in some 
trimmings of mushrooms and stir the sauce over 
the fire until it boils, then set it by the side to 
continue gently boiling to throw up the butter and 
scum. When the sauce has boiled half an hour 
•kim it ; reduce it by further boiling to its proper 
consistency, and then incorporate with it a leason 
of 4 yolks of eggs mixed with a pat of butter and 
a little cream ; set the leason in the sauce by stir- 
ring it over the fire until it nearly boils, then pass 
it through a tammy into the stewpan containing 
the pieces of chicken, and add thereto half a 
p( ttle of prepared button-mushrooms. When 
about to send to table warm the fricassee without 
allowing it to boil, and dish it up as follows : 
First put the pieces of the back in the centre of 
the dish, place the legs at the angles, the bones 
pointed inwardly; next place the fillets upon 
these, and then set the pieces of breast on the 
toj) ; pour the sauce over the entree, and place the 
mushrooms about the fricassee in groups; sur- 
round the entree with eight or ten glazed cr6u- 
14 



tons of fried bread cut in the shape of hearts, and 
serve. 

Note. — Truffles cut into scallops, or shaped in 
the form of olives, crayfish-tails, button-oni(ms, or 
artichoke-bottoms cut into small pointed quarters, 
may also be served with a fricassee of chickens. 
Pi(/eons a la Gauthier. 
Procure 4 young, fat pigeons; draw, singe and 
truss them with their legs thrust inside ; next put 
a half-pound of fresh butter into a small s^tewpan 
with the juice of a lemon, a little migm.nette, 
pepper, and salt; place this over a stove-fire, and 
when it is melted put the pigeons with a gar- 
nished faggot of parsley in it, cover the whole 
with thin layers of fat bacon and a circular pieca 
of buttered paper, and set them to simmer very 
gently on a slow fire for about 20 minutes, when 
they will be done. The pigeons must then be 
drained upon a napkin, and after all the greasy 
moisture has been absorbed place them in tha 
dish in the form of a square, with a large quenelle 
of fowl (decorated with truflJes) in between each 
pigeon ; fill the centre with a ragout of crayfish- 
tails; pour some of the sauce over and round the 
pigeons, and serve. 

Rabbits a la Bonrgnignonne. 
Cut the rabbits up into small joints, season with 
pepper and salt, and fry them slightly over the 
fire without allowing them to acquire much color; 
adding half a pint of button-onions previously 
parboiled in water, a very little grated nutmeg, 
and half a pottle of mushrooms; toss these over 
the fire for five minutes, then add a tumblerfull 
of French white wine (Chablis or Sauterne), and 
set this to boil sharply until reduced to half tha 
quantity ; next add 2 large gravyspoonsful of 
Poivrade sauce (which see), simmer the whole to- 
gether gently for ten minutes longer, and finish 
by incorporating a leason of 4 yolks of eggs, the 
juice of J a lemon, and a dessertspoonful of 
chopped parboiled parsley; dish up the pieces of 
rabbit in a pyramidal form, garnish the entree 
with the onions, etc., placed in groups round the 
base, pour the sauce over it and serve. 
Sri /mis of Wild Buck, 
Roast a wild duck befo);e a brisk fire for about 
25 minutes, so that it may retain its gravy, place 
it on its breast in a dish to get cool, then cut it ub 
into small joints comprising 2 fillets, 2 legs with 
the breast and back each cut into 2 pieces, and 
place the whole in a stewpan. Put the trimmings 
into a stewpan with i pint of red wine, 4 shallots, 
a sprig of thyme, a bay-leaf, the rind of an orange 
free from pith, the pulp of a lemon, and a little 
Cayenne; boil these down to half their original 
quantity then add a small ladleful of sauce, allow 
the sauce to boil, skim it and pass it through a 
tammy on to the pieces of wild duck. When about 
to send to the table warm the salmis without boil- 
ing, dish it up, pour the sauce over it, garnish the 
entree with 8 heart-shaped croutons of fried bread 
nicely glazed, and serve. 

Ronat Hare. 
Skin and draw the hare, leaving on the ears, 
which must be scalped and the hairs scraped offj 
pick out the eyes and cut off the feet or pads just 
above the first joint, wipe the hare with a clean 
cloth, and cut the sinews at the back of the hind- 
quarters and below the fore legs. Prepare some 
veal stuflSng and fill the paunch with it, sew this 
up with string or fasten it with a wooden skewer, 
then draw the legs under as if the hare was in a 
sitting posture, set the head between the shoulders 
and stick a small skewer through them, running 
also through the neck to secure its position ; run 
another skewer through the fore legs gathered up 



210 



COOKERY 



under the paunch, then take a yard of string, 
double it in two, placing the centre of it on the 
breast of the hare and bring both ends over the 
skewer, cross the string over both sides of the 
other skewer and fasten it over the back. Split 
the hare and roast it before a brisk fire for about 
three-quarters of an hour, frequently basting it 
with butter or dripping. Five minutes before 
taking the hare up throw on a little salt, shake 
gome flour over it with a dredger, and baste it 
with some fresh butter; when this froths up and 
the hare has acquired a rich brown crust take it 
off the spit, dish it up with water-cresses round it, 
pour some brown gravy under, and send some 
currant jelly in a boat to be handed round. 
Roast Pheaeftiit. 

Draw the pheasant by making a small opening 
at the vent, make an incision along the back part of 
the neck, loosen the pouch, etc., with the fingers 
and then remove it; singe the body of the pheas- 
ant and its legs over the flame of a charcoal fire 
or with a piece of paper, rub the scaly cuticle off' 
the legs with a cloth, trim away the claws and 
spurs, cut off the neck close up to the back leaving 
the skin of the breast entire, wijie the pheasant 
clean, and then truss it in the following manner: 
Place the pheasant upon its breast, run a trussing- 
needle and string through the left pinion (the 
wings being removed), then turn the bird over 
on its back and place the thumb and fore-finger 
of the left hand across the breast, holding the 
legs erect; thrust the needle through the middle 
joint of both thighs, draw it out and then pass 
it through the other pinion and fasten the strings 
at the back; next pass the needle through the 
legs and body and tie the strings tightly; this 
will give it an appearance of plumpness. Spit 
and roast the pheasant before a brisk fire for 
about half an hour, frequently basting it; when 
done send to table with brown gravy under it and 
bread sauce (which see) separately in a boat. 
Wild Foiul, en Salmis, 

Cut up a cold roast duck (wild), goose, brant, 
or whatever it may be. Put into a bowl or soup- 
pliite (to every bird) a dessertspoonful of well 
made mustard, a sprinkle of cayenne and black 
pepper, with about a gill of red wine ; mix them 
well together, set your pan on the fire with a lump 
of butter, when it melts add gradually the wine, 
etc., let it bubble a minute; put in your duck and 
bubble it for a few minutes. If your duck has 
proved tough when first cooked, use a saucepan 
and let it bubble till tender, taking care there is 
enough gravy to keep it from burning. Serve on 
dry toast very hot. 

P!geo7i8. 

Pigeons may be broiled or roasted like chicken. 

They will cook in three-quarters of an hour. Make 

a gravy of the giblets, season it with pepper and 

salt, and thicken it with a little flour and butter. 

Terrapins. 

Plunge them into boiling water till they are 
dead, take them out, pull off the outer skin and 
toe-nails, wash them in warm water and boil them 
with a teaspoonful of salt to each middling-sized 
terrapin till you can pinch the flesh from off the 
bone of the leg, turn them out of the shell into a 
dish, remove the sand-bag and gall, add the yolks 
of 2 eggs, cut up your meat, season pretty high 
with eciual parts of black and cayenne pepper 
and salt. Put all into your saucepan with the 
liquor they have given out in cutting up, but not 
a drop of water; add i of a pound of butter with 
a gill of Madeira to every 2 middle-sized terra- 
pins; simmer gently till tender, closely covered, 
thicken with flour and serve hot. 



To Stew Terraping, 
Wash 4 terrapins in warm water, then ihroTr 
them in a pot of boiling water, which will kill them 
instantly; let them boil till the shells crack, then 
take them out and take off the bottom shell, cut 
each quarter separate, take the gall from the liver, 
take out the eggs, put the pieces in a stewpan, 
pour in all the liqu'»r and cover them with water; 
put in salt, cayenne, and black pepper and a little 
mace, put in a lump of butter the size of an egg 
and let them stew for half an hour; make a thick- 
ening of flour and water which stir in a few min- 
utes before you take it up with two glasses of 
wine. Serve it in a deep covered dish, put in the 
eggs just as you dish it. 

Chicken Stewed %oith New Corn. 

Cut up the chickens as for pies, season them 
well, have green corn cut off the cob, put a layer 
of chicken in the bottom of astewpan and a layer 
of corn, and so till you fill all in ; sprinkle in salt, 
pepper and parsley and put a piece of butter in, 
cover it with water and put on a crust with slits 
out in it, let it boil an hour; when done lay the 
crust in a deep dish. Dip out the chicken and 
corn and put it on the crust, stir in the gravy a 
thickening of milk and flour; when this boils up 
pour it in with the corn and chicken. Chicken 
and corn boiled together in a pot make very nice 
soup with dumplings. 

Maj/onnaise. 

A cold roast fowl divided into quarters ; young 
lettuce cut in quarters and placed on the dish with 
salad dressing; eggs boiled hard and cut in quar- 
ters, placed round the dish as a garnish; capers 
and anchovies are sometimes added. 

Salmon Curry. 

Have 2 slices of salmon, weighing about 1 
pound each, which cut into pieces of the size of 
walnuts; cut up 2 middling- sized onions, which 
put into a stew-pan with 1 ounce of butter and a 
clove of garlic cut in thin slices; stir over the fire 
till becoming rather yellowish, then add a tea- 
spoonful of curry powder, and half that quantity 
of curry paste. Mix all well together with a pint 
of good broth ; beat up and pass through a tammy 
into a stewpan ; put in the salmon, which stew 
about half an hour; pour off as much of the oil 
as possible. If too dry, moisten with a little more 
broth, mixing it gently ; and serve as usual, with 
rice separate. Salmon curry may also be made 
with the remains left from a previous dinner, in 
which case reduce the curry sauce until rather 
thick before putting in the salmon, which only re- 
quires to be made hot in it. The remains of a 
turbot may also be curried in the same way, and 
so may any other kind of fish. 
Pigeon Pie. 

Truss half a dozen fine large pigeons, as for 
stewing; season them with pepper and salt, and 
fill them with veal stuffing or some parsley chop- 
ped very fine, and a little pepper, salt, and 3 ounces 
of butter mixed together. Lay at the bottom of 
the dish a rump steak of about a pound weight, 
cut into pieces and trimmed neatly, seasoned and 
beat out with a chopper; on it lay the pigeons, 
the yolks of 3 eggs boiled hard, and a gill of broth 
or water; wet the edge of the dish, and cover it 
over with puff- paste; wash it over with yolk of 
egg, and ornament it with leaves of paste, and the 
feet of the pigeons. Bake it an hour and a half 
in a moderate- heated oven. Before it is sent to 
table make an aperture in the top, and pour in 
some good gravy, quite hot. 

Giblel Pie. 

Clean well, and half stew 2 or 3 sets of goosfl 



MEAT PIES. 



211 



giblets; cut the leg in 2, the wing and neck into 
3, and the gizzard into 4 pieces. Preserve the 
liquor, and set the giblets by till cold; otherwise 
the heat of the giblets will spoil the jiaste you 
cover the pie with; then season the whole with 
black pepper and salt, and put them into a deep 
dish ; cover it with paste, rub it over with yolk of 
egg, ornameni. and bake it an hour and a half in 
a moderate oven. In the mean time take the liquor 
the giblets were stewed in, skim it free from fat, 
put it over a fire in a clean stewpan, thicken it 
a little with flour and butter, or flour and water, 
season it with pepper and s.alt and the juice of 
half a lemon : add a few drops of browning, strain 
it through a fine sieve, and, when you take the 
pie from the oven, pour some of this into it through 
a funnel. Some lay in the bottom of the dish a 
moderately thick rump-steak. If you have any 
cold game or poultry, cut it in pieces, and add it 
to the above. 

Bump Steak Pie. 

Cut 3 pounds of rump steak, that has been kept 
till tender, into pieces half as big as your hand; 
trim off all the skin, sinews, and every part which 
has not indisputable pretentions to be eaten, and 
beat them with a chopper. Chop very fine half a 
dozen eschalots, and mix them with half an ounce 
of pepper and salt mixed ; strew some of the mix- 
ture at the bottom of the dish, then a layer of 
gteak, then some more of the mixture, and so on 
till the dish is full; add half a gill of mushroom 
catsup, and the same quantity of gravy, or red 
wine; cover it as in the preceding receipt, and 
bake it two hours. 

Large oysters parboiled, bearded, and laid alter- 
nately with the steaks, their liquor reduced and 
substituted instead of the catsup and wine, will 
be a variety. 

Chicken Pie. 

Parboil and then cut up neatly two young 
chickens; dry them ; set them over a slow fire for 
a few minutes. Have ready some veal stufling 
or forcemeat; lay it at the bottom of the dish, 
and place in the chickens upon it, and with it 
some pieces of dressed ham; cover it with paste. 
Bake it from an hour and a half to two hours. 
When sent to table add some good gravy, well 
seasoned and not too thick. 

Duck pie is made in like manner, only substi- 
tuting duck stufling instead of the veal. 

The above may be put into a raised French 
crust, and baked. When done take off the top, 
and put a ragout of sweetbread to the chicken. 

Babbit Pie. 
Made in the same way, but make a forcemeat to 
cover the bottom of the dish, by pounding a quar- 
ter pound of boiled bacon with the livers of the rab- 
bits; some pepper and salt, some pounded mace, 
some chopped parsley, and an eschalot, thoroughly 
beaten together; and you may lay some thin slices 
of ready-dressed ham or bacon on the top of your 
rabbits. 

liaised French Pie. 

Make about 2 pounds of flour into a paste, as 
directed ; knead it well, and into the shape of a 
ball ; press your thumb into the centre, and work 
it by degrees into any shape (oval or round is the 
most general) till about five inches high; put it 
on a sheet of paper, and fill it with coarse flour 

lor bran ; roll out a covering for it about the same 
thickness as the sides; cement its sides with the 
yolk of egg; cut the edges quite even, and pinch 
it round with the finger and thumb; yolk-of-egg 

' it over with a paste-brush, and ornament it in any 
way as fancy may direct, with the same kind of 



paste. Bake it of a fine brown color, in a slow 
oven, and when done cut out the top, remove th« 
flour or bran, brush it quite clean, and fill it up 
with a fricassee of chicken, rabbit, or any other 
entree most convenient. Send it to table with » 
napkin under. 

Raised Ham Pie. 

Soak four or five hours a small ham ; wash and 
scrape it well; cut off the knuckle, and boil it for 
half an hour; then take it up and trim it very 
neatly. Take off the rind and put it into an oval 
stewpan, with a pint of Madeira or Sherry, and 
enough veal stock to cover it. Let it stew for two 
hours, or till three-parts done; take it out and ?et 
in a cold place; then raise a crust as in the fore- 
going receipt, large enough to receive it; put in 
the ham, and around it the veal forcemeat; cover 
and ornament. It will take about one hour and a 
half to bake in a slow oven. When done take off 
the cover, glaze the top, and pour round the fol- 
lowing sauce, viz.: take the liquor the ham was 
stewed in; skim it free from fat; thicken with a 
little flour and butter mixed together, a few drops 
of browning, and some caj'enne pepper. 

The above is a good way of dressing a small 
ham, and has a good effect cold for a supper. 

Raised Pork Pie. 
Make a raised crust, of a good size, with paste, 
about four inches high ; take the rind and chine- 
bone from a loin of pork, cut it into chops, beat 
them with a chopper, season them with pepper 
and salt and powdered sage, and fill your pie; put 
on the top and close it, and pinch it round the 
edge; rub it over with yolk of egg, and bake it 
two hours, with a paper over to prevent the crust 
from burning. When done, pour in some good 
gravy, with a little ready-mixed mustard and a 
teaspoonful of catsup. 

Scotch Minced Collops. 
Take 2 pounds of the fillet of beef, chopped 
very fine ; put it in a stewpan, and add to it 
pepper and salt and a little flour; add a little 
good gravy, with a little^ catsup and Harvey 
sauce, and let it stew for twenty minutes over a 
slow fire. Serve up very hot, garnished with fried 
sippet of bread. This quantity of beef makes a 
good-sized dish. 

Beefsteak Pudding. 
Get rump steaks, not too thick ; beat them with 
a chopper; cut them into pieces about half the 
size of your hand, and trim off all the skin, sinews, 
etc. ; have ready an onion peeled and chopped fine, 
likewise some potatoes peeled and cut into slices 
a quarter of an inch thick ; rub the inside of a 
basin or an oval plain mould with butter, sheet it 
with paste as directed for boiled puddings ; season 
the steaks with pepper, salt, and a little grated 
nutmeg; put in a layer of steak, then another of 
potatoes, and so on till it is full, occasionally 
throwing in part of the chopped onion; add to it 
half a gill of mushroom catsup, a tablespooiiful of 
lemon pickle, and half a gill of water or veal 
broth ; roll out a top, and close it well to prevent 
the water getting in ; rinse a clean cloth in hot 
water, sprinkle a little flour over it, and tie up the 
pudding; have ready a large pot of water boiling, 
put it in, and boil it two hours and a half; take 
it up, remove the cloth, turn it downwards in a 
deep dish, and when wanted take away the basin 
or mould. 

Vol nu Vent. 
Roll off tart paste till about the eighth of an 
inch thick; then with a tin cutter made for that 
purpose (about the size of the bottom of the dish 



212 



COOKERY. 



you intend sending to table), cut out the shnpe, 
and lay it on a baking plate with paper, rub it 
over with yolk of egg; roll out good puff-paste an 
inch thick, stamp it with the same cutter, and lay 
it on the tart paste, then take a cutter two sizes 
smaller, and press it in the centre nearly through 
the puff- paste; rub the top with yolk of egg and 
bake it in a quick oven about twenty minutes, of 
a light brown color; when done take out the paste 
inside the centre mark, preserving the top, put it 
on a dish in a warm place, and when wanted, fill 
it with a white fricassee chicken, rabbit, ragout of 
sweetbread, or any other entree you wish. 

To make a Peri'gord Pie. 
Take half a dozen partridges, and dispose of 
their legs in the same manner as is done with 
chickens, when intended to be boiled. Season 
them well with pepper, salt, a small quantity of 
cloves, and mace beaten fine. Cut 2 pounds of 
lean veal, and 1 pound of fat bacon into small 
bits, and put them into a stewpan with J a pound 
of butter, together with siime shallots, parsley, 
and thyme, all chopped together. Stew these till 
the meat appears sufficiently tender. Then season 
it in the same manner as directed for the part- 
ridges. Strain and pound the meat in a mortar 
till it is perfectly smooth, then mi.x the pulp in 
some of the liquor in which it has been stewed. 
The pie-crust being raised, and ready to receive 
the partridges, put them in with the above-men- 
tioned forcemeat over them, and over that lay 
some thin slices of bacon. Cover the pie with a 
thick lid, and be sure to close it well at the sides, 
to prevent the gravy from boiling out at the place 
where the joining is made, which would occasion 
the partridges to eat dry. This sized pie will re- 
quire three hours' baking, but be careful not to 
put it in a fierce heated oven. A pound of fresh 
truffles will add considerably to the merits of this 
excellent pie. 

Bee/steak and Oyster Pie. 

Cut 3 pounds of fillet of beef or rump steaks into 
large scallops, fry them quickly over a very brisk 
fire so as to brown them before they are half 
done; then place them on the bottom of the dish, 
leaving the centre open in two successive layers; 
fill the centre with four dozen oysters, previously 
parboiled and bearded, season with pepper and 
salt, and pour the following preparation over the 
whole. When the scallops of beef have been 
fried in a sauce or fryingpan, pour nearly all the 
grease out, and shake a tablespoonful of flour into 
it; stir this over the fire for one minute, and then 
add a pint of good gravy or broth, two tablespoons- 
ful of mushroom catsup, and an equal quantity 
of Harvey sauce, and the liquor of the oysters; 
stir the whole over the fire, and keep it boiling 
for a quarter of an hour. Half an hour after this 
sauce has been poured into the pie, cover it with 
puff paste in the usual way, bake it for an hour 
and a half, and serve. 

Chicken Pie, a la Peine. 
Cut 2 chickens into small members, as for fricas- 
see ; cover the bottom of the pie-dish with layers 
of scallops of veal and ham placed alternately; 
season with chopped mushrooms and parsley, 
pepper and salt, then add a little white sauce; 
ne.xt place in the dish the pieces of chicken in neat 
order, and round these put a plover's egg in each 
cavity; repeat the seasoning and the sauce, lay a 
few thin slices of dressed ham neatly trimmed on 
the top; cover the pie with puff paste, ornament 
this with pieces of the same cut into the form of 
leaves, etc., egg the pie over with a paste-brush, 
and bake it for one hour and a half. A very good 



chicken pie may be made by omitting the plover's 
eggs, mushrooms, ham. and the sauce; substitut- 
ing for these the yolk of eggs boiled hard, chop- 
ped parsley, bacon, and a little mushroom catsup, 
some common gravy, or even water. 

Beefsteak and Oyster Pudding. 
Line a two-quart pudding basin with some beef- 
suet paste ; fill this lining with a preparation simi- 
lar to that described for making beefsteak and 
oyster pie, except that the sauce must be more re- 
duced. When the pudding is filled, wet the edges 
of the paste round the top of the basin with a 
paste-brush dipped in water, cover it with a piece 
of suet-paste rolled out to the size of the basin, 
fasten it down by bearing all round the edge with 
the thumb, and then with the thumb and forefinger, 
twist the edges of the paste over and over so as 
to give it a corded appcarancfe. This pudding 
must be either steamed or boiled three hours j 
when done turn it out of the basin carefully, pour 
some rich brown gravy under it and serve. 

Kidney Pudding. 
Cut two pounds of sheep's or lamb's kidneys 
into scallops, put them into a basin with some 
chopped parsley, shallot, and a little thyme, and 
season with pepper and salt; then add a large 
gravyspoonful of good sauce, and the juice of half 
a lemon ; mix these ingredients well together. 
Line a basin with suet-paste, and fill the pudding 
with the foregoing preparation ; cover it in the 
usual way, steam or boil it for two hours and a 
half, and when sent to table pour under it some 
rich brown gravy, to which has been added a 
little Indian soy, and serve. 

Eggs, au Gratin. 
Boil the eggs hard, and when done take off the 
shells, cut them in slices, and set them aside on a 
plate. Next, put a large tablespoonful of white 
sauce into a stewpan to boil over the stove fire, and 
when it is sufiiciently reduced, add 2 ounces of 
grated Parmesan cheese, a small pat of butter, a 
little nutmeg, pepper, the yolks of 4 eggs, and 
the juice of half a lemon; stir this quickly over 
the stove until it begins to thicken, and then 
withdraw it from the fire. Place the eggs in 
close circular rows, in the dish, spread some of 
the preparation in between each layer, observing 
that the whole must be dished up in the form of a 
dome ; smooth the surface over with the remainder 
of the sauce, strew some fried bread-crumbs 
mixed with grated Parmesan cheese over the top, 
put some fried croutons of bread or pastry round 
the base, and set them in the oven to bake for 
about ten minutes, then send to table. 

Omelet, with fine Herbs. 

Break 6 eggs in a basin, to these add J a gill 
of cream, a small pat of butter broken in small 
pieces, a spoonful of chopped parsley, some pep- 
per and salt; then put 4 ounces of fresh butter 
in an omelet-pan on the stove fire; while the 
butter is melting, whip the eggs, etc., well to- 
gether until they become frothy ; as soon as the 
butter begins to fritter, pour the eggs into the 
pan, an<l stir the omelet as the eggs appear to set 
and become firm ; when the whole has become par- 
tially set, roll the omelet into the form of an oval 
cushion, allow it to acquire a golden color on one 
side over the fire, and then turn it out on its dish; 
pour a little thin sauce, or half glaze under it, 
and serve. 

Omelet, with Parmesan Cheese. 

Break 6 eggs into a basin, then add a gill of 
cream, 4 ounces of grated Parmesan cheese, .-(imo 
pepper, and a little salt; beat the whole well 



SAUCES. 



213 



together, and finish the omelet as previously 
directed. 

Egys a la Dauphine. 

Boil 10 eggs hard, take dfi' the shells, and cut 
each egg into halves, lengthwise; scoop the yolks 
out, and put them into the mortar, and place the 
whites on a dish. Add 4 ounces of butter to the 
yolks of eggs, also the crumb of a French-roll 
soaked in cream, some chopped par.sley, grated 
nutmeg, pepper and salt, and 2 ounces of grated 
Paruie.san cheese; pound the whole well together, 
and then add 1 whole egg and the yolks of 2 
others; mix these well together by pounding, and 
use this preparation for filling the whites of eggs 
kept in reserve for the purpose, smooth them over 
with the blade of a small knife dipped in water, and 
as the}' are tilled place them on a dish. Next, 
with some of the remaining part of the prep;ira- 
tion, spread a thin foundation at the bottom of 
the dish, and proceed to raise the eggs up in 3 or 
4 tiers, to a pyramidal form, a single egg crown- 
ing the whole ; 4 hard-boiled yolks of eggs must 
then be rubbed through a wire-sieve, over the 
enti-eiiietx for them to fall upon in shreds, like 
vermicelli ; place a border of fried ciontotis of 
bread round the base, and set the eggs in the oven 
for about twenty minutes, that they may be baked 
of a bright yellow color; when done withdraw 
them, pour some thin Bechamel round the eiitre- 
mSta, and serve. 

Pontiff's Sauce. 

Soak slices of veal, ham, sliced onions, carrots, 
parsnips, and a white head of celery; add a glass 
of white wine, as much good broth, a clove of 
garlic, 4 shallots, 1 clove, a little coriander, and 
2 slices of peeled lemons. Boil on a slow tire till 
the me.'it is done; skim it and sift in a sieve; add 
a little catsup, and a small quantity of fine chop- 
ped parsley, just before it is used. 

N^Hu's iS'nuce. 
Put slices of veal and ham in a stewpan, with 
a spoonful of oil, 2 mushrooms, a bunch of parsley, 
a clove of garlic, 2 heads of cloves, i a leaf of 
laurel; let it catch a little on the fire: then add 
some good broth, a little gravy, and some white 
wine, simmer it for some time, skim it well, and 
sift in a sieve. When ready add 2 or 3 green 
shallots, and a dozen of pistachio-nuts, whole. 

Sattce Piqnaiite. 

Put a bit of butter with 2 sliced onions into a 
stewpan, with a carrot, a parsnip, a little thyme, 
laurel, basil, 2 cloves, 2 shallots, a clove of gjirlic, 
and some parsley ; turn the whole over the tire 
until it be well colored; then shake in some flour, 
and moisten it with some broth, and a spoonful 
of vinegar. Let it bod over a slow fire; skim and 
strain it through a sieve. Season it with salt and 
pepper, and serve it with any dish required tc be 
aeightened. 

Sauce for Veal. 

Take the bones of cold roast or boiled veal, 
dredge them well with flour, and put them into a 
stewpan, with a pint and a half of broth or water, 
a small onion, a little grated or finely minced 
lemon-peel, or the peel of a quarter of a small 
lemon [lared as thin as possible, half a teaspoon- 
ful of salt, and a blade of pounded mace ; to thicken 
it, rub a tablespoonful of flour into hnif an ounce 
of butter; stir it into the broth, and set it on the 
fire, and let it boil very gently for about half an 
hour, strain through a tammis or sieve, and it is 
ready to put to the veal to warm up, which is to 
be done by placing the stewpan by the side of the 
fire. Squeeze in half a lemon, and cover the bot- 
tom of the dish with toasted bread sippets cut 



into triangles, and garnish the dish with slices of 
ham or bacon. 

Bechamel, or White Sarice. 
Cut in square pieces, half an inch thick, 2 pounds 
of lean veal, J a pound of lean ham, melt in a 
stewpan 2 ounces of butter; when melted let the 
whole simmer until it is ready to catch at the bot- 
tom (it requires great attention, as. if it happen to 
catch at the bottom of the stewpan, it will spoil 
the look of your sauce), then add to it 3 tal)le- 
spoonsful of flour; when well mixed, add to it 3 
pints of broth or water, pour a little at a time, 
that the thickening be smooth, stir it until it boils, 
put the stewpan on the corner of the stove to boil 
gently for two hours, season it with 4 cloves, 1 
onion, 12 peppercorns, a blade of mace, a few 
mushrooms, and a fagot made of parsley, a sprig 
of thyme, and a bay-leaf. Let the sauce reduce 
to a quart, skim the fat ofi", and strain it through 
a tammis cloth. 

Kitchener's (Dr.) Sauce, Superlative. 

Claret or Port wine, and mushroom catsup, a 
pint of each; i a (lint of walnut or other pickle 
liquor; pounded anchovies, 4 ounces; fresh lemon- 
peel, pared very thin. 1 ounce; peeled and sliced 
shallots, the same ; scraped horse-radish, 1 ounce ; 
allspice and black pepper powdered, i an ounce 
each ; Cayenne, 1 drachm, or curry powder, 3 
drachms; celery-seed, bruised, a drachm. All 
avoirdupois weight. Put these into a wide mouth 
bottle, stop it close, shake it up every day for a 
fortnight, and strain it, when some think it im- 
proved by the addition of a quarter pint soy, or 
thick browning, and you will have a "delicious 
double relish." 

Sauce Ilalienne. 

Put a piece of butter into a stewpan, with 
mushrooms, onion, parsley, and ^ of a laurel-leaf, 
all cut fine; turn the whtde over the fire for some 
time, and shake in a little flour; moisten it with 
a glass of white wine, and as much good broth; 
add salt, pepper, and a little mace: beat all fine. 
Let it boil half an hour; then skim away all the 
fat, and serve it up. A fine flavor may be given 
to it whilst boiling, by putting in a bunch of sweet 
herbs, which take out before the dish is served up. 
Ragout of Asparagus. 

Scrape 100 of grass clean; put them into cold 
water; cut them as far as is good and green; 
chop small 2. heads of endive, 1 young lettuce, 
and 1 onion. Put i of a pound of butter into the 
stewpan, and when it is melted, put in the grass 
with the other articles. Shake them well, and 
when they have stewed 10 minutes, season them 
with a little pepper and salt; strew in a little 
flour, shake them al)out, and then pour on i a pint 
of gravy. Stew the whole till the sauce is very 
good and thick, and then pour all into the dish. 
Garnish with a few of the small tops of the grass. 
Ragout of Mushrooms. 

Broil on a gridiron some large peeled mush- 
rooms, an J clean olF the inside; when the outside 
is brown, put them into a stewpan with a suflS- 
cient quantity of water to cover them; when they 
have stewed 10 minutes, put to them 1 spoonful 
of white wine, the same of brovvning, and a little 
vinegar. Thicken it wiih butter and flour, give a 
gentle boil, and serve it up with sippets round tho 
dish. 

Ragout of Artichoke Buttons. 

Soak them in warm water for two or three hours, 
changing the water ; then put them into the stew- 
pan with some good gravy, mushroom catsup or 
powder. Add a little Cayenne pepper and salt 



214 



COOKERY. 



when they boil ; thicken them with a little flour, 
put them into the dish with sauce over them, and 
serve them hot. 

Bagout of Calves' Sweetbrenda. 
Scald 2 or 3 sweetbreads, cut each into 3 
or 4 pieces, and put them into a stewpan with 
mufshroiims, butter, and a fagot of sweet herbs; 
8oak these together a moment, then add broth 
and gravy; simmer on a slow fire, skim the sauce 
welt, and reduce it; season with pepper, salt and 
lemon-juice when ready. 

Bngovt of Roots. 

Cut carrots and parsnips to the length of a fin- 
ger, and of much the same thickness; boil them 
till half done in water, put them into a stewpan 
with small bits of ham, chopped parsley, and 
shallots, pepper and salt, a glass of wine and 
broth ; let them stew slowly until the broth is re- 
duced pretty thick, and add the squeeze of a lemon 
when ready to serve. Forreaigre, instead of ham, 
use mushrooms, and make a mixture beat up with 
yolks of eggs and maigre broth. Celery is done 
much the same, only it is cut smaller. If these 
roots are to be served in a boat for sauce, boil 
them tender in the broth- pot, or in water, cut them 
into the desired length, and serve with a good 
gravy or white sauce. 

Cottage Cheese. 

Take 1 or more quarts of sour milk, put it in a 
warm place, and let it remain until the whey sep- 
arates from the curd; then pour it into a three- 
cornered bag, hang.it up, and let it drain until 
every particle of whey has dripped from it ; then 
turn it out, and mash with a spoon until very tine, 
after which add a little milk or cream, with salt to 
taste ; before sending to table (if liked) dredge a 
little black pepper over the top. 

Maitre d'Hdtel Buffer. 

Put J of a pound of fresh butter upon a plate, 
the juice of two lemons, and 2 large tahlespoons- 
ful of chopped parsley, i a teaspoonful of salt, 
and half that quantity of black pepper; mix all 
well together, and keep in a cool place for use. 
Mushroom Catsup. 

Clean the mushrooms by wiping them, and cut- 
ting off the ends of the stems. Put them in a deep 
pan, and sprinkle salt over each layer. Let them 
remain for 2 days. Then put them in a sieve, and 
strain off all the juice. Pour it into your preserv- 
ing-kettle, allow 12 cloves, 12 allspice, 2 or 3 
pieces of mace, and ^ of a small nutmeg, grated. 
Let it boil for fifteen minutes, remove it from the 
fire, and let it stand for two or three days. Strain 
and bottle for use. 

Tomato Catsup. 

Take i a peck of tomatoes, wash and slice them ; 
put them in your preserving-kettle, and let them 
stew gently until quite soft, but do not stir them. 
Strain the juice through a sieve, pour it back into 
the kettle. Add 24 cloves, i an ounce of allspice, 
i an ounce of mace ; salt and Cayenne to your 
taste. Set it on the fire, and let it boil until re- 
duced to half the original quantity. The next 
day strain out the spice, and to every pint of juice 
add i gill of vinegar, and bottle for use. 

Wine Sauce. 
Two ounces of butter, 2 teaspoonsful of flour, i 
a pint of boiling water, 1 gill of Madeira wine, i 
a pound of sugar, A a grated nutmeg. Mix the 
flour and butter together; pour in the boiling 
water; let it boils a few minutes; then add the 
sugar and wine. Just before going to table add 
the nutmeg. Serve hot. 



Cream Bechnwel Sauce. 
Put 6 ounces of fresh butter into a middle-sized 
stewpan; add 4 ounces of sifted flour, some nut- 
meg, a few peppercorns, and a little salt; knead 
the whole well together; then cut 1 carrot and 1 
onion into very thin slices, throw them' into the 
stewpan, and also a bouquet of parsley and thyme, 
tied together; nest moisten these with a quart of 
white broth and a pint of cream; and having 
stirred the sauce over the stove-fire for about i an 
hour, pass it through the tammy into the basin 
for use. This sauce is not expensive, neither does 
it require much time or trouble to make. It is 
useful as a substitute for other white sauces, and 
also for many other purposes. 

Poor Man's Sauce. 
Chop an onion very fine, put it into a stewpan 
with a small piece of butter, and gently fry the 
onion on the fire until it assumes a light-brown 
color; then add a tablespoonful of white-wine 
vinegar, and a pinch of pepper ; allow these to 
simmer for 3 minutes, and then add a small 
ladleful of blond of veal or consomtue ; let the 
whole be reduced to half the original quantity ; 
and, just before using the sauce, throw in a spoon- 
ful of chopped and blanched parsley. 

Poivrade Sauce. 

Take 1 carrot, 1 onion, and 1 head of celery; 
cut them into very small dice, and place them in 
a stewpan, with 2 ounces of raw lean of ham cut 
similarly, some thyme, and 1 bay-leaf, 1 blade of 
mace, a few peppercorns, and some parsley; fry 
these with a little butter, of a light-brown color; 
moisten with 2 glasses of sherry and 1 of French 
vinegar; reduce the above to one-half its quan- 
tity, and then add a small ladleful of brown sauce 
and a little coiisoriime ; stir the sauce till it boils, 
and then set it by the side to clear itself; skim it, 
and pass it through a tammy to keep ready 
for use. 

Indian Curry Sauce. 

Take 2 large onions, 1 carrot, and 1 head of 
celery, and slice them very thin; place these with 
2 ounces of fresh butter in a stewpan, and fry . 
them over a slow fire till the onions are nearly 
melted, but without becoming brown; add 3 
blades of mace, some thyme, and 1 bay-leaf, 1 
bouquet of parsley, and 2 tablespoonsful of Cooks' 
or Bruce's meat curry paste,! tablespoonful of curry 
powder, and as much browning or flour as may be 
required to thicken the quantity of sauce needed; 
moisten with some good broth or cotisoiiimi, and 
stir the sauce on the fire till it boils; then set it 
by the side to clear itself of the butter, etc. Hav- 
ing skimmed and reduced the sauce to a proper con- 
sistency, pass it through a tammy (extracting the 
parsley), as for a puree, and take it up ready for 
use, or add it to whatever kind of meat is pre- 
pared for the curry; observing that the broth 
thereof should be used for making the sauce. 

Brown Oyster Sauce. 
Prepare this precisely as the last sauce, but, in- 
stead of the cream, use an equal quantity of brown 
gravy. Brown oyster sauce is a very desirable 
accessory to beefsteaks, beef-pudding, beefsteak 
pie, broiled slices of cod-fish, and various other 
plain dressed dishes. 

German Sweet Sauce. 
Stew 6 ounces of dried cherries in 2 glasses of 
red wine, together with some bruised cinnamon, 
cloves and lemon-peel, for 20 minutes on a slow 
fire; pass the whole through a tammy, and put it 
into a stewpan with a little reduced brown sauce 
and 6 ounces of stewed prunes. 



SAUCES, ETC. 



215 



This sauce is in great request for German dishes ; 
it improves the flavor of braized venison in its va- 
ried forms of preparation, and is preferred by 
many for that purpose to Poivrade or Piquante 
Bauce. 

Cherry Sauce. 

Put a pot of black currant jelly into a stewpan, 
together with 6 ounces of dried cherries, a small 
gtick of cinnamon, and 12 cloves tied up in a 
pieoe of muslin ; moisten with ^ pint of red wine, 
and set the whole to simmer gently on a slow fire 
for 10 minutes; then take out the cinnamon and 
cloves, and send to table. 

This kind of sauce is well adapted for roast 
hare or venison. 

Red Currant Jelly Snnce for Veiii'son, 
Bruise 1 stick of cinnamon and 12 cloves, and 
put them into a small stewpan with 2 ounces of 
sugar, and the peel of one lemon pared off very 
thin, and perfectly free from any portion of white 
pulp ; moisten with 3 glasses of Port wine, and set 
the whole to simmer gently on the fire fur i of an 
hour; then strain it through a sieve into a small 
stewpan, containing a pot of red currant jelly. 
Just before sending the same to table set it on the 
fire to boil, in order to melt the currant jelly, so 
that it may mix with the essence of spice, etc. 

Fried Bread Sauce. 
Mince a little lean ham, and put it into a small 
stew|)an, with 1 chopped shallot, some grated nut- 
meg, mignonette- pepper, and ^ a pint of good 
gravy; simmer the whole on the stove-fire till re- 
duced to half, then strain it with pressure through 
a tammy into another small stewpan, containing 4 
tablespoonl'uls of fried bread-crumbs .of a light- 
brown color, and some chopped parsley, and a 
little essence of chicken, and the juice of i a 
lemon ; stir the sauce till it boils, and serve. 
This kind of sauce is appropriate for all small 
birds, such as wheat-ears, ortolans, ruffs and 
reeves, etc., etc. 

Brown Gravy for Roast Veal. 
Place 4 ounces of fresh butter in a stewpan 
and knead it with a good tablespoonful of flour: 
add a ladleful of good brown gravy, some essence 
of mushrooms or mushroom catsup, a little grated 
nutmeg, and pepper ; stir the sauce on the stove, 
and keep it gently boiling for ten minutes. If 
it becomes too thick add a little more gravy, 
so as to keep it of the same consistency as any 
other sauce; finish with a little lemon -juice. If 
there is no gravy or essence of mushrooms at 
hanil, use in their stead a ladleful of water, a piece 
of glaze, some mushroom catsup, and a little In- 
dian soy ; these will answer nearly the same 
purpose. 

Plain Curry Sauce, 
Put 2 ounces of fresh butter into a stewpan, 
together with rather more than an ounce of (lour 
and a good tablespoonful of curry-paste or pow- 
der; knead these well together, then add a little 
shred carrot, celery and onions; moisten with 
about a pint of good strong consumme; stir the 
»auce on the fire until it boils, and after haviuic 
kept it boiling for about twenty minutes, pass it 
through the tammy, as for a puree; then remove 
the sauce into a bain-marie or stewpan, to be used 
when required. This economical method of mak- 
ing curry sauce should only be resorted to in cases 
of emergency or necessity, otherwise it is desirable 
to follow the directions contained in Indian Curry 
Sauce. 

Caper Sauce for Boihd Mutton. 
To about half a pint of good butter sauce add a 



tablespoonful of capers, with a little pepper and 
salt. 

Mayonnaise Sauce. 

Place two raw yolks of eggs in a round-bottomed 
basin, and set this in a deep saucepan containing 
some pounded ice; add a little pepper and salt to 
the yolks, and proceed to work them quickly with 
the back part of the bowl of a wooden spoon, 
moistening at intervals with salad-oil and vine- 
gar, which must, however, be sparingly used at 
first, and gradually increased as you proceed, 
until by this means the quantity of sauce desired 
is produced; add a little lemon-juice to make the 
sauce white. 

Boar's Head Sauce. 

Grate a stick of horse-radish, and place it in a 
basin with 4 ounces of re<l currant-jelly, a spoon- 
ful of mixed mustard, the grated rind of an orange 
and lemon, together with the juice of both ; 2 
ounces of pounded sugar, a tablespoonful of vine- 
gar, and 2 tablespoonfuls of salad-oil. Mix these 
ingredients thoroughly together and serve. 
Midlaga-tawny Soup. 

Cut 4 pounds of a breast of veal into pieces, 
about two inches by one; put the trimmings into 
a stewpan with 2 quarts of water, 12 corns of 
black pepper, and the same of allspice; when 
it boils skim it clean, and let it boil an hour and 
a half, then strain it off; while it is boiling, fry of 
a nica brown in butter the bits of veal and 4 
onions ; when they are done put the broth to them, 
and put it on the fire ; when it boils skim it clean, let 
it simmer half an hour, then mix 2 spoonfuls of 
curry and the same of flour with a little cold 
water, and a teaspoonful of salt; add these to the 
soup, and siunner it gently till the veal is quite 
tender, and it is ready; or bone a couple of fowls 
or rabbits, and stew them in the manner directed 
above for the veal ; and you may put in a bruised 
shallot, and some mace and ginger, instead of 
black pepper and allspice. 

A Turven of Hodye-Podge of Different Sorts. 
Take either a brisket of beef, mutton, steaks, 
whole pigeons, rabbits cut in quarters, veal or 
poultry ; boil a long time over a slow fire in a short 
liquid, with some onions, carrots, parsnips, tur- 
nips, celery, a bunch of parsley, green shallots, 1 
clove of garlic, 3 of spices, a laurel leaf, thyme, 
a little basil, large thick sausages, and thin broth 
or water; when done drain the meat and place it 
upon a dish intermixed with roots, sift and skim 
the sauce, reduce soma of it to a glaze, if desired; 
glaze the meat with it, then add some gravy oa 
the same stewpan, and broth sufficient to make 
sauce enough with pepper and salt; sift it in a 
sieve, and serve upon the meat. If brisket of beef 
is used, let it be half done before putting in the 
roots, which should be scalded first, as it makes 
the broth more palatable. 

Hotch-Potch. — (Meg Bod's Recipe.) 
Make the stock of sweet fresh mutton. Grate 
the zest of 2 or 3 large carrots, slice down also 
young turnips, j'oung onions, lettuce and parsley. 
Have a full quart of these things when sliced, and 
another of green peas, and sprays of cauliflower. 
Put in the vegetables, withholding half the peas 
till near the end of the process. Cut down 4 
pounds of ribs of lamb into small chops trimming 
off superfluous fat, and put them into the soup. 
Boil well and skim carefully; add the remaining 
peas, white pepper and salt, and when thick 
enough serve the chops in the tureen with the 
hotch-potch. 

Winter Soup. 
Make a good brown stock of a small shin of 



216 



COOKERT. 



beef, with vegetables, carrots, turnips, onions and 
eelery ; when sufficiently boiled the vegetables 
must be taken out lohole, and the soup seasoned 
yrith pepper and salt and a little Cayenne to taste, 
also a little Harvey sauce and cnt.^up ; then fry 
gome mutton cutlets, the quantity required for the 
number, a pale brown, add them to the soup with 
the vegetables cut up small. 

Vermicelli and Vegetable Sovj), 
Five pounds of lean beef, 2 heads of celery, 2 
carrots, 2 turnips, 4 onions, 1 bunch of sweet 
herbs (in a muslin bag), 4 an ounce of white pep- 
per, i an ounce of allspice, a little salt, 5 pints of 
water. To be boiled six hours, well skimmed and 
strained from the vegetables, etc. Next day 1 
carrot, 1 turnip, the hearts of the 2 heads of celery, 
to be boiled in water after being cut into dice, and 
added to the soup with J of a pound of vermicelli. 

Liehig's Broth. 
Cut i a pound of freshly-killed beef or chicken 
into small pieces. Add to it IJ pounds of water, 
in which are dissolved 4 drops of muriatic acid 
and I of a drachm of salt. Mix all well together, 
and let them stand for an hour. Then strain 
through a hair sieve, but without pressing or 
squeezing. Pour it again and again through the 
sieve until clear. Pour i a pound of pure water 
overwhiit is left on the sieve. This broth is to be 
given cold to the sick. 

Curry. 

Take the skin off 2 chickens; carve, wash and 
dry them ; put them in a stewpan with a teacupful 
of water, salt, and a few onions, and stew them 
(rith a few green peas, or the egg-plant, till ten- 
der; then take a lump of butter the size of a 
pigeon's egg, a little mace, Cayenne pepper to 
taste, a teaspoonful each of fresh turmeric and 
cardamoms, pounded with a shallot in a marble 
mortar; roll these ingredients with a little flour 
in the butter, and dissolve them in the stew. If 
the curry is to be brown, it must be fried a little 
before the curry-ball is added to the gravy. 

Another. — Carve a pair of fat young fowls with 
a sharp knife, precisely as if at table; dust them 
with flour, fry them in butter till they are well 
browned, lay them in a stewpan, with slips of 4 
large onions; add boiling water to the browning, 
etc., left in the pan, give it a boil, and pour the 
whole over your chicken; if not liquor enough to 
rather more than cover it, add hot water; put on 
the lid of your pan and SQt it on hot coals. In 
half an hour take out a cup of the gravy, mix it 
well with a tablespoonful of curry powder, and 
throw it again into the pan ; stir it well round ; 
taste and see if your gravy is warm, if not add 
Cayenne; bubble the whole quietly till the fowls 
are tender, serve in a deep dish with boiled rice. 

Malay's Curry. 

Proceed as above ; fry the onions, pieces of 
fowls, and a couple of egg-plnnts in slices: put 
the whole in your stewpan with the milk of 2 
cocoa-nuts ; grate the flesh, put it into a linen 
bag and squeeze out the juice, which put in the 
saucepan likewise; add the curry and finish as 
above. 

Carry Powder. 

Coriander seed, 3 ounces; turmeric, 5 ounces; 
black pepper, mustard and ginger, eai'h 1 ounce; 
lesser Ciirdamora seeds, ^ an ounce; Cayenne pep- 
per, i an ounce; cinnamon and cummin seed, i 
of an ounce each. Dry them well ; reduce them 
separately to a powder; pass them through a fine 
sieve, and mix them well. It .«hould be kept in a 
closely-stopped bottle in a dry place. 



White Soup. 

Stew a knuckle of veal and a scrag of muttoa 
three or four hours, with spice; strain it; blanch 
J a pound of sweet almonds; beat them with a 
spoonful or two of cream to prevent their oiling; 
put them with a pint of cream into the soup, stir 
it and give it a boil; strain it through a cloth, 
squeeze the almonds as dry as possible, heat it 
again, and thicken it as a custard with eggs; put 
a toasted roll in the tureen, and pour the soup 
over it. If there is a breast of cold fowl or veal, 
less almonds will do. If the meat be stewed and 
strained the day before, it does much better. 
'J'o make Jelly Broth. 

Put into the stewpan slices of beef, veal fillet, 
a fowl, and one or two partridges, according to 
the quantity required. Put it on the fire without 
liquid until it catches a little, and add the meat 
now and then. To give it a proper color, add some 
good clear boiling broth and scalded roots, as car- 
rots, turnips, parsnips, parsley roots, celery, large 
onions, two or three cloves, a small bit of nutmeg 
and whole pepper. Boil it on a slow fire about 
four or five hours with attention, and add a few 
cloves of garlic or eschalots, and a small fagot or 
bunch of parsley and thyme tied together. When 
it is of a good yellow color, sift it; it serves for 
sauces, and adds strength to the soups. 
Preparation of Calf's Udder. 

The udder is an elongated piece of fat-looking 
substance attached to the inner part of a leg of 
veal. It is easily separated from the meat by a 
knife, and should then be bound round with twine 
in the shape cf a sausage, so as to prevent it from 
falling to pieces on taking it out of the stockpot; 
the udder so tied up is then put into the siockpot 
to boil. Having allowed the dressed udder time 
to cool and get firm, either on the ice or otherwise, 
pare off the outside with a knife, cut it into small 
pieces, and pound it in a mortar; then rub it 
through a wire sieve with a wooden spoon, and 
put it on a plate upon the ice to cool, in order that 
it may be quite firm when required for use. 

Note. — The two foregoing preparations being 
the basis of a great variety of forcemeats, it is 
essential that they should be well understood be- 
fore attempting the following more complicated 
amalgamations. It should also be observed, that 
all meat and fish intended for quenelles must be 
forced through a wire sieve by rubbing it vigoi 
ously with the back of a wooden spoon, and then 
be kept on ice till used. 

Forcemeat of Liver and Ham, /or liaised Pies. 

Take the whole or part of a light-colored calf's 
liver, or several fat livers of any kind of poultry, 
if to be obtained. If calfs liver be used, cut it 
into rather small square pieces, and, if time per- 
mit, steep them in cold spring-water, in order to 
extract the blood, so that the forcemeat may be 
whiter. Take the pieces of liver out of the water, 
and place them upon a clean rubber, to drain the 
water from them. Meanwhile cut some fat ham 
or bacon (in equal proportion to the liver) into 
square pieces, put them into a sauce-pan on a brisk 
fire to fry ; after which add the pieces of liver, and 
fry the whole of a light-brown color; season with 
Cayenne pepper and salt, and a little prepared 
aromatic spice, some chopped mushrooms, parsley, 
and three shallots. After this take the pieces of 
liver and ham out of the pan, lay them on a chop- 
ping-board, and chop them fine; then put them 
into a mortar with the remaining contents of the 
pan ; pound the whole thoroughly, and rub it 
through a wire sieve on to an earthen dish. This 
kind of forcemeat, or farco, is an excellent ingre^ 
dient in making raised pies. 



SOUPS. 



217 



Spring Soup. 

Take 4 carrots and as many turnips, scraped 
and washed; scoop them into the form of small 
olives or |)eas, with a vegetable scoop of either 
shape; add the white part of 2 heads of celery, 
24 small onions (without the green stalk), and 1 
head of firm white cauliflower, cut into small 
flowerets. Blanch or parboil the foregoing in 
boiling water for three minutes, strain them on a 
sieve, and then throw them into 3 quarts of bright 
coiisiiiiiiiie of fowl. Let the whole boil gently for 
half an hour by the side of the stove fire; then 
add the white leaves of 2 cabbage-lettuces (pre- 
viously stamped out with a round cutter the size 
of a sliilling), a handful of sorrel-leaves, snipped 
or cut like the lettuces, a few leaves of tarragon 
and chervil, and a small piece of sugar. Let these 
continue to boil gently until done. When about 
to send the soup to table, put into the tureen half 
a pint of young green peas, an equal quantity of 
asparagus-heads boiled green, and a handful of 
small crSiitiDis d In ditcheHse, prepared in the fol- 
lowing manner: Cut the crust off a rasped French 
roll into strips ; stamp or cut out these with a 
rouml tin or steel cutter into small pellets, about 
the size of a dime, and dry them in the oven to 
be ready for use. Before sending the soup to 
table, taste it to ascertain whether it be sufficiently 
seasoned. 

Julienne Soup. 

Take .3 red carrots of a large size, as many 
sound turnips, and the white parts of the same 
number of leeks, heads of celery, and onions. Cut 
all these vegetables into fine shreds an inch long; 
put them into a convenient-sized stewpan, ;vith 2 
ounces of fresh butter, a little salt, and a teuspoon- 
ful of pounded sugar. Simmer these vegetables on 
a slow stuve fire, taking care they do not burn. 
When they become slightly brown add 3 quarts 
of veal gravy or light-colored consomme ; let the 
soup boil, skim all the butter off as it rises to 
the surfice, and, when the vegetables are done, 
throw in the leaves of two cabbage-lettuces and a 
handful of sorrel, shred like the carrots, etc. ; add 
a few leaves of tarragon and chervil. Boil the 
whole for ten minutes longer, taste the soup in 
order to ascertain whether the seasoning is cor- 
rect, and serve. 

^co^c^ Broth. 

Take a neck of fresh mutton ; trim it the same 
as for cutlets ; take the scrag and trimmings, with 
2 carrots, 3 turnips, 2 heads of celery, 2 onions, a 
bunch of parslej', and a sprig of thyme, and with 
these mjike some mutton broth, filling up with 
either broth from the common stockpot or with 
water. While the mutton broth is boiling, cut up 
the neck of mutton, previously trimmed fur the 
purpose, into chops, which should have the super- 
fluous skin and fat pared away, and place them in 
a three-quart stewpan, together with the red or 
outer part of 2 carrots, 3 turnips, 2 leeks, 1 onion, 
and 2 heads of celery — the whole ot these to be 
cut in the form of very small dice ; add 6 ounces 
of Scotch barley, previously washed and parboiled, 
and then pour on to the whole the broth made 
from the scrag, etc, when strained and the fat re- 
moved. Allow the soup thus far prepared to boil 
gently until the chops and vegetables be thor- 
oughly done. Five minutes before sending: the 
soup to table throw into it a tablespoonful of 
chopped and blanched parsley. Be s])aring in 
the use of salt, so as not to overpower the simple 
but sweet flavor which characterizes this broth. 

Hodge-Podge. 
Make the mutton broth as shown in the pre- 



ceding directions, and in addition to its contents 
add a pint and a half of green peas (either mar- 
rowfats or Prussian-blues). Allow the soup to 
boil gently until the ingredients be thoroughly 
done, then mi.\ in with them one pint of puree 
of green spinach and parsely; taste to ascertain 
that the seasoning be correct, and serve. 

Lettuce and Whole-Pea Soup. 
Pick, wash and blanch a dozen white-heart 
cabbage-lettuces; cut them open and spread them 
on a clean napkin ; season them with pepper 
and salt; then put two together face to face and 
proceed to tie them up with twine. Cover the 
bottom of a stewpan with thin layers of fat bacon 
and place the lettuce thereon ; pour over them 
some broth from the boiling stockpot, over which 
Iny a round of buttered paper, place the lid on 
the stewpan, start them to boil on the fire, and 
then place them on a slackened stove to simmer 
gently for about an hour, after which drnin the 
lettuces on a clean napkin, untie them, and after 
having cut them into inch lengths lay them in 
the soup-tureen, together with a pint of young 
green peas boiled for the purpose and a small pinch 
of pepjier. Take every particle of fat off the broth 
in which the lettuces have been braized and add 
it to the lettuces and peas alrendy in the tureen, 
over which pour 2 quarts of bright, strong con- 
somme of fowl; ascertain that the soup is pala- 
table, and having thrown in a handful of duchess's 
crusts, send to table. 

Turtle Soup. 
Procure a fine, lively, fat turtle, weighing about 
120 pounds, fish of this weight being considered 
the best, as their fat is not liable to be impreg- 
nated with that disagreeable, strong flavor ob- 
jected to in fish of larger size. On the other 
hand, turtles of very small size seldom possess 
suflicient fat or substance to make them worth 
dressing. When time permits kill the turtle over- 
night, that it may be left to bleed in a cool pla^e 
till the next morning, when at an early hour it 
should be cut up for scalding, that being the first 
part of the operation. If, however, the turtle is 
required for immediate use, to save time the fish 
may be scalded as soon as it is killed. The turtle 
being ready for cutting up, lay it on its back, and 
with a large kitchen-knife separate the fat or 
belly-shell from the back by making an incision 
all round the inner edge of the shell ; when all 
the fleshy parts adhering to the shell have been 
carefully cut away, it may be set aside. Then 
detach the intestines by running the sharp edge 
of a knife closely along the spine of the fish, 
and remove them instantly in a pail to be thrown 
away. Cut off the fins and separate the fleshy 
parts, which place on a dish by themselves till 
wanted. Take ptirticular care of every particle 
of the green fat, which lies chiefly at the sockets 
of the fore-fins, and more or less all round the in- 
terior of the fish, if in good condition. Let this 
fat, which, when in a healthy state, is elastic and 
of a bluish color while raw, be steeped for sev- 
eral hours in cold spring-water, in order that it 
may be thoroughly cle:insed of all impurities; 
then with a meat-saw divide the upper and under 
shells into pieces of convenient size to handle, 
and having put them with the fins and head into 
a large vessel containing boiling water, proceed 
quickly to scald them; by this means they will 
be separated from the homy substance which 
covers them, which will then be easily removed. 
They must then be put into a larger stockpot 
nearly fil+ed with fresh hot w.tter and left to con- 
tinue boiling by the side of the stove-fire untii 



2IH 



(lOOKHlUV. 



Mio ));liiliiiiiiiii niiliFiliinoo Hit|iiiriil«H oiinily IVmn llii^ 

llCIIIIVI. I'ltICK lIlK |I)I>C'I<M (>r hllllli OIII'I'lllHv ll|inll 

oloiiii iliKlion mill |iiil tliriii ill llio liiiiliT III K<'l 
iiiilil : lliiiy dIiiiuIiI Until Iw nil. up iiilii |iIi'iii<n 
liliiiiili nil liii'li mill II iiiiir Ni|iiiii'«, wlilnh piroKN mil 
til lio lliiiillv |iiil lull! IliK KMiip wlirii ll iH iii'iii'ly 
lliiinliKil. I'lil lliK liiinrM l,n,<li liilo llm lirulli In 
linil nil lumr lunjior, I'lif l.lio ilniililn piitpiiBii nC i>x 
trnotliiK oil IIk'Ii' kiivih' iiiuI In oll'i'iil llii< iriliirllnli 
ol' IliP liii'llo linilli. wIiIkIi In In Ixt iihkiI lor MUu^ 
lip llio liiilli< nliiiiKpnl lii>ii'iirirl'. til inilri In Miivr 
tiiiir, wliilo llio iiliiivo ill III iipiM III inn llio liiillo 
uliioli or i<ii>infiiiii)tr- ulioiild lio ]iri'|iiiroil iiH rolliiwN: 
Willi I oiinoi'K of IionIi liiillor MpromI llio liolloiii 
ol' nil IS |L;nlloil Mlnolipol; llioii pinoo in il .'I poiiiiilN 
III' inw liniii oiil III nliooK ; o\ oi' lliimo piil III pminilfi 
III' loK ol' liool' mill UiiiioKloH ol' voni, i ol.l lioiui 
(iil'lor linviliK I'oniovoil lliolr IIIIoIn, wliioli mo lo 
llP KopI lor lliiiliinK llio i/ilr|ir//n> I'or llio Noiip) ; 
ill llioNo mill nil llio IIohIiv pli<i'0*i nt'llio llirllo (ox 
OopliiiK lliiiHO ploi-oi liiloniloil lor ri,h/-n). iiiiil llion 
pliioo on llio lop llio IioikI mi. I Hum ol llio linllo: 
iniiinlon llio wliolo Willi n l>oli|o ol' IMinloiin miil 
A i|iiiii'Ik III' Koiiil ulnoli ; nilil a polllo nl' iiiilhIi 
riiiMiiH, I'J oliivoN, '1 MiiiloN of innoo, n. Iimullnl of 
jmrnloy rooli nml n ^001! ni/oil lioiii|iiol ol' piirn 
lov lioil lip Willi '.'. Imy lonvoM, lliyiiio, uroon 
iiiiiiiiiK mill hIimIIoIh, Sot llio ooiivoimiir ihiiH pro 
jinroil on 11 lirldU ntdvo llro In lioll ulinrply, ninl 
wlioii Iho lli|iiiil linx lioooiiio roiliKMnl In n ^lii»,o 
(III llio :iloi'Kpol lip iiiMliinllv, mill iih noon iih II 
liollii tilvini il llioronglily, unrniwli willi llio ii.minl 
ooiiiplotiioiil, of vonoliililoH, mill roinovo il lo llio 
hIiIo III' llio nIovo In lioil ^.oiill.v lor II liotirx. Ito 
luoiiilior In prnim llio lioml nml Hum nllor tlioy 
linvo lioon lioiloil ',! lioiir«, niiil mm hooii iim llioy nro 
clono ilinm llioin on n iliNli.oovor Itioin willi 11 wol 
tiiipMn woll Hiiliiniloil Willi wiilor lo pro\onl il 
(Voiii Mlli'Klii^' lo ilioiii, mill |iiil llii'iii nwny in 11 
cool pliioo Willi llio roinnliiilor of llio ulnlinoiiN 
jinrlM ol' llio tnrllo nlroml.v npoKoii ol'. TIk- mIooK 
jioIkIioiiIiI now lio lllloil tip willi llio Inrllo l.rotli 
roworvoil I'or llinl piirpoHo im lilrooloil nliovo. 
M'lioii llio Inrllo nloolt in iloiio Hlrniu il oil" Into nil 
miproprinlo mI/oiI nlnoUpot, voiiiovo ovor.v piirli- 
(<lo ol" I'liI IVoiii llio niiilnoo, mill tlioii piooood (o 
(hlolioil il Willi n proporlloniilo unmilily nl' Hour 
to llio ooiihI.iIoiiov ol' lliiii Miinoo. \Voiii llii.x 
oxnolly III dm Nnnio inminor 11.1 prnoliMoil in 
In-nwii Hniioo. in nnlor In oxlrnol nil llio Inillor 
luiil nouiii, Hii IIH lo ((ivo II M lirilllmil ii|ipoiir 
luioo. Olio Inilllo nl' nlil IMniioIra innsl now I'o 
niiiloil. Injtollioi' wllli n i<ui'i'f of hoili.i of llio 
rollowini; UinilM, lo ho iniiilo iim lioro iliioi'loil ; 
Shoi'I limil iiiiimI lorni 0110 lliinl propnrl ion ol' llio 
wliolo unmilily ol' liorliN inl<<iiiloil In lio iihoiI ; 
wliilor Niivory, iiinr,|oriiiii mul loiiion lliynio in 
riijiiiil iijiimilitlos, iiinkin^; up llio olhorlwo lliinlM; 
ml. I lo llioNO n .lonlilo timnll'nl ol' ^rooii .sliiillols 
nml ,101110 11 ininiiiifrN ol' niilMlirooniM ; inoixlon nilli 
II i|iinii of lirolli, nml linvlnj; .ilownl iIiomo IioiIim 
for iilioni nil lioiir nili tli(< wliolo lliroii);li tlio 
Intiiniy inin 11 i>iii'/<>. Tliln f»ir^i< lioliijj nililoil 
to llio [toiip, II lilllo Cnvonno pop|n>r nIioiiM llioii 
lio ililro.liiooil. 'I'lio piooo.i ol Inrllo, ns woll ns 

tllO Ihl.i, wIlU'll llMVO ul.HO tlOOIl out illlo MIUllI 

IiloooM mill llio lm'K<>i' liniuMt tiiUoii nut, .ilunilii now 
>o nllowoil to lioll ill llio i«oiip for 11 iiiinrtor of 
Mil lioiir, uflor wliloli oiirofnlly roiiiovo llio wliolo 
of lilt" Boiini lift il rist'N to llio .inrl'iioo. 'IMio ilonrot> 
of nonjioniiijj hiiimI lio nnoortniiitHl, tlint il niny l>o 
Otii'roolotI if fmilly, To oxool in ilros.iinjj Inrllo it 
U iioooM,im\v to ln» vory Hooiinito In llio proporlioiis 
of tho iiuiuiMoiiN innrtMllonls iinoiI I'or soii.tonin^i 
tliis Nonp. Noihinn; dlionlil pr<><loniiiiiilo, Inil llio 
wliolo i.|ioiil,l Ik- li:utiionioii>ly l.lomlo.l. I'tit llio 
Inrllo iiwiiy in lonrniiml .■.i;i\l linsiiiM, tliv iiliiiij 



llio fill (nflor it. Iinrt lioon Noiililoil mnl liollod In 
rioino of llin niiiioom) in oi|iimI >|iiiiiiI iIion into oniih 
liiiNin, IIH iilmi Homo Niiinll iiiiriirl/m, wliioli mn lo li« 
iniiilo with llio lllloln of Iiimih ror.orviMl for Ihltt 

I'lirpiinn ll in wliiiOi, ill nilililloii to tho iiniiiiI 

liiHroilionlH in oidiiiiiry oiimo.h, put ll yolliH of ojdfH 
lioiloil limil. Mould lliiHo iiiiriirtlrH into Hliinll, 
roiiml IiiiIIm, to iiiiiliilo Inrtion' og^'H, roll lliotii 
Willi lilt" limiil on n iiinrlilo nIiiIi or liililo, wllli tliii 
nid of n lilllo Hour, mid poiioli llioni in llio iimiiil 
wiiy. Wlion llio liiiilo Motip in wiiiilod for imo, 
wniin il, mill jiiid liolom Homliii^ il In liilili" nild ik 

Hiiiiill ir,\»nii of Sliorry or Miidoirii nml llio jiiit f 

Olio loiiinti fti ovory four (|iiMrlM of liirMo. Tlio 
Hi'oond hIiioIi of tlio Inrllo iniiniiiiiiiif xlionlil ho 
Hlrninod oll'nl'lor il Iiiim hoilod for I wolionrH, nml ini- 
niodiiiloly lioiloil down into 11 |i;lii/.ti vol y ifilirlily 
Mild nii.\<"d in Willi Hit" Inrllo .lonp provioiinly to 
pulling it nwny in tho liiiHitiH, or oInii it hIioiiIiI ho 
liopi ill roMorvo for tho pnrporto of ndillii); propor- 
lionnlo ipimililioM in oiioli liiroon of Inrllo iin il, ia 

Horvod. I l''or llii.H mid .lotoinl otlior 1 iplH In 

lino otioliory wo nro imlolilcd lo l''rnnoulolli.J 

Movh- Tinll, .VoM/.. 
I'riionro 11 Honldod oiiII'h liond, or nn It Is Moiiitv. 
linioM onllod, n Inrllo liond. Initio il in tho fidlowiii); 
niiinni"!'; I'liioo llio oiiII'n liond on Iho Inhlo with 
tho fi'oni pml ol lliti hoiiil litoiii); yon, tirnw Iho 
Hlinr|i point of n Uiiil'o from Iho hiiok pitrl of tho 
hoiiil ri^lit ilowii 1.0 Iho iioHo, iniiKinK mi Inoi.tiou 
down lo ihi" hoiio of tho hUiiII ; llion with tho 
Uiiil'o olonr Iho Monlp mid ohook.n I'lotti Iho honoH 
right nml lt<l'l, iilwiiyN Ut'opiiiK lli<< point of lli« 
kiiilo oloNo lo tho liotio. lliiviiiK honoil Iho lioail 
)inl il into 11 lnr)j;o Nli<ivpiin of oolil wiilor on tho 
llro: UN HOOII IIH il hoilH hUIiii if woll mid lot il ooii- 
liniio lo hoil for ton ininiiloM; ttiUo lht< i<iiU"h lioiiil 
onl mid pill il into 11 pnii full of tmld wnlor ; llion 
^ol n propor Hi/inl .vIooKpol mid nflor hiivinn' Init- 
li>roil lln> liotloni Ihoroof, pliioo in il I nlioo.s of riivr 
limn, '.' liirK<< l(iiiioklt<H of voiil, nml mi ohi lion 
pnrllnlly roiiHloil ; iiioiHloii with 2 tinnrlH of hrolh 
mid pill tho Htookpol on llit< .nIovo llri< lo hoil niiltl 
Iho hrolh in rodiiooil to n uln/.o, whon itislnnlly 
Hliiokon tho lioiil hy oovoriii); tho (Iro wtlh iihIhih, 
mid IliiMi lonvo tho Honp to oolor itnolf |;rnililiilly. 
Allow Iho lilii/o nt tlu> holloni of tho stowpmi to 
ho roilnoi'd to Iho Hiinio ooiiHiHltMii'y iih lor hrown 
Hmioi\ mid lUI tip Iho .iloidtpol ivilli wiilor loit\iiif; 
rooin for Iho i'iiU'h hoiid. whioli Hopitriilo into two 
hitlvoH, mid pnro ntV nil llit> ron);li oiitiolt< nhinit 
llit> iniior pnrlH of Iho inoitlli, llion pliioo il In tho 
Htotdi. mid nl'lt>r Hollinn' il to hoil nml lhoroiij;lt|y 
Hkininiin^; it gnrni.'ih wilh llii< iiHtinl ooniploinonl of 
VoKolilhli".". tl olovos, '.! hlndoH of niiioo, i 11 polllo of 
niiiHlirooiiiH, -I hIiiiIIoIh, nntl n k'««I Ixmoh of pnrti- 
loy, ifrooit onitiiiH, thy iiio mul hny lonf tiod tojfollior, 
mid n lilllo Knit. Sol ll hy llii°< tiro lo hoil ffonlly 
till Iho oiilf'.M hond in doiio,'lhoit Inko Iho pitH'oH oif 
lioiid onl nml pliioo tlioin on 11 dish to oool, iiflor- 
witrd to ho onl into MpinroH mid put into n htiHin 
till roi|iiiroil for ndtliiiK tlioiii to tho Hoiip. SIrnin 
Iho Htook through 11 hrolh ololli nml Ihiokoii It 
w ilh ,-ioiiio lij!:ht oolorotl hriiw nin>!; lo tho oonslHltMioy 
of lliiii hrown .xitm'o. It<l il hoil nml iillow it to 
throw np nil llio hiiltor mitl oInH.xify itnolf Ihor- 
oiiiihly, thon Miltl ^ n holllo of Sliorry, iihonl \ u 
pint of fiiiifr of Inrllo liorhn in whioh ll iinohovioM 
iiin o hooii iiummI, n ltlllt> Cityoiino f>oppt-r, mitl Iho 
oiilfn hoiiil out into sunttros, iih nlso Iho lonjfiio 
hrniAotl with it. I<i«l Ihoso hoil ton'ollior for iihoul 
Ion iniiinloH, thou ndil ',\ or I do^^oii .-^1111111 roiinti 
i/iir-iirlUii mid 11 lilllo loiiion-Jiiioo mid soiul to 
tuhlo. 

Hlofk hirtU SotifK 
Soiild iionlfH lioml willi tho .skill ou, mul liiko off 



HOUI'S, ETC. 



219 



tho horny part, whii'li nut Into twn Incli pujiinrd 
jiltHHin; .il«iin iiriil ilr)' llinri wiOl in ii (!l<i||i, iiml pnl. 
tlinii liit.ii II Htcw-piiti, witli i i(MiiriH (iC wiiliir iiiiidti 
M fiilliiwn: 'I'liUii (1 or 7 poiiiiiln of ImmiI', ii (iiilC'ii 
foot, II. Hhiiiit< iiC liiiiii, (III oiiiiiii, '.', iijirrolM, ii liiriiip, 
ft Imiiil of crli'i V. Hiiiiii' I'lovcM mill wliuld |ii'|i|iri-, ii 
liiliirll of KVVi'il Im'iIi", 11 lillli' loiMon piM'l, iiiiil ii 
few tniflli^N. I'lif. llicHo into H ijiiiirlH of wiil.or, iiiiil 
•Invv till-Ill (gently till llio lii|iiiil i» ri'iliiitoil oiio liiilf; 
thru niriiiii it off, iiikI {iiit iiitu tho nlowpnii Willi 
tho horny piirln of llio (iiiII'm lirnd. Ailil noriio 
Idiolto'l iiiMriormii. niivory, thymo. piirHloy iihop 
Jioil Hiiiiill, with Homo itlovi'H iiiiil liiiioo poiiiidoil, n 
littlo (!nyciiMo pfpfn'r, kommi «;ri'<^ii oiiioiiH, iin c" 
chiilof out linn, ii fow olioppoil niiiMliroiniiM, iinil ^ 

flint Mniloini wiiw. Slow llir-fo (^'iitly till tho Huiip 
N roiliii'cil to 2 (|iiMrl«, thi-n hoiit ji. liltin lirolli. 
Mix Moino Hour, Hiiioolhiii(( it Willi iho yolldi of 2 
O^^H, iiriil Htir it ovor ii ){oiitlo liin till it in ri<-ii.r 
lioilin^. Ailii thin to thoKiiiip; lioop Hlirriii|j; ii>i 
you pour it in, iiinl <-oulinu<i HirwiiiK fur iinolliiM' 
lioiir. Whon (Inno, i«(|U('07,o in tho jiiii-o of hull' ii 
lonion, liiilf MM oritnK<') imil throw in hoiiio Imlloil 
forno ini'iit hiilln. Hrrvo it up in ii. tiitccn hoi. 
Tiiiii Moiip Ih dolioiouHly )j;riilifyiii){ anil niitrilivo. 

Ox-lin't Siiii/,. 

I'rooiirn 2 frowli ox tiiilH, out oiicli Joint iil'ti'r 
(Ii villi 11}.^ the III into in I'll lonj^l liK with ii. miiimII iiioiit- 
miw, Hli'op Ihi'iii in wntur for two lioiirM iinil Ihori 
jiliicM tliiiiii ill a Ntowpiiri with ^t ciiirotM, /! tuniipH, 
8 onloiiH, 2 IioihIh of oolory, 4 itlovoH, iukI ii. hlnilo 
of iiiiioo, l''ill up tho Riowpiin with hrol h IVoin 
tho hoilin;; KtuoUpol, huil IIiih hy tho rtiilo of tho 
Rtovn llri) till iloiio, ilriiin tho piioon of ox tiiil on 
ftiiir^o fiovii, itllow Ihoiii to oool, trim Ihoiii iioatly, 
mill pliKiii tlioiii In II. Noiip pot. (.'larify tho hrotli 
tho ox liiilH woro hoiloil in, r<trniii it through a 
Iiiipl(in into II liiiHiii, iiiiil llicn pour it into tho 
Moiip pot ooiilniiiin^ llio triniinoil piccon of ox 
tiiilM, iinil iiImo Homo Miiiiiil olivo xliitpoil pioi'dx of 
oiirrot iiikI turnip thnt havo hoon hoiloil in a littlo 
nf tho hrolli, iinil n huihII lump of ciii'iir; inlil a 
pinoli of poppor, anil prrvimiily to •ii^iiiliii;^ tho 
Mollp to lahlo lot it hoil K<'»tly hy tho Hiilo of llio 
dtovo llro for a low iiiiiiiito.ii. 'I'liin fiou|i may ho 
Mi-rvoil iiImo ill viirioiiN othor wiiy.H, hy aililiii;^ 
thiTcto a imifn of any mirt of vi'KolahloH, Htiiili for 
in.^liiiii-o iiH a jmrf.i: iif |i«aH, uurrotK, luriiipK, ool- 
tiry, li'iitilM. 

Ox-flirrle. Siiiifi. 

I'riioiiro a frovli ox oliook iiinl put it (o liMiizo in 
anmiill Ktnrjipiit with a kiiiioldo of voiil ami Hnmo 
roiiHt hoof liunoH, fill tho pot up from tho hoiliiiK 
Ktoclipiit or with wiitor, ^iirni.ih with llio Maiiiit 
ooni|iloiiioiit of Mtoolc vox<''iililoM iiMoil for ox tail 
Moiip, aihliii^ Ii clovoH, a hhi'lo of iiiimio, ami a fow 
fiopporroi iM. Am hooii an llio ox ohook in iloiio 
tiiko tho moat off tho ohcok hono ami put it in 

IiroMM hotwi'on 2 iIIhIuvh. Ktriiin olf tho iirotli, imIiI- 
iiK to it a liiilloful of ^ravy to oolor it, ami prooooil 
to ohirify it with a ooiiplo of whiioH of o({;<« wliilo 
t.\ii, II, iiniiiiiiii/^ Ih oliirifyin;{ ; trim tho ox oliooU iiinI 
nut it into iioiit HiallopM I imrh "(juaro anil i an 
inoli thii!l( ; put tlicHo into a hiiihII Hoiip pot ami 
niM to tlioiii Moitii) Hiiiiill oarrotH anii turiiipH out 
In fanoy xhapoH ami hoiloil in a littlo hrolli, a lump 
of Hii^^ar, iiiiil aUo 1^ ilo/.on nf vory Miuall wliito 
iiiitton onioiiM. Strain tin- cliiiilioil iiiiiHuniiiif tliim 
jiropHroii into llio Hoiip pi.t, ami liavin;^ nllowod 
tli« Hoiip to hull a fow miniiti'H hy tho hIiIo of tho 
Mtovo llro, JuMt hoforii HorviiiK aiid 2 lio/.oii hlruiohoii 
JirtiKMclM njiroiilit ami a pinch of poppor, ami koihI 
to tahlo. 

Itrrnil I'ltutidn fi>r Qitciirllrn. 
Tnl(o till) orunihof 2 now l<'romili rolln, and ntoop 
k in lu|>iil wulor for lun uiinuluHj then put it into 



a napkin and wrln^ It tightly, In ordor to rninovo 
tho waior from tho hroad. I'lit tlio oriimh Into n 
Hti-wpiin, with 2 oiiiiooH of frt'iih hiittor, a liltin 
Halt, ami 2 HpnoiifulM of wliito hroth ; put thoxo on 
tho Htiivo liro, oontiniiiiiK to ntir tho piiniida tho 
wholo limo with a wooilni Hpoon, until it hphiiiiioN 
Hill appiiiinim'o of piiuto, and no loiiKor ailliori'n to 
tho holtom of tho Hli'wpiin; tlion inld <'t yoUiH of 
I'KX'i ""d tuin It out on a pliiio. Smootho it ovor 
tho Niirfiioo with tho hliido of a knifo, and, liaviii^ 
oiivi-rod it with a round piooo of hiitlorod (lapur, 
plaoo it in iho liirdor until roi|uirod for iiho. 
I'dir il ('liiiiix I'limiiln, 

To \ pint of whito oliiokcn hroth add 4 ounoon 
of froKh liiiUoriind alitllonalt; put tho iiliwpiin 
oontaininx IIiobh on iho llro. Ah hooii iih it lii'«infi 
III iiimmi'r mix in with Iho aforoiiiontionod inxio- 
dioiilH fi oiiniMm of Hill.od Hour ; and, hy oontinuin^ 
to Htir thin hattor on tlio liro for (Ivo iiiiniiloH. il 
will lioi'omo a ili'lioiiloly llriii piiMlo, whioli iniiHt iio 
wnrkod ovor Iho liro until it I'rii'ly loiivoit tho nido 
of tho pun ; tlioii liiko .'i yolkn of o>(i(H iiiid i(uicMy 
mix thom in tho hattor; put it on a pinto, iiovor 
it with a hiittorod piipiT, and koo[i it in tho cool 
lill wnnlod fur uno, 'I'IiIh kind of piiniidn. in pro- 
Irrrod hy Homo rookH to hioad pamida, hoiii^ roii- 
Hidori'd hy thom mnro di-lioato, and loHH liiihio to 
prnduoo formi'iitiition in wiiriii woiitlior. Kuwovor, 
hroiid piiriiidii liiiHllio adviinta^fo of not iinlhipHln;;, 
an Ih Iho oiiho with tho /(/?,/« il rlimur pii.niidii, if 
proparod hoiiio tiiiio hol'oro tlio <ineiiiiU.n in whiolt 
it in iiHod lio oatiiii. 

iUiivlcrn f'aniiilii. 

Itoii.Ht ofl'a youn« fowl, tako all tho wliito piirtK 
and piiiind thi'iii with Iho oriimh of a l<'roiioli roll 
Hoakod in hrolli ; diliito tlioxo with a littlo ohlokon 
hroth (miido from tho roniMioH of tho roiiHlod fowl) 
to tho oiin.iiHli-iioy of a nott luiltor or oniimy Hiih- 
ptamio, piiHH it llirouf(li a tammy an in pioparin^ 
an.v ollior jmrfiu 

I'rovioiH to Horvlnft thin pniiinlii it ihould ho 
iiiiidoniti-ly warniod and put into oiiHtnrd i-iipn. 
In Iho ooiiipoHilion of diototio propariitimiK for 
infiiiilM mid iiiviilid.il, it \n nvcuHHiiry to avoid tho 
iiHU of iii-rlm and HpinuM. 

diivn Oynlnm, 

Tako fi (larH of hoiloil oorn, 4 o>tj(K, 2 tiihloHpoonH- 
fiil of Hour. Out tho (lorn olf tho ooh, Hoanon It 
wilh pi'ppor mid Halt, mix it with thoyolldi of tho 
0(<^K hciiliii llii.ri.u;i;hly, mid mid tho (lour. Whi.^k 
tho wliitiH tn ilkIiII Irnlli mid Htir thom in; put 
a tahloHpoonful at a limo in a pan of hot lard or 
hultor and fry until llioy aro a Iiiiil hrown oolor 
on liotli hIiIvh. 

Aftor |>arin« cut thom in HiicoM nn thin iiM poini- 

hlo, lit llniii III! an I r in hiiII wator; tlioii HoiiHon 

witli poppor and Halt, driil(,'o lino pnwdond oraokor 
or Htalo lirciid oriiniht ovor oiioli fiiooo, heat up an 
mtK •"< •'"■ V'Mil i-iilh-t mid dip in oiioli allorniilrly 
mid put in a pan with Homo hut hiittor or hoof 
drippiiiKH. I'Vy iduwly until ipiito »oft and a dark 
hrown on Imth nidoH. Horvo tliimi up hot. 
I'ulal.,,,,, ,t l„ litnll,,: iriiniA. 

Tho Kiiiiill l^'ionoh kiiiiii'.y potatooH nro hont 
adapti-d lur Ihin purpoHo. I'.'iil or Htoiiin tlioiii in 
tho oriliniiry way and wlion dmio out Hkiii into 
Hlii'i^H ahoiit tho oi){lith of an imdi thiid<, put tlioiit 
into a Mtowpan with ii tahloHpoonful of whito hiiiioo 
or hroth, 4 oiiiiooh of hiittor, hoiiio poppor and Halt, 
(dinppod piirHoly and a littlo lonion jiiioo ; toim 
thom ovor tho ntovo llro until tho luitlor, oto., ix 
mixod in with Iho potatooH, thon di^li thom ii[>, 
i-illior with or wilhoiil riCnUmn round thom, anil 
Murvo. 



220 



COOKERY. 



New Pntatoes a la Creme. 
Cut some recently boiled new potatoes in slices, 
put tlieni into a stewpan with a gill of cream, 4 
ounces of fresh butter, a very little nutmeg, pepper 
and salt, and the juice of half a lemon : set them 
to boil on the stove fire, toss them well together, 
and dish them up with cr6utoiis. 

Green Peon, Plain. 
Put the peas into boiling water, some salt, find 
a bunch of green mint ; keep them boiling briskly 
for abiiut twenty minutes. an<l when done, drain 
them in a colander, dish them up with chopped 
boiled mint on the top, and send some small pats 
of very fresh butter separately on a plate. 

Stewed Peas. 

Put I quart of young peas into a pan, with 4 
ounces of butter, and plenty of cold water; rub 
the peas and butter together with the fingers, 
until well mixed, then pour off the water, and put 
the peas into a stewpan, with a couple of cabbage 
lettuces, shred small, a bunch of green onions 
and parsley, a dessertspoonful of pounded sugar, 
and a little salt; put the lid on, and set the peas 
to stew very gently over a slow fire for about half 
an hour; when done, if there appears to be much 
liquor, boil it down quickly over the fire. Next 
put ab<mt 2 ounces of fresh butter on a plate, with 
a dessertspoonful of flour, and knead them to- 
gether ; put this into the peas, and toss the whole 
together over the stove fire until well mixed; dish 
the peas up, garnished round with pastry, and 
serve. 

Asparagus with. White Savce. 

Pick the loose leaves from the heads, and scrape 
the stalks clean, wash them in a pan of cold water, 
tic them up in bundles of about 20 in each, keep- 
ing all the heads turned the same way ; cut the 
stalks even, leaving them about 8 inches long. 
•Put the asparagus in hot water with a small 
handful of salt in it, to boil for about twenty 
minutes, and when done, drain them carefully 
upon a napkin to avoid breaking off the heads; 
dish them up on a square thick piece of toasted 
bread dipped in the water they have been boiled 
in, and send to table with some white sauce, sepa- 
rately in a sauce-boat. 

Spinach with Butter. 
Pick all the stalks from the spinach, wash it in 
several waters, and drain it upon a sieve; throw it 
into a stewpan of hot water with a handful of salt, 
and keep it boiling until it becomes thoroughly 
tender and soft to the touch ; then drain it in a co- 
lander, immerse it in cold water, and afterwards 
squeeze all the water from it. The spinach must 
next be carefully turned over with the point of a 
knife, to remove any straws or stalks that may 
have been overlooked ; it should then be chopped 
or pounded in a mortar, rubbed through a coarse 
wire sieve, and placed in a stewpan with about 2 
ounces of butter, a little salt, and grated nutmeg; 
Btir the spinach over a stove fire with a wooden 
spoon until it becomes quite warm, then add a 
gravy spoonful of good sauce, a small piece of 
glaze, and about 4 ounces of fresh butter. Work 
the whole together, with a wooden spoon, until 
well mixed, then pile the spinach up in the centre 
of the dish, garnish it round with crSutom, and 
serve. 

Macaroni a V Italienne. 
Break up the macaroni in 3-inch lengths, and 
put it on to boil in hot water, with a pat of but- 
ter, a little pepper and salt ; when done, drain 
it on a napkin, and as soon as the moisture is 
absorbed, dish it up in the following manner: 



First, put 2 large tablespoonfuls of good to- 
mato-sauce into a stewpan, and boil it ocer 
the stove fire; then add 2 pats of fresh butter 
with as much glaze, and work the whole well 
together; next, strew a layer of the macaroni on 
the bottom of the dish, then pour some of the 
sauce over it. and strew some grated Parmesan 
cheese over this ; and so on, rejieating the samo 
until the dish is full enough ; strew some grated 
cheese over the top, put tbe macaroni in the oven 
for five minutes, and then serve while it is quite 
hot. 

Sfacnroni with Cream. 
Boil 1 pound of macaroni, and when done, cut it 
up in three-inch lengths, and put it into a stewpan 
with 4 ounces of fresh butter, 4 ounces of grated 
Parmesan cheese, and a similar quantity of Gruy- 
ere cheese also grated, and 1 gill of good cream; 
season with pepjier and salt, and toss the whole 
well together over the stove fire, until well mixed 
and quite hot, then shake it up for a few minutes 
to make the cheese spin, so as to give it a fibrous 
appearance, when drawn up with a fork. The 
macaroni, when dished up, may be garnished 
round the base with pastry, and then served. 

Macaroni au Grutin. 

Cut the macaroni up as above, put it into a 
stewpan with J of a pound of grated cheese (Par- 
mesan and Gruyere in equal quantities), 4 ounces 
of fresh butter, and 1 tablespoonful of good 
Bechiimel sauce; season with pepper and salt, 
toss the whole together over the fire untd well 
mixed, then pile it up in the centre of a border of 
a fried croutons of bread (previously stuck round 
the bottom of the dish); strew the surface with 
fine bread-crumbs, and grated Parmesiin cheese, 
in equal proportions; run a little melted butter 
through the holes of a spoon, over the top of the 
macaroni, and then put it into the oven to be baked 
of a bright yellow color; it should then be served 
quite hot. 

Indian Sandwiches. 

Cut the breast of a roast fowl or pheasant in 
very small, square, dice-like pieces, and place 
these on a plate; take about 4 ounces of red 
tongue or lean ham, and 4 anchovies (previously 
washed and filleted), cut these also in small dice, 
and place them with the chicken. Next, put 2 
spoonsful of sauce, and a dessertspoonful of curry 
paste into a stewpan, boil them over the stove, 
stirring it meanwhile, until reduced to the consis- 
tency of a thick sauce ; then add the chicken, etc., 
and the juice of i a lemon, mix the whole well to- 
gether, and use this preparation in the following 
manner: Cut some thin slices of the crumb of a 
sandwich-loaf, and with a circular tin cutter, 
about an inch and a half in diameter, stamp out 
24 croutons; fry these in clarified butter to a 
bright yellow color, drain them on a napkin, and 
place one-half on a baking-sheet covered with 
clean paper; spread a thick layer of the above 
preparation on each of these, and then cover them 
with the remaining 12 cr6ulnns. Ne.xt, grate 4 
ounces of fresh Parmesan, and mix these with a 
pat of butter into a paste, divide it in 12 parts, 
roll each into a round ball, and place 1 of these 
on the top of each sandwich ; about ten minutes 
before sending to table, put them in the oven to 
be wanned thoroughly, pass the red-hot sala- 
mander over them, to color them of a bright yel- 
low ; dish them lip on a napkin, and serve. 

Italian Saiad. 
Boil 2 heads of fine white caulidower, a similar 
portion of asparagus-points, French beans, cut in 
diamonds, a few new potatoes (which after being 



SALAD AND MINCE-MEAT. 



221 



boiled must be stamped out with a small vegeta- 
ble cutter), i a pint of green peas and 3 artichoke- 
botti)U)s, also cut up in small fancy shapes when 
boiled. All these vegetables must be prepared 
with great attention, in order that they may re- 
tain '.lieir original color ; the cauliflowers should 
be cut up in small buds or flowerets, and the 
whole, when di)ne, put into a convenient-sized 
basin. Next, boil 2 large red beet-roots, 6 large 
new potatoes, and 20 large-sized heads of very 
green asparagus, or a similar quantity of French 
beans; cut the heet-roots and potatoes in two-inch 
lengths, and with a tin vegetable cutter, a quar- 
ter of an inch in diameter, punch out about two 
dozen small pillar-shaped pieces of each, and put 
these on a dish, with an equal quantity of aspar- 
agus-heads or French beans, cut to the same 
length. Then take a plain border-mould, and 
place the green vegetables in neat and close order 
all round the bottom of the mould; observing 
that a small quantity of jelly must be poured 
in the mould for the purpose of causing the pieces 
of French beana to hold together. Next, line the 
sides of the mould, by placing the pieces of beet- 
root and potatoes alternately, each of which must 
be first dipped in some bright jelly, previously to 
its being placed in the mould; when the whole is 
complete, fill the border up with jelly. Before 
placing the vegetables, the mould must be par- 
tially immersed in some pounded rough ice, con- 
tained in a basin or pan. When about to send 
this eiitieiiiet to table, turn the vegetable border 
out of the mould on to its dish ; after the vege- 
tables, before alluded to, have been seasoned, by 
adding to them a tablespoonful of jelly, 3 table- 
spoonfuls of oil, 1 of tarragon-vinegar, some 
pepper and salt; and when the whole have been 
gently tossed together, they should be neatly 
placed in the centre of the border, in a pyramidal 
form. Ornament the base of the entremets with 
bold croutons of bright jelly, and serve. 

Sidney Smith's Recipe for Salad. 

Two large potatoes passed through kitchen sieve, 

Unwonted softness to the salad give; 

Of mordant mustard add a single spoou — 

Distrust the condiment which bites so soon 

But deem it not, thou man of herbs, a fault 

To add a double quantity of salt; 

Three times the spoon with oil of Lucca crown 

And once with vinegar procured from town 

True flKVor needs it, and your poet begs 

The pounded yellow of two well-boiled eggs. 

Let onion atoms lurk within tiie bowl, 

And, scarce suspected, animate the whole; 

And, lastly, on the flavored compound toss 

A magic teaspoon of anchovj* s:iuce. 

Then, though green turtle fail, though venison's tough. 

And ham and turkeys are not boiled enough, 

Sorenely full, the epicure may say — 

Fate cannot harm me, I have dined to-day I 

CJiicken Salad. 

Prepare the chickens as directed for a Mayon- 
naise. Pile the pieces of chicken up in the dish, 
upon a bed of seasoned shred lettuces, in a conical 
form ; pour some white Mayonnaise sauce over the 
pieces, place a border of hard eggs cut in quar- 
ters, and hearts of cabbage -lettuce round the 
base; stick a white heart of a lettuce on the top, 
and servo. 

Note. — Chicken-salad may also be ornamented 
and garnished with plover's eggs, decorated with 
truffles, and with eggs boiled hard cut in quar- 
ters, and ornamented either with their fillets of 
anchovies and capers, or colored butter, either 
lobster coral or green Ravigotte, or with tarragon, 
or chervil-leaves, laid flat on the eggs, or else 
■tuck in the point. 



Lobster Butter. 

Procure some lobster spawn or coral, and pound 
it with twice as much butter, I anchovy and a 
little Cayenne pepper; rub it through a hair-sieve, 
collect it into a small basin, and keep it in a cool 
place till wanted for use. 

Lobnter Salad. 

Break the shells, and remove the meat whole 
from the tails and claws of the lobsters ; put this 
into a basin, with a little oil, vinegar, pejiper and 
salt, and reserve the pith and coral to make some 
lobster-butter, which is to be thus used: First, 
spread a circular foundation of the lobster-butter 
upon the bottom of the dish, about seven inches 
in diameter, and the fourth part of an inch thick, 
then scoop out the centre, leaving a circuhir band. 
Drain the lobster on a cloth, cut the pieces in oval 
scallops, and with some of the butter (to stick 
the pieces firmly together), pile the lobster up in 
three successive rows, the centre being lelt hollow ; 
fill this with shred lettuce, or salad of any kind, 
seasoned with oil, vinegar, pepper and salt; pour 
some scarlet Mayonnaise sauce over the salad, 
without mashing the pieces of lobster; giirnish 
the base with a border of hearts of lettuces, di- 
vided in halves, and around these place a border 
of plover's eggs, having a small sprig of green 
tarragon stuck into the pointed end of each ; place 
a white-heart of lettuce on the top, and serve. 
Potted Lobster. 

Lobsters for potting must be quite fresh. Take 
the meat, pith, and coral out of the shells, cut this 
up in slices, and put the whole into a stewpan 
with one-third part of clarified fresh butter, and 
to every pound of lobster add 4 whole anchovies 
(washed and wiped dry) ; season with mtice, pep- 
percorns, and a little salt, then put the lid on the 
stewpan, and set the lobster to simmer very 
gently over a slow fire for about a quarter of an 
hour. After this it must be thoroughly pounded 
in a mortar, rubbed through a sieve, put into 
small pots, steamed, and when cold should be 
pressed down with the bowl of a spoon, and the 
surface covered with a little clarified butter. 
3Iince-Meat. 

Four pounds of beef and tongue mixed ; 3 
pounds of suet; 8 pounds of chopped apples; 3 
pounds of currants (washed, dried, and picked); 

3 pounds of seeded raisins ; 6 pounds ofliyht brown 
sugar; 2 pounds of citron cut into small thin 
pieces ; the rind of 1 orange grated ; 1 ounce of 
cinnamon ; i of an ounce of cloves ; | of an ounce 
of mace; i of an ounce of allspice; 3 nutmegs 
grated ; 1 quart of Madeira wine ; 1 pint of Brandy. 
Boil the meat in salted water until tender; when 
cold chop it very fine. After freeing the suet from 
every particle of skin and chopping it fine, mix it 
through the meat with salt just sufficient to remove 
the fresh taste; to this add the apples, alter which 
the sugar, fruit, spice, and other ingredients. Mix 
all well together and cover close. If too dry (be- 
fore using) the quantity required may be moistened 
with a little sweet cider. 

Note. — Mince-meat maybe made otkcA richer 
by using uncooked instead of cooked meat. 
Mince-Meat. 

Thoroughly cleanse 4 pounds of currants, and 
remove the stones from 4 pounds of raisins; cut 
up 2 pounds of candied citron, 1 pound of candied 
lemon, and 1 pound of orange-peel, into shreds, or 
very small dice; remove the skin, and then chop 

4 pounds of fresh beef-suet, and place this with 
the currants and the candied peel in an earthem 
pan ; next chop the raisins with 4 pounds of 
peeled apples, and add them to the other iiigredi- 



222 



COOKERY. 



ents. Trim away all the sinewy parts from 8 
pounds of roasted sirloin of beef, and chop all the 
lean of the meat quite fine; this will produce 
about 4 pounds, which must also be placed in the 
pan. To the foregoing must now be added 4 
pLunds of moist sugar, 4 ounces of ground spice 
— consisting of nutmegs, cloves, and cinnamon in 
equal proportions, with the grated rind of 12 
oranges, and of the siime number of lemons; the 
whole must then be thoroughly mixed together and 
pressed down to a level in the pan. Two bottles 
of brandy, and a like quantity of Madeira, sherry 
or port, should be poured into the mince-meat. 
Put the lid on the pan, place a cloth over it, and 
tie it down close, so as to exclude the air as much 
as possible, and also to prevent the evaporation 
of the brandy, etc. The mince-meat should be 
kept in a cool place, and will be fit for use a fort- 
night after it is made. 

Cocoanut Cake, or Pudding. 
A quarter of a pound of butter, 1 pound of sugar, 
4 eggs, 1 cocoanut, 6 tablespoonfuls of flour. Cream 
the butter and sugar, and add to it the grated co- 
coanut, flour, and eggs. Bake forty minutes. 
Cottage Pudding. 
Take 3 tablespoonfuls of melted butter, with 1 
cup of white sugar, 2 eggs beaten light, 1 pint of 
flour, 2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar sifted with 
the flour, and 1 teacup of milk with 2 teaspoon- 
fuls of soda dissolved in it. This pudding may be 
either baked or boiled. Serve with wine sauce. 
Patterdnle Pudding. 
Made at a celebrated inn in England. Three 
eggs and their weight in sugar, flour, and butter. 
Bake in small pans and eat with sauce. 
Wedding-cake Pudding. 
One cup of molasses, i cup of butter, 1 cup of 
sweet milk, 1 teaspoonful soda, 2 teaspoonfuls salt, 
4 cups of flour, and 1 cup of raisins. Steam three 
hours in a bowl. 

Sauce for the above. 
One cup of powdered sugar, i cup of butter, 
beaten together to a cream ; add 1 egg well beaten, 
1 glass of wine, and 1 glass of boiling water. 
Steam five minutes. 

Cocoanut Pudding. 
A quarter of a pound of grated cocoanut, the same 
quantity of powdered loaf sugar, SJ ounces of 
good butter, the whites of 6 eggs, and ^ a glass 
of wine and brandy mixed, a teaspoonful of orange 
flower and rose-water — pour into your paste, and 
bake as above. 

Mrs. Good/elloio'e Lemon Pudding. 
Take of butter (the very best) and loaf sugar, 
each i a pound, beat them to a froth as for pound- 
cake, add 6 eggs, the juice of ^^ of a large or the 
whole of a small lemon. Grate into it the outside 
yellow rind, but not an atom of the white — i a 
glass of Madeira, i a glass of brandy, a teaspoon- 
ful of orange-flower water, pour it into your paste, 
and bake with a moderate oven. 

Orange Cuetards. 
Boil very tender the rind of half a Seville orange, 
and beat it in a mortar until it is very fine : put to 
it a teaspoonful of the best brandy, the juice of a 
Seville orange, 4 ounces of loaf sugar, and the 
yolk of 4 eggs. Beat them all together for ten 
minutes, and then pour in by degrees a pint of 
boiling cream; beat them until cold, then put 
them in custard cups, in a dish of hot water; let 
them stand till they are set, then take them out 
and stick preserved orange-peel on the top; this 
forms a fine flavored dish, and may be served up 
hot or cold. 



Baked Custards. 
Boil a pint of cream with some mace and cinna- 
mon, and wlien it is cold, take 4 yolks of egg, a 
little rose-water, red wine, nutmeg, and sugar, to 
taste; mix them well and bake them. 
Rice Cuntards. 
Put a blade of mace and a quartered nutmeg 
into a quart of cream; boil and strain it, and add 
to it some boiled rice and a little lirandy. Sweeten 
it to taste, stir it till it thickens, and serve it up 
in cups or in a dish; it may be used either hot or 
cold. 

Almond Custards. 
Blanch i of a pound of almonds, beat them 
very fine, and then put them into a pint of cream, 
with 2 spoonfuls of rose-water; sweeten it, and 
put in the yolks of 4 eggs ; stir them well together 
till the mixture becomes thick, and then pour it 
into cups. 

Lemon Custards. 
Take i a pound of double refined sugar, the 
juice of 2 lemons, the rind of 1 pared very thin, 
the inner rind of 1 boiled tender and rubbed 
through a sieve, and a pint of white wine; boil 
them for some time, then take out the peel and a 
little of the liquor; strain them into the dish, stir 
them well together and set them to cool. 
Queen's Pudding. 
Half pint of cream, 1 pint of milk, flavor with 
vanilla and white sugar to taste, and boil together 
for a quarter of an hour; add the yolks of 8 eggs, 
well beaten. Then place over the mass a piece 
of thin paper, and boil the pudding one hour. 
Serve it up with sauce made of 2 glasses of sherry, 
1 pot of red-currant jelly, and white sugar mixed 
together, heated, and poured round the dish with 
the pudding. 

Sve'a Pudding, 
Take J a pound of very finely grated bread- 
crumbs, i a pound of finely-chopped apples, J a 
pound of currants, i a pound of very fine suet, 6 
ounces of sugar, 4 eggs, a little nutuieg, 2 ounces 
of citron and lemon-peel; butter the mould well 
and boil 3 hours. 

Balloons. 
One pint of milk, 3 eggs, 1 pint of flour. Beat 
the eggs light, and mix with the milk and stir into 
the flourgradually. Beat it well with 1 saltspoon- 
ful of salt; then butter small cups, fill them half 
full of the mixture and bake in a quick oven. 
When done turn them out of the cups, place them 
on a dish and send to table hot. Eat with wi»o 
sauce, or nun's butter. 

Lemon Pudding. 
Half a pound of butter, i a pound of sugar, 2 
ounces of flour, 5 eggs, 2 tablespoonfuls of brandy, 
the gratings and juice of 1 lemon. Beat the but- 
ter and sugar very light, then add the flour; 
whisk the eggs until very thick, which stir in by 
degrees ; lastly the lemon and brandy, alternately. 
Mix well without beating too much. This will 
make two puddings, soup-plate size. Line your 
plates with a rich paste and bake in a quick oven. 
When done and cool, sift white sugar over. 
White Potato Pudding. 
A quarter ofa pound ofbutter,^ a pound of sugar, 
4 or 5 eggs, 1 pound of potatoes mashed exceed- 
ingly fine, with a little cream and salt through a 
colander; 2 tablespoonfuls of brandy, 1 grated 
nutmeg with A a teaspoonful of cinnamon. Beat 
the butter and sugar to a cream, then add tho 
potato, eggs, brandy and spice. Line your plates 
with paste and bake in a quick oven. When 
done and cool, slip into plates suitable for th« 
table, and sift white sugar over them. 



PUDDINGS. 



223 



Apple Pudding. 

A quarter of a pound of butter, i a pound of sugar, 
5 eicic^, 4 large-sized tart apples, 2 ounces of cur- 
rants, 2 tablespoonfuls of brandy, 1 teaspoonful 
of cinnamon and nutmeg mixed. Be;it the but- 
ter and sugar to a cream, then whisk the eggs 
until thick and add to it. Pare the apples, grate 
and stir them into the mi.xture of eggs and sugar ; 
then add the brandy, currants and spice. Stir 
the whole well together. This will be sufficient 
for two large-sizeil puddings. Line your plates 
with paste, put in the mixture and bake in a quick 
oven. 

nice Clips. 

One quart of milk, 3 tablespoonfuls of rice 
boiled and stood to cool, 2 ounces of butter. Put 
on your milk to boil, mi.\ the rice very smooth 
with siiine cold milk. As snon as the former be- 
gins to boil stir in the batter and let the whole 
boil twenty minutes. Whilst the milk is warm 
add the butter and a little salt. Rinse your cus- 
tard cups with cold water; half fill them with the 
mixture ; when it becomes cold they turn out of 
the cups and retain their forms. They are very 
ornamental to the table. To be eaten with cream 
and a little grated nutmeg. 

Diavoliiii. 

Eight ounces of ground rice, 4 ounces of 
sugar, a quart of milk, 2 ounces of butter, a tea- 
spoonful of essence of ginger, 6 eggs, 1 pound 
of preserved ginger. Mix the rice, sugar, milk 
and butter together in a stewpan and stir the 
produce over a stove fire until it thickens; it 
must then be removed from the fire, and after 
being worked quite smooth and the lid being put 
on the stew{)an. set it either in the oven or over a 
slow ash fire to finish doing; this will be eflfected 
in about half an hour. The rice must now be re- 
moved from the fire and the preserved ginger and 
the 6 yolks of eirgs being added thereto, stir the 
whole over a quick fire until the eggs are set firm 
in the rice, and then turn out upon a clean dish 
or baking-sheet and spread equally to about a 
quarter of an inch in thickness, and when this 
has become cold it must be cut out in oblong 
shapes, which, after being first dipped in light 
frying batter, are to be fried crisp; then glaze 
with plain sugar and dish up on a napkin. 

Brown- Bread Pudding. 

Get ready the following ingredients : Twelve 
ounces of brown bread-crumbs, 6 ounces of 
pounded sugar, 6 eggs, ^ a pint of whipped cream, 
some grated lemon-rind, a little cinnamon-powder, 
1 pound of morelle cherries and a little salt. Mix 
the bread-crumbs, sugar, the yolks of eggs and 
whipped cream, the lemon, the cinnamon and the 
salt together in a large basin ; then add the whip- 
ped whites of 6 eggs and set this aside. Next 
spread a plain mould with butter and strew it with 
brown bread crumbs ; then spread a large spoon- 
ful of the preparation at the bottom of the mould 
and arrange a layer of cherries (with the stones 
left in) upon it; cover this with some of the pre- 
paration, and upon it place more cherries, and so 
on until the mould is filled. The pudding must 
now be |)laced on a baking-sheet and put in the 
oven (moderately heated) to be baked for about 
an hour; when done turn it out of the mould on 
its dish, pour a piirSe of cherry-sauce round the 
base and servo. In Saxony it is customary to eat 
this kind of pudding as a cake when colti ; in this 
case it should be entirely covered with sifted sugar, 
mixed with one-fcmrth part of cinnamon-powder. 
Lemon Pudding. 

The juice and grated rind (rubbed on sugar) of 



6 lemons, 1 pint of cream, 6 ounces of bruised 
ratafias, 12 yolks and the whites of 4 eggs 
whipped, i a nutmeg grated, a little cinnamon- 
powder, 12 ounces of pounded sugar and a very 
little salt. Mix the above together in a large 
basin and work them with a whisk for about 
ten minutes. Next put a border of puff-paste 
round the edge of a tart dish, spread the dish 
with butter, pour the batter into it, strew some 
shred pistachio kernels on the top and bake 
it for about half an hour (at moderate heat). 
When done shake some sifted sugar over it, and 
serve. 

Bread Pudding, Plain. 
Twelve ounces of bread-crumbs, 6 ounces of 
sugar, 2 ounces of butter, a pint of milk, the 
rind of a lemon rubbed on a piece of sugar, 6 
yolks of eggs and 2 whites whipped and a little 
salt. Put the bread-crumbs into a basin with 
the sugar, butter, lemon-sugar and salt; then 
pour in the milk boiling, cover up the whole and 
leave it to steep for about ten minutes ; the eggs 
may then be added, and after the whole has been 
well mixed together pour the preparation into a 
mould or pudding basin previously spread with 
butter. Steam the pudding for about an hour, and 
when done dish it up with some arrow-root sauce 
made as fVillows: Mix a dessertspoonful of arrow- 
root with twice that quantity of sugar, half the 
juice of a lemon, a little nutmeg, and a gill of 
water, and stir this over the fire until it boils. 

Plum Pudding, 

Three-quarters of a pound of raisins, | of a 
pound of currants, i a pound of canilied orange, 
lemon and citron, IJ pounds of chopped beef 
suet, 1 pound of flour, i of a pound of moist 
sugar, 4 eggs, about 3 gills of milk, the grated 
rind of 2 lemons, i an ounce of nutmeg, cinna- 
mon and cloves (in powder), a glass of brandy 
and a very little salt. Mix the above ingredi- 
ents thoroughly together in a large basin seve- 
ral hours before the pudding is to be boiled; 
pour them into a mould spread with butter, which 
should be tied up in a cloth. The pudding must 
then be boiled for four hours and a half; when 
done dish it up with sauce spread over it. 
Tapioca Pudding. 

Ten ounces of tapioca, 1 quart of milk, 6 
ounces of sugar, 6 yolks of eggs and 2 whipped 
whites, the grated rind of a lemon, 2 ounces 
of butter, and a little salt. Put the lapioca, 
sugar, butter, salt, grated lemon, and the milk 
into a stewpan ; stir this over the fire until it 
boils; then cover the stewpan with its lid, and set 
it on a very slow stove-fire (partially smothered 
with ashes), to continue gently simmering for a 
a quarter of an hour. The tapioca should then 
be withdrawn from the fire, and after the 6 yolks 
and the 2 whipped whites of eggs have been thor- 
oughly incorporated in it, pour the preparation 
into a mould or pudding-basin previously spread 
with butter; steam the pudding for about an hour 
and a half, and when done dish it up with either 
a plain arrow-root or custard sauce over it. 

Jiice Flummery. 
Rice that is ground coarse, in a hand-mill, i« 
much better for making flummery than the flour 
you buy. Put 1 quart of milk to boil; mix with 
water 5 tablespoonsful of ground rice, and stir it 
in the milk when it boils; while the milk is cold 
put in vanilla or lemon ; wet your moulds with 
cold cream or water; keep stirring the rice till it 
is thick, when pour it out in the moulds; just be- 
fore dinner turn them out on dishes. Have c^ am, 
sugar, aud nutmeg mixed, to eat with it. 



224 



COOKERY. 



Rice Fritters. 

Take 2 tencupfuls of boiled rice, cooled and 
masheil, 1 pint of milk, 1 egg, a handful of flour; 
season with a little salt. Have a pan of lard 
boiling hot; put them in and ivy quickly. 
Naples Biscuits. 

Whisk 10 eggs till light; add to them 1 pound 
of dried flour and 1 of powdered sugar; beat all 
together till perfectly light; put in some rose- 
water and nutmeg, an<l bake in small shallow 
pans, in a moderately-heated oven. 

Soft O ingerbrend. 

One pound of butter, i a pound of sugar, 10 
eggs, 1 teaspoonful of cinnamon, 2 tablcspoonfuls 
of ginger, 3 half pints of molasses, 1 gill of milk; 
2 pounds of flour, 2 tablespoonfuls of saleratus. 
Beat the batter, sugar, ginger, and cinnamon to- 
gether until light; then stir in one-fourth of the 
flour; whisk the eggs very thick, and add by de- 
grees. Mi.\ the milk and molasses together, which 
stir in gradually ; then the remainder of the flour, 
hnlf at a time. Beat all well together, then add 
the saleratus, mix, and bake. 

. French Loaf Cake. 

One pound of sugar, J pound of butter, 1 pound 
of flour, 7 eggs, 1 cup of cream, the grating and 
juice of 1 lemon, ^ wineglass of brandy or Ma- 
deira, 1 teaspoonful of saleratus. Beat the butter 
and sugar very light, then stir in the cream ; after 
which beat in one-fourth of the flour; whisk the eggs 
until very thick, which add by degrees, then the 
remainder of the flour, half at a time, alternately 
with the gritting and juice of the lemon. After 
beating all well together, add the saleratus, after 
which beat but a few minutes. Line your pans 
(either square or round) with white paper, and 
bake in a moderate oven. 

Madison Cahe. 

Half a pound of butter, | of a pound of sugar, 
] pound of flour, 8 eggs, 1 gill of cream, 1 nut- 
meg, 1 pound of raisins chopped, | of a pound of 
currants. Beat the butter and sugar until very 
light, to which add the cream; whisk the eggs 
until very thick, and stir in alternately with the 
flour. Beat all well together; then add the spice 
and fruit. Butter and paper your pans, put in 
the batter, spread it over smooth with a knife, and 
bake in a moderate oven. 

Black Cake. 

One pound of butter, 1 pound of sugar, 1 pound 
of flour, 10 eggs, 2 pounds of raisins (seeded and 
chopped), 2 pounds of currants (washed, dried, 
and picked), 1 pound of citron (cut thin and 
small), 1 wineglass of Madeira wine, 2 wineglasses 
of brandy, the grating of 1 large nutmeg, 2 tea- 
spoonfuls of cinnamon, 1 teaspoonful of mace and 
cloves mi.xed. Beat the butter and sugar to a 
cream; then stir in one-fourth of the flour, whisk 
the eggs very thick, which add gradually; then 
the remainder of the flour, half at a time; after 
beiating well, add the wine, brandy, and spice. 
Then mix all the fruit together, and add one-third 
at a time. Beat well. Then butter and line your 
pan T^ith white paper, put in the mixture, smooth 
it with a knife, and bake in a moderate oven, about 
four hours. 

Sponge Cake. 

Twelve eggs and their weight in sugar, and the 
weight of 7 eggs in flour, and the peel and juice 
of 1 large lemon. Separate the eggs, beat the 
yolks, and then add sugar until thick and light. 
Whisk the whites until stiff and dry, and add with 
the flour. Stir sufliciently to mix the flour and 
whites through, but avoid beating as that will 



destroy the lightness. Grease your pan (either 
square or round) with fresh butter, and bake in a 
very moderate oven. 

Macaroons, 
One pound of pulverized sugar, the whites of 5 
eggs, i a pound of sweet almonds, 1 ounce of bitter 
almonds. Mix the almonds, bbinch and pound 
them quite fine ; beat the eggs very dry, and add 
the sugar fer^ gradually, then stir in the aimonda 
lightly, put them on white paper with a teaspoon, 
about an inch apart. Bake them in a slack oven. 

To make a rich Plum Cake. 

Take 1 pound of fresh butter, 1 pound of sugar, 
IJ pounds of flour, 2 pounds of currants, a glass 
of brandy, 1 pound of sweetmeats, 2 ounces of 
sweet almonds, 10 eggs, i of an ounce of allspice, 
and i of an ounce of cinnamon. 

Molt the butter to a cream and put in the sugar. 
Stir it till quite light, adding the allspice, and 
pounded cinnamon; in a quarter of an hour take 
the yolks of the eggs, and work them in, two or 
three at a time; and the whites of the same must 
by this time be beaten into a strong sjiow quite 
ready to work in; as the paste must not stand to 
chill the butter, or it will be heavy, work in the 
whites gradually ; then add the orange-peel, lemon, 
and citron, cut in fine strips, and the currants, 
which must be mixed in well with the sweet al- 
monds. Then add the sifted flour and glass of 
brandy. Bake this cake in a tin hoop in a hot 
oven for three hours, and put sheets of paper 
under it to keep it from burning. 

To make a good Plain Cake. 
The following is a receipt for making a good 
plain cake : Take as much dough as will make a 
quartern loaf (either made at home or procured at 
ihe baker's), work into this a quarter of a pound 
of butter, a quarter of a pound of moist sugar, and 
a handful of caraway seeds. When well worked 
together, pull into pieces the size of a golden pip- 
pin, and work it together again. This must be 
done three times, or it will be in lumps, and 
heavy when baked. 

Bich Pudding Pound Cake. 

Boil a teacup of rice in a pint and a half of 
water, pour over 1 quart of milk, beat the yolks 
of 5 eggs, add 5 tablespoonfuls of sugar, let it come 
to a simmer, then pour into a pudding dish and 
flavor; beat the whites of 5 eggs, 5 tablespoonfuls 
of sugar to an icing, spread it over the top of the 
pudding and brown it. 

A rich Seed Cake. 

Take IJ pounds of flour well dried, 1 pound 
of butter, 1 pound of loaf sugar, beat and sifted, 
8 eggs, and 2 ounces of caraway seeds, 1 grated 
nutmeg, and its weight in cinnamon. Beat 
the butter into a cream, put in the sugar, beat the 
whites of the eggs and the yolks separately, then 
mix them with the butter and sugar. Beat in the 
flour, spices, and seed, a little before sending it 
away. Bake it two hours in a quick oven. 

Ratafia Cakes. 
Beat i a pound each of sweet and bitter almonds 
in fine orange, rose, or ratafia water, mix i a 
pound of fine pounded and sifted sugar with the 
same, add the whites of 4 eggs well beaten to it, 
set it over a moderate fire in a preserving-pan. 
Stir it one way until it is pretty hot, and when a 
little cool form it into small rolls, and cut it into 
thin cakes. Shake some flour lightly on them, 
give each a light tap, and put them on sugar 
papers, sift a little sugar on them, and put them 
into a thorough slack oven. 



CAKES. 



225 



Queen Cakes. 
Tnke a pniinrl of sugar, beat, and sift it, a pound 
«f well dried flour, a pound of butter. 8 eggs, and 
J a pound of currants washed and picked; grate 
a nutmeg and an equal quantity of mace and cin- 
namon, work the butter to a cream, put in the 
Biigar. bent the whites of the eggs twenty minutes, 
.inil mix them with the butter and sugar. Then 
bcit the yolk? for half an hour and put them to 
the liutter. Beat the whole together, and when 
it is rcaily for the oven, put in the flour, spices, 
and currants; sift a little sugar over them, and 
bake them in tins. 

Lemon Oaken. 

Take 1 pound of sugar, J of a pound of flour, 14 
eggs, 2 tablespoonfuls of rose-water, the raspings 
and juice of 4 lemons; when the yolks are well 
beat up and separated, add the powdered sugar, the 
lemon raspings, the juice, and the rose-water; 
beat them well together in a pan with a round 
bottom, till it becomes quite light, for half an hour. 
Put the paste to the whites previously well whisked 
about, and mix it very light. When well mixed 
sift in the flour and knead it in with the paste, as 
light as possible; form the biscuits and bake 
them in small oval tins, with six sheets of paper 
nnder them, in a moderate heat. Butter the tins 
well or it will prove difficult to take out the bis- 
cuits, which will be exceedingly nice if well made. 
Ice them previous to baking, but very lightly and 
even. 

Almond Cakes. 

Take 6 ounces of sweet almonds, i a pound of 
powdered sugar, 7 eggs, 6 ounces of flour, and the 
raspings of 4 lemons. Pound the almonds very 
fine, with whole eggs, add the sugar and lemon 
raspings, and mix them well together in the 
mortar. Take it out, put it in a basin, and stir it 
with the yolks of eggs, till it is white as a sponge- 
paste; beat up the whites of the eggs to a strong 
snow, mix them very light with the paste, then 
take the flour and mix it as light as possible; on 
this the goodness of the cakes principally depends, 
as it is impossible to make a good cake with a 
a heavy paste; butter the mould, and bake in a 
slack oven for an hour, with ten sheets of paper 
nnder it and one on the top. 

Fancy Biscuits. 
Take 1 pound of almonds, 1 pound of .sugar, and 
■ome orange-flower water. Pound the almonds 
very fine, and sprinkle them with oranse-flower 
water : when they are perfectly smooth to the 
touch, put them in a small pan, with flour sifted 
through a silk sieve; put the pan on a slow fire, 
and dry the paste till it does not stick to the fin- 
gers; move it well from the bottom, to prevent 
its burning; then take it off', and roll it into small 
round fillets, to make knots, rings, etc., and cut it 
into various shapes; make an icing of different 
colors, dip one, side of them in it, and set them on 
wire gratings to drain. They^may be varied by 
strewing over them coloretl pistachios, or colored 
almonds, according to fancy. 

Fine Cheesecakes. 
Put a pint of warm cream into a saucepan over 
the fire, and when it is warm, add to it 5 quarts of 
new milk. Then put in some rennet, stir it, and 
when it is turned, put the curd into a linen cloth 
or bag. Let the whey drain from it, but do not 
squeeze it too much. Put it into a mortar, and 
pound it as fine as butter. Add i a pound of 
sweet almonds blanched, i a pound of macaroons, 
or Naples biscuits. Then add 8 well beaten yolks 
of eggs, a grated nutmeg, a little ruse or orange- 
15 



water, and i a pound of fine sugar. Mix all well 
together. 

Almond Cheesecakes. 
Put 4 ounces of blanched sweet almonds into 
cold water, and beat them in a marble innrtar or 
wooden bowl, with some rose-water. Pat to it 4 
ounces of sugar, and the yolks of 4 eg^s beat fine. 
Work it till it becomes white and frothy, and then 
make a rich puff'-paste as follows : Take ^ a pound 
of flour, and i of a pound of butter; rub a little 
of the butter into the flour, mix it stiff with a 
little cold water, and then roll out the paste. 
Strew on a little flour, and layover it, in thin bits, 
one-third of the butter; throw a little more flour 
over the bottom, and do the like three different 
times. Put the paste into the tins, grate sugar 
over them, and bake them gently. 

Brioche Paste. 
One pound of flour, 10 ounces of butter, i an 
ounce of German yeast, a teaspoonful each of salt 
and sugar, about 7 eggs. Put J part of the flour 
on a slab, spread it out to form a well, then place 
the yeast in the centre, and procee-d to dissolve it 
with a little tepid water; when this is eS"ected add 
sufficient water to mix the whole into a rather 
soft paste, knead this into the form of a round 
ball, put it into a stewpan capable of containing 
3 times its quantity, score it round the sides with 
a knife, put the lid on and set it to rise in a rather 
warm place. In winter it may be put in the screen, 
but in hot weather the fermentation will proceed 
more satisfactorily if it is merely placed on the 
kitchen table or in some such place of moderate 
warmth. This part of the operation is termed 
setting the sponge. Next put the remainder of 
the flour on the slab and spread it out in the centre 
to form the well, then place the salt and sugar and 
a teaspoonful of water to dissolve these, after which 
the butter must be added; break in 6 eg;;s and 
work the whole together with the hands until well 
mixed* first working it between the hands and 
then rubbing it with both fists held flat on the 
slab and moving them to and fro, so as thoroughly 
to reduce any remaining lumps in the paste. 
By the time the paste is mixed the sponge will 
probably have risen sufficiently; to be perfect it 
must rise to 3 times its original size. When spread 
out on the paste prepared to receive it. it should 
present the appearance of a Sponge, from which 
it takes its name. Both the above should be 
then gently, but thoroughly mixed. A napkin 
must be spread in a wooden bowl or a basin, 
some flour shaken over it, and the brioche paste 
lifted into it; then shrike a little flour over the 
paste, and after throwing the ends of the napkin 
over all, set the bowl containing the paste in 
a cool place free from any current of air. It ia 
usual to make this kind of paste late in the even- 
ing previously to the day on which it is required 
for use. The first thing on the following morning, 
the brioche paste must be turned off the napkin 
on to the slab, then shake some flour under and 
over it and fold the paste over half a dozen times, 
pressing it down with the knuckles each time; 
put the paste back again into the bowl in the same 
way as before, and about three hours aftcrwarda 
knead it again in a similar manner previously to 
its being baked. If the paste when finished ap- 
pears to be full of small globules of air, and ia 
perfectly elastic to the touch, it is certain to be 
well made, and when baked will be both light and 
of a bright clear color. 

If the paste is intended to be made into one, 
brioche only, take five-sixths of it; mould this into 
the form of a round ball or cushion and place it 
in a plain moi^ld or paper case (previously spread 



226 



COOKERY. 



with butter) with the smooth surface uppermost; 
press it down in the case with the Ivnuckles, and 
after moulding the remaining piece of paste in a 
similar manner, first wet the surfice of the other 
part over with the paste-brush dipped in water, 
and then after inserting the pointed end of this 
into the centre of that portion of the brioche 
which has been already placed in the case, press 
the head down upon it with the back of the hand ; 
egg the hriiiche over with a paste-brush, score the 
sides slightly in a slanting direction, place it on a 
baking sheet and put it in the oven (at moderate 
heat). As soon as the brioche begins to rise and 
has acquired a slight degree of color, let it be 
covered over with a sheet of paper. About two 
hours will suffice to bake a large brioche of double 
the quantity of paste described in this article. 

Note. — Brioches may be varied in their form 
when intended to be served as fancy bread for 
breakfast, etc. ; in which case they should be 
moulded in the shape of twists, fingers, rings, etc. 
When served on the refreshment table at routs, 
public breiikfasts, balls, etc., dried cherries, citron, 
candied orange or lemon-peel, pine-apple or an- 
gelica steeped in some kind of liqueur may be 
introduced. In either of these cases, previously 
to mixing in, the fruit part of the paste must be 
reserved, which after being rolled out must be 
used to inclose the other part of the brioche. 
This precaution is necessary to prevent the fruit 
from protruding through the paste, as it becomes 
calcined by the heat of the oven and gives an 
unsightly appearance to the sponge. When fruit 
has been mixed in a brioche it should be (when 
baked) glazed with fine sugar by the salamander. 
Gruvere and Parmesan cheese in equal propor- 
tions, are snmetimes introduced into a brinche for 
a second course remove ; the first should be cut up 
in dice, the latter grated. As in the above cases, 
this kind of brioche must be enclosed in a portion 
of the paste reserved for that purpose. 
Scotch Bread. 
One pound of flour, 1 pound of sugar, 1 pound 
of butter, 8 eggs, i a pound of candied lemon, 
orani^e and citron-peel in equal proportions, a gill 
of Cognac brandy, a very little salt, and 4 ounces 
of white comfits. Put the butter in a basin, work 
it with a wooden spoon until it presents the ap- 
pearance of thick cream ; then add the flour, sugar, 
eggs and salt, gradually throwing in a handful of 
each and two eggs at a time; when the whole is 
thoroughly mixed the candied peel (cut in shreds), 
also the brandy and the rind of two oranges or 
lemons (rubbed on sugar) must next be added. 
This paste should now be poured into tins of an 
oblong shajie about 2 in<'hcs deep, spread with 
butter, and after the comfits have been strewn 
over the surface a little fine sugar should be shaken 
over the top previously to placing them in the oven 
on baking sheets; they must be baked of a very 
light color. 

Note. — This kind of cake is a genernl favorite 
in Scotland, being served on most occasions at 
breakfast, luncheon, or for casual refreshment, and 
also with the dessert. 

Plnin Seed-Cake. 
One quartern of dough, 6 eggs, 8 ounces of sugar, 
8 ounces of butter, ^ an ounce of caraway-seeds 
and a teaspoonful of salt. Spread the dough out 
on the piistry-slab, then add the whole of the 
above-named ingredients, work them well together 
with the hands so as thoroughly to incorporate 
them with the dough: the eggs should be addi'd 
2 at a time. When the paste is ready put it into 
a plain mould (previously spread with butter), and 
get it to rise in a warm place. As soon as the 



fermentation has taken place in a satisfac.ory 
miinner, the cake should be immediately put into 
the oven and baked of a light color. When done 
serve it cold for luncheon or otherwise. This kind 
of cake may be varied by introducing raisins, cur- 
rants, or candied orange or lemon-jieel. 
BriiKnels BIscnilH, or Ruxks. 
One pound of flour, 10 ounces of butter, ^ an 
ounce of German yeast, 4 ounces of sugar, 4 whole 
eggs, 4 yolks, a teaspoonful of salt and a gill of 
cream. Set the sponge with one-fourth part of the 
flour and j-east in the usual way (as for brioche), 
and while it is rising prepare the paste as follows: 
Place the remainder of the flour on the slab, spread 
it out in the centre to form the well, place in this 
the salt and sugar (with a very little water to dis- 
solve the salt), the butter and eggs ; this must then 
be beaten with the hand on the slab until it pre- 
sents an appearance of elasticity ; then add the 
whipped cream and sponge after the whole has 
well worked once more ; the paste must be placed 
in long narrow tins about 2 inches deep and of 
about the sume width, preparatory to placing the 
paste in the moulds; these should be first well 
floured inside (to prevent the paste from sticking), 
then the paste rolled out to their own leni:th and 
about one and a half inches thick dropped into 
them and set in a warm place to rise. When the 
paste has sufficiently risen it must be gently turned 
out on a baking-sheet previously spread with butter, 
then egged all over with a soft paste-brush and 
baked of a bright deep yellow color. When done 
cut them up in slices about one-quarter of an inch 
thick, place them flat on a baking-sheet and put 
them again in the oven to acquire a light j'ellow 
color on both sides. These form a superior kind 
of rusks, and are well adapted for the refreshment 
table at evening parties or for the breakfast table. 
Note. — Rusks may alSo be made with brioche 
paste or pound cake. 

PoumUCol-e 
One pound of butter, 1 pound of sugar, 8 eggs, 
1 wineglass of wine and peach-water mixed, Ij 
pounds of flour, 1 nutmeg,! teaspoonful of cin- 
namon, 1 pound of dried currants. Carefully 
wash, dry and pick the currants. Beat the but- 
ter and sugar very light; then by degrees add 
the wine, spice, fruit and one-fourth of the flour. 
Whisk the eggs until very thick, which stir in the 
butter and sugar gradually, then add the remain- 
ing flour, one-third at a time. Beat all well to- 
gether; line your pan with white paper, put in 
the batter, smooth the top with a knife and bake 
in a moderate oven about two hours and a half. 
Duchess Loaves. 
Half a pint of milk or water, 4 ounces of but- 
ter, 2 ounces of sugar, 5 ounces of flour, 3 eggs, 
a few drops of essence of orange and a very lit- 
tle salt. Put the water, butter, sugar and the salt 
into a stewpan on the fire, and as soon as these 
begin to boil withdraw the stewpan from the fire 
and add the flour; stir the whole well together 
with a wooden spoon over the stove fire for about 
three minutes, by which time the ingredients 
should present the appearance of a soft, compact 
paste. The essence of orange (or any other kind 
of flavor) should now be added, ami also 1 egg; 
incorporate these with the paste, then mix in the 
other two eggs, and if the paste should be stiff 
another egg or a yolk only may be added. This 
must be laid on the pastry-sliib in small pieces 
about the size of a pigeon's egg, then rolled out 
with a little flour in the form of a finger and 
placed in order upon a baking-sheet spread with 
iiutter; they should now be egged over and baked 
of a bright light color. Just before they are quite 



CAKES. 



227 



done shake some fine sifted sugnr over them, set 
them back again in the oven until the sugar is 
nearly melted, ami then pass the reil-hot sala- 
mander over them to '^'we them a liright, glossy 
appearance; the loaves must now be immediately 
withdrawn 'rom the oven and allowed to cool. 
Just before sending this kind of pastry to table 
make an incision down tlie sides and fill the small 
loaves with apricot-jam ; then dish them up in a 
pyramidal form on a napkin, and serve. 

Almond Cuken. 

Six ounces of flour, 8 ounces of sugar, 2 ounees 
of ground or finely-powdered almonds (with a few 
bitter alini.nds), 6 yolks of eggs, 2 whole eggs, 4 
whites whipped, a glass of brandy, a little salt. 4 
Ounces of ch"pped almonds mixed with 2 ounces of 
Bugar and half the white of an egg. First work the 
butter in a basin with a spoon until it presents a 
creamy appearance ; ne.xt add the flour, sugar, al- 
monds, brandy, eggs and salt gradually ; then mix 
in the whipped whites of eggs lightly; pour this 
paste on a baking-sheet about an inch and a half 
deep (previously buttered), bal^e it of a light color. 
When the cake is ne.arly done spread the prepared 
chopped almonds over the top, and then put it 
back again into the oven to finish baking ; when 
done the almonds should be of a light fawn color. 
Turn the cake out carefully, and when cold cut it 
up into bands about an inch and a half wide ; 
then again divide them into diamond-shaped 
cakes and dish them up pyramidally. Some whip- 
ped cream maybe placed in the centre of the dish 
and the cakes neatly dished up round it. Dried 
cherries. Sultana raisins, currants, any kind of 
candied peel, pistachios, or Spanish nuts, may be 
added. The cakes may also be flavored with any 
kind of essence or liqueur. 

MeviiigMes. 

One pound of sifted sugar and 12 whites of 
eggs. Whisk the whites in an egg-bowl until they 
present the appearance of a perfectly white, smooth, 
substantial froth, resembling snow ; then substi- 
tute a spoon for the whisk and proceed to mix in 
the whole of the sugar lightly ; carefully avoid 
working the batter too much, for fear of render- 
ing it soft, as in that ease it becomes difiicult to 
mould the iiieiiiigi(es ; they can never be so grace- 
fully shaped as when it is kept firm. Next cut 
Bouie stiff foolscap paper into bands about two 
inches wide; then take a tablespoon and gather 
it nearly full of the batter by working it up at 
the side of the bowl in the form of an egg, and 
drop this slopingly upon one of the bands of pa- 
per, at the same time drawing the edge of the 
epoon sharply round the outer b.ise of the vie- 
ringite, so as to give to it a smooth and rounded 
appearance, in order that it may exactlj' resemblo 
an egg. Proceed in this manner until the band 
is full, keeping the nterlnrjiien about two inches 
and a half apart from each other on the paper; 
as each band is filled, place them close beside each 
other on the slab or table, and when all the batter is 
used up, shake some ritther coarse sifted sugar all 
over the in and allow them to remain for about three 
minutes ; then take hold of one of the bands at 
each end, shake off the loose sugar and place the 
band of meringuen on the board, and so on with 
the other bands, which, when placed carefully on 
the boards closely side by side, must be put in the 
oven (at very moderate heat) and baked of alight 
fawn color. When done, each piece of meringue 
must be carefully removed from off the paper, 
the white part of the inside scooped out with a 
dessert-.-^poon and then nicely smoothed over ; at'ter 
this they must be placed in neat order on a baking- 
sheet and put back again in the oven to dry, 



taking particular care that Ibey do not acquir* 
any more color. When about to send the meiin- 
giiex to table, whip some double cream, season it 
with a little powdered sugar and either a glass of 
any kind of liqueur, a few drops of orange-flower- 
water, or some pounded vanilla; garnish each 
piece with a spoonful of this cream, join two to- 
gether, dish them up in a pyramidal form on a 
napkin, and serve. 

Niiif. — }ti'ringi(ei! may be made of all sizes, 
and may also lie shaped in the form of small 
bunches of grapes; for this purpose it is neces- 
sary to use a "cornet" or biscuit-forcer of paper 
to mould the berries. In order to vary their ap- 
pearance, previously to shaking the sugar over 
theiri, some finely-shred pistachios or almonds, 
rough granite sugar, and small currants may be 
strewn over them. They may also be garnished 
with preserves, or any kind of iced creams. 

Swedes. 

One pound of pounded sugar, 12 ounces of 
finely-shred almonds, 4 ounces of flour, a stick 
of vanilla (pounded and sifted), and 1 whole egg 
and the white of another. Let the whole of the 
fore-named ingredients be well mixed together ia 
a basin, and then with a tablespoon proceed to 
mould the preparation into round balls the size 
of a large walnut, which are to be placed on pieces 
of sheet-wafer previously cut to the size of half- 
crown pices ; these must now be placed on baking- 
sheets, and, after slightly shaking some fine sugar 
over them, are to be baked of a light color in a 
slack oven. 

Chocolate Cream. 

Put over the fire 1 quart of milk ; when it comes 
to a boil add 'A tablespoonfuls of chocolate. 
Thicken with corn-starch, sweeten to the taste, 
and flavor with lemon or vanilla. Serve it up 
cold with cream. 

Chocolate Glacea. 

The foundatiim for these may be made either 
of poundcake, Genoese, or sponge-cake; the batter 
for making either of the foregoing may be first 
baked in a baking-sheet, and afterward cut out in 
shapes and sizes to suit taste or convenience, or 
otherwise ma}' be baked in appropriate moulds or 
cases for the purpose; they must then be dipped 
in the following preparation : — First boil the sugar 
as directed in the foregoing article, and when it 
has reached its proper degree, add 6 ounces of 
chocolate dissolved with a wineglassful of water; 
work the whole well together, and use it while 
hot; but if it should become cold and set before 
the operation is terminated, the preparation may 
be easily liquefied by stirring it over the fire. 

Cakes, both large and small, may l>e glorei or 
glazed in this manner in almost infinite variety, 
by using any kind of liquor, or a very strong in- 
fusion of tea or coffee instead of the chocolate 
here recommended. 

Albert Bincitits, 

Ten ounces of pounded sugar, 8 ounces of fine- 
ly-chopped almonds, 6 ounces of flour, 12 yolks 
and 14 whites of eggs, 2 ounces of candied orange- 
peel shred fine, a teaspoonful of cinnamon-powder, 
half that quantity of ground cloves, and a little 
grated lemon-rind. Work the sugar and the 
almonds with the yolks and 2 whites of eggs for 
twenty minutes, then incorporate the remaining 
12 whites firmly whisked together with the flour, 
candied peel and spices. Next pour the batter 
into a convcnient-si/.ed paper case, and bake it in 
a moderate oven; and when done and sufliciently 
cold, let it be cut up into thin slices for dishing up. 
This preparation may also be baked in small 



228 



COOKEET. 



moulds, or forced out upon paper or Lnking-sheets 
previously buttered and fldured for the purpose. 

Charlotte de Rimse. 
Two quarts of cream, 2 ounces of isinglass, 1 
pint of milk, 3 vanilla beans, the yolks of 4 eggs, 
2 ounces of sugar. Put the isinglass in a sauce- 
pan, and pour over it one teacupful of boiling 
■water, place it on the fire, and let it remain for 
one hour without boiling. Let the milk and va- 
nilla boil ti>gether slowly until it is reduced to 1 
gill; beat the eggs and stir them in the milk 
■whilst it is on the fire; then add the isinglass and 
sugar, and keep stirring it until it is cooked about 
as much as custard ; strain it through a fine sieve 
and set it in a cool place; when nearly cold add 
the cream and stir them well together; put the 
mixture in a dish or bowl, lined with sponge-cake. 

Blanc-Mange. 

Put into 1 quart of water an ounce of isinglass, 
and let it boil till it is reduced to a pint; then put 
in the whites of 4 eggs, with 2 tablespoonfuls of rice- 
water, and sweeten it to taste. Run it through 
a jelly-bag, and then put to it 2 ounces of sweet 
and 1 ounce of bitter almonds. Scald them in the 
jelly, and then run them through a hair sieve. 
Put it into a China bowl, and the next day turn 
it out. Garnish with flowers or green leaves, and 
stick all over the top blanched almonds cut 
lengthways. 

Clear Blanc-Mange. 

Skim off the fat, and strain a quart of strong 
calves'-foot jelly ; add to the same the whites of 
4 eggs well beaten; set it over the fire and stir it 
till it boils. Then pour it into a jelly-bag, and 
run it through several times till it is clear. Beat 
an ounce each of sweet and bitter almonds to a 
paste with a spoonful of rose-water strained 
through a cloth. Then mix it with the jelly, and 
add to it 3 spoonfuls of very good cream. Set it 
again over the fire, and stir it till it almost boils. 
Pour it into a bowl ; then stir it often till almost 
cold, and then fill the moulds. 
Blanc-Mange. 

Parboil 12 ounces of Jordan and 2 ounces of 
bitter almonds in a quart of water for about two 
minutes; drain them on a sieve, remove the skins, 
and wash them in cold water; after they have 
been soaked in cold water for half an hour, pound 
them in a mortar with 4 ounces of sugar, until the 
■whole presents the appearance of a soft paste. 
This must then be placed in a large basin, with 
12 ounces of loaf sugar, and mi.xed with rather 
more than a pint of spring-water; cover the basin 
with a sheet of paper, twisted round the edges, 
and allow the preparation to stand in a cool place 
for about an hour, in order to extract the flavor 
Cf the almonds more eflectually. The milk should 
tben be strained off from the almonds through a 
napkin, with pressure, by wringing it at both 
ends. Add 2 ounces of clarified isinglass to the 
milk of almonds, pour the blanc-mange into a 
mould imbedded in rough ice, and when set quite 
firm turn it out on its dish with caution, after 
having first dipped the mould in warm water. 

ORIGINAL RECEIPTS IN COOKERY AND 
PASTRY, ETC. 
1. Shreivsbnyy Cake. 
Sift 1 pound of sugar, some pounded cinnamon, 
and a nutmeg grated, into 3 pounds of flour. Add 
a little rose-water to 3 eggs well beaten, mix them 
■with the flour, then pour in as much butter melted 
as will make it a good thickness to roll out. 
2. Another. — Take 2 pounds of flour, 1 pound of 



sugar finely pounded; mix them together yiake 
out J of a pound to roll them in) ; i pound of but- 
ter, 4 eggs, 4 spoonsful of cream, and 2 of rose- 
water. Beat them well tosrether, and mix them 
with the flour into a paste: roll them into thin 
cakes and bake them in a quick oven. 

3. Macaroons. 

Blanch 4 ounces of almonds, and pound them 
with 4 tablespoonfuls of orange-flower water ; beat 
the whites of 4 eggs to a froth, mix it with a pound 
of sugar, sift the almonds into a paste, and lay it 
in different cakes on paper to bake. 

4. Another. — Take 1 pound of almonds, blnnch 
them and throw them into cold water, then rub 
them dry with a cloth, and pound them in a mor- 
tar; moisten them with orange-flower or rose- 
water, lest they turn to oil : then take 1 pound of 
fine loaf sugar, whisk the whites of 4 eggs; beat 
all well together, and shape them round with a 
spoon, on paper previously buttered and sugared, 
to prevent their burning; bake them in a gentle 
oven on tin plates. 

5. Savoy BiHcnit. 

Take of sugar the weight of 12 eggs, of flour 
the weight of 7 eggs ; beat the yellows and whites 
of 12 eggs separate ; grate in the rind of 1 lemon ; 
after being in the oven a few minutes, grate on 
some sugar. You may add peach-water or lemon- 
juice. 

6. Jitmbles. 

Take IJ pounds of flour, 1 pound of sugar, J 
pound of butter, 4 yolks and 2 whites of eggs, 
with a wineglass of rose-water, roll them thick 
with fine powdered sugar, and bake on tins. 

7. Almond Cake. 

Take 1 pound of almonds blanched and beaten, 
10 eggs well beaten, 1 pound of sugar, and J pound 
of flour. 

8. French Rolls. 

Take 1 spoonful of lard or butter, 3 pints of 
flour, 1 cup of yeast, and as much milk as will 
work it up to the stiffness of bread; just before 
you take them from the oven, take a clean towel 
and wipe them over with milk. 

9. Wajfles. 
To 1 quart of milk add 5 eggs, IJ pounds of 
flour, i pound of butter ; beat them well together; 
when baked, sift sugar and cinnamon on them. 
If you make the wa files before it is time to bake 
them, add 1 spoonful of yeast. 

10. Poundcake Gingerbread. 
Six eggs. 1 pound of sugar, 1 pint of molasses, 
1 teacupful of ginger, 1 teaspoonful of saleratus 
dissolved, a little mace, nutmeg, 1 pound of fresh 
butter creamed; after these ingredients are well 
mixed, beat in 2 pounds of flour. Fruit is an 
improvement. 

11. Gi'ngercake. 

Three pounds of flour, 1 pound of sugar, 1 pound 
of butter rubbed in very fine, 2 ounces of ginger, 
a little nutmeg, 1 pint of molasses, 1 gill of cream; 
make them warm together, and bake them in a 
slack oven. 

12. Gingerbread. 

One pound and a half of flour, J pound of sugar, 
and i a pound of butter, well rubbed together; 1 
ounce of ginger, a few caraway seeds, 24 allspice, 
12 cloves, a little cinnamon, I pint of molasses. 
Knead well. 

13. Short Gingerbread. 

One pound of sugar, j pound of butter, 5 eggs, 
a little cream and saleratus, If pounds of flour, 
rolled hard. To be baked on tin sheets, marked 
ready to out. 



ORIGINAL RECEIPTS. 



229 



14. Cahes'-foot Jelly. 
Four calves'-feet well boiled, i pound of sugar, 
I pint of wine, 2 lemons, the whites of 4 eggs, and 
shells; boil all together about five minutes, then 
pour through a flannel bag to strain. 

15. Apple Pudding. 

Half the whites and all the yolks of 10 eggs, 
beat them very light, add 1 pint of apples, after 
they are stewed and put through a sifter, stir in 
i pound of butter, the grated peel of 2 large 
lemons, and juice of one; sugar to taste. Mace 
and nutmeg are very good substitutes for lemon- 
juice. 

16. Bnhed Apple Puddiug. 

Pare and quarter 4 largo apples, boil them ten- 
der with the rind of a lemon in so little water 
that when done no water may remain, beat them 
quite fine in a mortar, add the crumb of a stuall 
roll, i pound of butter melted, the yolks of 6 and 
whites of 3 eggs, juice of ^ a lemon, sugar to your 
taste; beat all well together, and bake it in a 
paste. 

17. Lemon Blanc-Mange. 

Pour 1 pint of hot water upon 1 ounce of isin- 
glass, when it is diss<dved add the juice of 3 
lemons, the peel of one grated, 6 yolks of eggs 
beHtcn, i a pint of Lisbon wine, sweeten it to your 
taste : let it boil, then strain it, and put it in your 
moulds. 

18. Mrs. Hdffmann's Blnnc-Minge. 

Take 2 ounces of isinglass, 1 quart of new milk, 
strain it and sweeten to your taste, add rose or 
peach-water, let it be only milk warm when you 
put it in the moulds; if you wish it particularly 
nice, blanch ^ pound almonds, beat them very fine 
in a mortar and stir in before you boil or strain. 

19. Orniige Pudding. 

Take I pound of butter creamed, 1 pound of 
sugar, 10 eggs, the juice of 2 oranges; boil the 
peel, then pound it fine, and mix it with the jaice; 
add the juice of one lemon, a wineglass of brandy, 
wine, and rose-water. 

20. Hominy Pudding 

Take the hominy, warm it, and mash through 
a sifter until you get a pint, add i of a pound of 
butter, melted, stir a teacup of cream into it, and 
let it cool: then add half the whites of 6 eggs; 
sugar, nutmeg, mace, and wine to your taste. 
Bake it. 

21. Cocoantit Pudding. 

To 1 large cocoanut, grated, add the whites of 
8 eggs, J pound of sugar, J pound of butter, 2 
tablespoonfuls of rose-water. Bake it in a paste. 

22. Jiice Pudding. 
Take J pound of rice, tied in a cloth, boiled well, 
and then put through a sieve; add ] quart of 
milk, and keep stirring until it thickens ; then add 
6 ounces of butter stirred into the rice, 12 yolks 
and 6 whites of eggs well beaten; mace, nutmeg, 
wine and sugar, to your taste. This quantity 
will make 2 large puddings. If you choose you 
may add currants or any other fruit. 

23. Aiiiitliei: — Boil the rice very soft, dry from 
water, ,«tir in a little butter, 1 pint of milk, and 3 
eggs well beaten, sweeten to ynur taste, pour it in 
your dish, sprinkle flour on the top, put little bits 
of butter here an J there on the top. Bake slowly. 

24. Another, highly approved. — T-Ake 2 table- 
Spoonfuls of raw rice, 1 quart of new milk, a bit 
of butter the size of an egg, a little cinnamon, 
sweeten to your taste, put the pan in a slack oven 
after the bread is taken out; eat when cold. 

25. Another. — Put in a deep pan \ pound of rice 



washed and picked, 2 ounces of butter, 4 ounces 
of sugar, a few allspice pounded, and 2 quarts of 
milk. Bake in a slow oven. 

26. Another. — Sweeten rice in milk, strain it off, 
and having pared and cored apples, put the rice 
around them, tying each in a cloth with a bit of 
lemon-peel, a clove, or cinnamon. Boil them well. 

27. Ground Rice or Sago Pudding. 
Boil a tablespoonful of it heaped, in a pint of 
new milk, with lemon-peel and cinnamon; when 
cold, add sugar, nutmeg, and 2 eggs, well beaten. 

28. Sweet Potato Pudding. 

Take 5 eggs, i a pound of butter, J of a pound 
of sugar, add as much sweet potato as will thicken 
it, the juice and grated peel of 1 lemon, beat it 
very light. 

29. Potato Pudding. 

Take i a pound of boiled potatoes, beat well in 
a mortar with i a pound each of sugar and but- 
ter, the yolks of 10 eggs, the whites of 4, well 
beaten, 2 Naples biscuit grated, and J a pint of 
cream ; mix them well with the other ingredients, 
and pour it on a thin paste. Bake for half an 
hour. 

30. Another. — Take 8 ounces of boiled potatoes, 
2 ounces of butter, 2 eggs, J of a pint of cream, 1 
spoonful of white wine, a little salt, the juice and 
rind of a lemon, beat the whole to a froth, sugar 
to taste — a paste or not as you like. If you want 
it richer, put more butter, sweetmeats, and al- 
monds, with another egg. 

31. Citron Pudding. 

Half a pound of sugar, i a pound of butter 
creamed, the yolks of 9 eggs, a wineglass of 
brandy, J a pound of citron chopped very fine. 

32. Cream Pudding, 

To 3 eggs beaten very light, stir in IJ pints of 
flour, salt to your taste, mix a little milk, then 
put in 6 ounces of sugar, just before you put it in 
the oven add 1 pint of thick cream. Bake for 
three-quarters of an hour. 

33. Custard Pudding. 
One pint of milk, 3 spoonfuls of flour, 6 eggs, 
and salt to your taste. Sugar. 

34. Wedding Cake. 

Three pounds of flour, 3 pounds of butter, 3 
pounds of sugar, 2 dozen of eggs, 3 pounds of rai- 
sins, 6 pounds of currants, 1 pound of citron, 1 
ounce of mace, 1 ounce of cinnamon, 1 ounce of 
nutmegs, J an ounce of cloves, i a pint of brandy. 
Beat the butter with your hand to cream, then 
beat the sugar into the butter, add the froth of the 
j'olks of the eggs after being well beaten, then the 
froth of the whites ; mix fruit, spice, and flour to- 
gether ; then add them in with beating. Five or 
six hours' baking will answer for a large loaf. 

35. Election Cake. 

Five pounds of flour, 2 pounds of sugar, | pound 
of butter, 6 eggs, yeast, 1 pint of milk, and spice 
as you please. 

36. Indian Pudding. 

Boil 1 spoonful of fine Indian flour well, then 
ndd 1 pint of milk, and let it all boil ; when cool, 
beat in 2 eggs. Sweeten and season. 
37. Baked Indian Pudding. 

Eight ounces of mush, 6 ounces of butter, 6 
ounces of sugar, the yolks of 6 eggs, and the white 
of 1; mix the butter in the mush when hot, beat 
the eggs and sugar together; add to the mush, 
when cool, nutmeg, mace, and wine to your taste; 
bake. 



230 



COOKERY. 



38. Friend Wihon's Plum Pudding. 
Mix well together 1 pound of raisins, 1 pound 
of currants, the crumbs of i a loaf of bread, i of a 
pound of flour, 1 pound of suet; stir in 6 eggs and 
1 tumbler of porter; put in i of a nutmeg, i pound 
of citron and cinnamon ; to give taste add 2 ounces 
of fine sugar. You may use, instead of porter, 
a small tea-cup of yetist. Before taking it out of 
the bag dip into cold water. 

39. Apple Custard. 
Take apples, pared, cored, and slightly stewed, 
sufficient to cover the dish, 6 eggs, 1 quart of milk ; 
epice to your taste. Bake it one-third of an hour. 
40. Blnch Cuke. 
One pound and three-quarters of flour, 1 J pounds 
of brown sugar, 1 pound of butter. H pounds of 
raisins, H pounds of currants, i pound of lard, 4 
eggs, 1 pint of milk, 1 nutmeg, and mace, 1 tea- 
spoonful of baking powder. Wine and brandy. 
41. Tiivxtto Citsup. 
Cut up the tomatoes, and between every layer 
sprinkle a layer of salt, let them stand a few hours 
before you boil them, which do very well; then 
strain them through a colander on some horse- 
radish, onions or garlic, mustard-seed, beaten gin- 
ger, pepper and mace; cover it close; let it stand 
a day or two, then bottle and seal it for use. 
42. Green Tomato Soy. 
To 1 peck of green tomatoes, sliced thin, add 1 
pint of salt; stand twenty-four hours, then strain 
anc put them on the fire, with 12 raw onions. 1 
oui.ce of black pepper, 1 ounce of allspice, \ pound 
of ground mustard. ^ pound of white mustard- 
seed, and a little Cayenne pepper. Cover with 
vinegar, and boil until as thick as jam, stirring 
constantly to prevent burning. 

4.3. Puff- Paste. 
One pound and a quarter of flour, and 1 pound 
of butter; divide the butter into 4 equal pans; 
mix one fourth part of the butter with three- 
fourths of the flour; and work the remainder of 
the flour and butter in. 

44. Good Receipt for Paste {for Pies). 
To Impounds of sifted flour allow 1 pound ofbut- 
ter or half butter and half lard. Rub the lard and 
flour through your hands until thoroughly mixed, 
having first put aside 2 tahlespoonfuls of flour to 
make out the paste with ; then break up the but- 
ter in small pieces with your fingers with the flour 
and lard ; moisten with cold water, and press it 
together lightly until it forms a mass, then flour 
the paste-board, lay the dough on it, and with the 
rolling-pin roll it lightly into a thick sheet. 
Sprinkle some of the flour on, cut it into fair 
pieces, and again proceed to roll as before ; do 
this three times, then make the pies. 

For plain home-made pies, to 2 pounds of flour 
i pound butter and \ pound of lard, or all lard. 
45. Biddle Pudding. 
One pint of milk, 4 large tahlespoonfuls of flour, 
4 eggs. Butter the bake-dish. Put it in the oven 
vthen you are about to dish the dinner, allowing 
twenty. five minutes for baking; bring it directly 
from the oven to the table, or it fails. 

Sfiiiee for the above. — 1 cup of brown sugar, 2 
tahlespoonfuls of cream, 1 ounce of butter. Stir 
the butter and sugar thoroughly, then add a little 
of the cream at a time, to keep from separating; 
add wine to the taste in the same manner (not 
quite a wineglass). Let the mixture melt; it will 
be a white froth when done. Enough for five 
persons. 

4fi. lileringne Pudding. 
One quart milk, 1 pint grated bread, the yolks 



of 4 eggs, the rind of 1 lemon grated ; "wecten 
to taste. Bake to a custanl, which will bo in 
about half an hour, then take it from the oven. 
Beat the white.s of the 4 eggs, 2 tablespoonsful of 
sugar, and the juice of the lemon, and put it on 
the top of the pudding. Set. it in the oven again 
and let it brown lightly. 

47. Sponge Cake. 
Fourteen eggs, with their weight in sugar and 
half their weight in flour, the juice and peel of a 
lemon, and one nutmeg; beat the yolks and whites 
separately until stitf, add the sugar to the yolks, 
then add the whites; one minute before the oven 
is ready dredge in the flour. Bake in a quick oven 
half an hour. 

48. Lemon Cake. 

Twelve eggs, IJ pounds sugar,} pound flour; 
grate the outside of 2 lemons, with the inside of 
1 ; or add 1 glass of wine, with 3 teaspoonsful of 
the essence of lemon. 

49. Sngar Cake. 

One pound flour, f pound sugar, J pound butter, 
5 eggs. Mix and drop them on tin, and put sugar 
sanded on them, just as you put them into the 
oven, or frost them. 

60. Clip Cake. 
Three cups of sugar, 1 cup of butter, 2 tea- 
spoonfuls of saleratus, 3 eggs, 5 cups of flour; all 
beaten together with as much spice as you please. 
51. Cider Cake. 
Take 2 pounds flour, 1 pound sugar, J pound 
butter, 1 pint cider, cloves, and cinnamon, with 
or without fruit, 2 teaspoon fuls of saleratus. 
52. Whips. 
Two cups of cream, 1 of white wine, grate in 
the skin of a lemon, sweeten to your taste, the 
whites of 3 eggs; then whip it with a whisk; take 
ofi" the froth; as it rises pour the froth into your 
jelly glasses. 

63, To make Venison Pasty. 
You must bone your venison and season it with 
2 ounces of pejiper, 1 nutmeg, mixed with salt; 
then mince 3 pounds of beef suet. Put it in the 
pan; it will take six hours' baking. 
54. To Dress a Turtle. 
Take a turtle of S pounds, cut off" its head, cut 
it open, scald the fins and calipee or under-shell, 
skin them ; then take out the guts, cut them open, 
and cleanse them well ; take great care not to 
break the gall. Then take for the soup the guts 
and the fins, with a knuckle of veal, some sweet 
herbs, onions, and Cayenne pepper. Season the 
rest of the meat with the same seasoning, which 
put in the calipash, or upper-shell, and calipee, 
with Some forcemeat balls, and bake it. When it 
is baked, take the j'olks of 3 eggs to a turtle of 
8 pounds, beat them well, pour in a little wine, 
take some of the soup, and brew it together very 
well, throw in a lump of butter rolled in flour, and 
put it into the calipash and calipee. 

56. To make Waffles the Dutch way. 
One quart of new milk, 1 penny loaf grated 
very fine, 10 eggs beaten with i pound of sweet 
butter melted, a few cloves beaten, a little salt, 
fine flour enough to make a batter like a pancake, 
and 4 spoonsful of yeast. Mix them together and 
put them in an earthen pot covered, belore the 
fire, to rise, for an hour; having your wafile-iron 
ready heated and buttered on both sides, put in 
the batter to bake. When done serve them hot, 
with sugar grated over them and cinnamon. 
56. A good Gravy, to he kept for any use. 
Burn 1 ounce of butter in the frying-pan, but 



COOKERY. 



231 



eiike care to do it at such a distance from the fire 
thiit, as v<)U strew in the flour to the huttiT. it 
miiy brown hut not blacken ; jiut to it 2 pounds 
coarse lean beef, 1 quart water, i pint wine (red or 
white), 3 anchovies, 2 shallots, some whole pepper, 
cloves, and ni.ice, 3 or 4 mushrooms or as many 
pickled Wiilncits. Let it stew gently one hour, 
then strain it. It will keep some time, and is 
proper f >r any savory dish. 

57. Federnl Cnhe, or Bachelor's Lnnf. 
Into a plateful of flour put a piece of butter not 
larger than a walnut. 2 eggs, 1 spoonful yeast; 
mix it either with milk or water, as you please; 
miike it into a very stiff batter, so stiff you can 
scarce stir it with a spoon. Put it to rise in the 
same ilish you wish to bake it in. It will take 
several hours to rise. 

58. AJhnny Cahe. 
Take H pounds of flour, 1 pound of sugar, ^ 
pounii of butter, 1 tablespoonful of lard, 2 table- 
spoonfuls of rose-water, a little cinnamon, 1 egg, 
1 teaspoon ful of saleratus dissolved in a teacup of 
cream. Cut them out and bake them on tins. 

59. Bliick Cuke that will Icerp fur a year. 
One pound t>f sugar, the same of butter and 
flour, 10 e^rgs ; beat them well together, and when 
light add 2 wineglasses of brandy, nutmeg, mace, 
and cloves. 2 pounds of raisins, and the same quan- 
tity of currants. It will take some hourii to bake. 
A good deal of spice is necessary. 

60. To dresu Calf 'a Head in tiititntion of Turtle. 
Take the calf's head when well snaked and 
washed, 0| en it and boil it with the entrtiils until 
it is quite done: take part of the liver out when 
about half done for forcemeat balls. When it is 
all done strain the liquor, then cut off small pieces 
of the head in imitation of turtle; the siiiiill indif- 
ferent reuiainder choji up with the entrails; put 
in .'^pice to }'our taste, a little savory herbs rubbed 
very fine, and a tew little onions; some very small 
dumplings: season the forcemeat balls with spice 
and herbs to your taste, put a little parsley in 
them, and fry them in lard, and put them in your 
Boup when you send it to table. 

61. 3fock Turtle. 

Take a fine calTs bead, cut the meat clean from 
the bones, then boil the bones in a quart of water 
until the liquor is reduced to a pint; then sesison 
it with Cayenne, nutmeg, and mace ; pour ioto the 
gravy a pint of Madeira wine, a little parsley; 
thyme. 

62. Dr. Green's Bean Soup. 

Take a shin of beef, well cracked, and to every 
pound of beef add 1 quart of cold water; boil 
slowly until the meat is in shreds, only removing 
the lid to take off the scum. Having prepared 
your beans (one quart) the evening before, by 
■washing well and soaking all night, boil them 
until soft enough to pass easily through a sieve; 
strain the soup, add the beans, give a boil-up to- 
gether, season to the taste with pepper and salt, 
and jusi before serving add half a iemon cut in 
small pieces, a quarter of a grated nutmeg, and a 
teaspoonful of white sugar. 

63. Beef a la Mode. 
Choose a thick piece of flank of beef; cut some 
fit bacon in long slices; let each slice be near an 
ijch thick; dip them in vinegar; then take sea- 
soning of salt and pepper and cloves, mixed with 
parsley, thyme, and marjoram. Make holes in 
the meat to put in the larding; when you have 
put it in rub it over with the seasoning and bind 
it up with tape and set it in a pot over the fire. 



Three or four onions must be fried brown and pat 
to the beef, with two or three carrots and a head 
of celery. Add a small quantity of water, and let 
it simmer ten or twelve hours, or until it is ex- 
tremely tender, turning the meat twice; put tha 
gravy into a pan, remove from it the fat; keep 
the beef covered ; then put them together, add a 
glass of wine, remove the tape, and send it to 
table. 

64. Oyxter Pie. 

Take 100 oysters and clean them well from 
tlie shell, i>ut them into a kettle with their own 
liquor to plump tiiein, then put them in a dish, 
and season them with 12 cloves and 3 blades of 
mace pounded fine ; pepper to your taste ; then 
lay crust, around the edge of your dish. Take the 
yolks of 4 eggs boiled hard, with a handful of 
grated bread: sprinkle this over the top with a 
few pieces of butter; fill the dish ilearly full; cover 
the pie over with a puff-paste. 

65. Damson Sauce. 

To 1 peck plums put 3 pounds brown sugar, J 
pint of vinegar, 2 ounces cloves, 1 ounce cinna- 
mon, i ounce mace. Put it on the fire and boil 
until the fruit is soft and pulpy. 

66. Pickled Damson Plwiis. 

To 1 peck or 6 pounds of fruit put 3 pounds 
brown sugar, 1 quart vinegar, 2 ounces cloves, 1 
ounce cinnamon, ^ ounce mace. Boil sugar and 
spices in the vinegar and pour it boiling on the 
fruit; when cold pour it off. Repeat for four or 
five mornings. 

67. Chicken Salad. 

Two large cold fowls, either boiled or roasted, 
the yolks of 9 hard-boiled eggs, i pint of sweet 
oil, i pint of vinegar, 1 gill of mixed mustard, 1 
small teaspoonful of Cayenne pepper, I small tea- 
spoonful of salt, 2 large heads, or 4 small ones, of 
fine celery. Cut the meat of the fowls from the 
bones, in small pieces. Cut the white part of the 
celery into pieces about an inch long. Mix the 
chicken and celery well together; cover them and 
set them away. With the back of a wooden spoon 
mash the yolks of eggs till they are a perfectly 
smooth paste. Mix them with the oil, vinegar, 
mustard, Cayenne, and salt. Stir them for a long 
time, till they are thoroughly mixed and quite 
smooth ; the longer they are stirred the better. 
When this dressing is sufficiently mixed, cover it 
and set it aw;ij'. Five minutes before the salad 
is to be eaten pour the dressing over the chicken 
and celery, and mix all well together. 

68. JVeio mode of Cooking Eij<j Plant. 

Boil the plant whole. When tender cut it in 
half, mash the inside fine ; mix in a dressing made 
of bread-crumbs with pepper and salt. Put in an 
oven and bake it. 
69. Chicken Soup without Chicken, for the Sick. 

Take 1 dessertspoonful of flour and nrb smooth 
in 1 gill ol milk ; put 1 ounce of butter, and pep- 
per and salt to suit the taste; pour in J pint of 
boiling water, boil ten minutes, and pour it over a 
slice of toasted or untoasted bread, as taste may 
direct. Use thyme or parsley, as is most agreeable. 

This receipt has been used in the hospitals, 
where chickens could not be had. 
70. Claret Punch. 

Into a large bunch-bowl capable of holding 2 
gallons, pour 1 dozen bottles of claret: add 18 
oranges and 6 lemons, cut into slices, rinds and 
all: 1 pouml of white sugar (or more, to taste); 
and i a gallon of water, kept cold with ice. 
71. Paris Punch a la iVnia. 

Equal portions of green tea, brandy, and water. 
Add cut lemons and sugar. 



232 



CONFECTIONERY. 



72. Brandy PeacTies. 

Pare the peaches, carefully removing all decay. 
Lay in a shallow dish and cover with white sugar. 
When a syrup has formed, remove the fruit and 
put into jars ; put the syrup in a new tin pan, and 
place over the fire; when it comes to a boil, re- 
move and pour into the j-irs hot, and fill up with 
the best white brandy. When cold seal up care- 
fully. 

73. Orange Marmalade. 

One dozen good-sized oranges — those with the 
bitter skin are considered the best, or Sicily, if 
preferred; cut them in two, take off the peel, and 
boil it in water until tender enough to run a straw 
through; cut it up fine, add the pulp and juice 
of the oranges (carefully removing all the white 
skin), and the juice and grated skin of two lemons. 
Add the weight of the whole in white sugar, and 
boil for a short time till clear — say from twenty 
minutes to half an hour. 

Eighteen good-sized Sicily oranges make about 
4 quarts of marmalade. 

74. Mock-Turtle Sonp made of Beans. 

Take 1 pint of black Mexican beans, wash them 
and put them to soak in some water over night. 
In the morning put them, with a bunch of pot- 
herbs and about .3 quarts of water into a pot, and 
boil till thoroughly done; strain through a col- 
ander into the liquor they were boiled in ; let 
them simmer, add pepper and salt, with a lump 
of butter the size of an egg, 2 tablespoonfuls of 
walnut catsup; have ready 2 hard-boiled eggs 
chopped fine, put them into the tureen, and turn 
your soup over them; if you have some lemon or 
wine it will improve it. 

75. J. R. K.'s Chicken Croquets. 

Boil an ordinary-sized chicken, skin it and cut 
it up fine. Take a dessertspoonful of butter and 
the same of flour, mix well together and put into 
a saucepan with the yolk of an egg; add 3 spoon- 
fuls of chicken broth and 3 of cream, and let it 
thicken to a boil; throw in the chicken, and after 
boiling a few moments put it away to cool. Roll 
out the croquets to the required size in egg and 
then in fine cracker, and fry in very hot lard. 
76. Corn Bread. 

To 1 quart of milk add 5 eggs beaten light, a 
email teaspoonful of baking soda, and a little 
Ealt; stir in suflBcient corn meal to make a stiff 
batt6r, pour in a deep pan well greased, and bake ; 
when done it should be two inches thick. Eat 
while hot- 

77. Plain Corn Pone. 

To a quart of white corn meal add a little salt 
and sufficient milk to make a dough, divide into 
two pones or loaves, making each an inch and a 
half thick, and bake in a quick oven. 

78. Tapioca Pudding. 

Take i a pound of tapioca, pour on H pints of 
water, and let it soak over night; pare and core 
10 apples, taking care not to break them, and 
place in a deep pan ; sweeten and flavor the 
tapioca with wine or essence of vanilla, and pour 
it on the apples; if it does not cover them add a 
little more water; when the apples are cooked 
sufficiently the pudding is done. Eat with cream. 

79. Currant Pudding. 

To 3 cups of flour add li cups of sugar, 2 eggs, 
I a pound of suet cut fine, i a pound of currants, 
and nutmeg to suit the taste. Make in a stiff 
batter and boil in a bag two hours. To be eaten 
with butter sauce. 

80. llalian Mode of Cooking Veal Cutlets. 

Tor a cutlet weighing li pounds take 2 onions, 



slice and parboil, pour oflF the water, and brown 
with butter; season and flour the cutlet and placa 
in the pan with the onions, adding suflSeient but- 
ter to fry nicely; slice 2 tomatoes, and when the 
cutlet is done place them under it, and let the 
whole remain over the fire until the tomatoes are 
well c<ioked, then remove the cutlet and tomatoes, 
and add to the gravy the juice of \ a lemon and 
a little flour; after dishing the whole up'in a meat 
dish, sprinkle a little parsley cut fine. This is » 
delicious way of (X)oking cutlets; beef can be 
done in the same manner. 

81. To cook Frogs. 

Put the hind legs in salt and water over ^ight, 

wipe them dry with a cloth, peiiper and salt Ihem, 

then sprinkle a little flour over them, and fry^n hot 

lard to a light brown. 



CONFECTIONERY. 

To prepare Sugar for Candying. 
The first process is clurifyiiig. which is done 
thus: Break the white of an egg into a preserving 
pan ; put to it 4 quarts of water and Ijeat it with 
a whisk to a froth. Then put in 12 pounds of 
sugar, mix all together and set it over the fire. 
When it boils put in a little cold water, and pro- 
ceed as often as necessary till the scum rises thick 
on the top. Then remove it from the fire, and 
when it is settled take ofi" the scum and pass it 
through a straining bag. If the sugar should not 
appear very fine, boil it again before straining it. 

To Candy Sugar. 

After having completed the above first process, 
put what quantity is wanted over the fire, and 
boil it till it is smooth enough. This is known by 
dipping the skimmer into the sugar and touching 
it between the forefinger and thumb, and imme- 
diately on opening them a small thread will be 
observed drawn between, which will crystallize and 
break, and remain in a drop on the thumb, which 
will be a sign of its gaining some degree of 
smoothness. Boil it again and it will draw into a 
larger string; it is now called btoom sugar, and 
must be boiled longer than in the former process. 
To try its forwardness, dip again the skimmer, 
shaking off the sugar into the pan ; tlien blow 
with the mouth strongly through the holes, and 
if bubbles go through, it has acquired the 
second degree ; to prove if the liquid has ar- 
rived at the state called feathered sugar, re-dip 
the skimmer and shake it over the pan, then give 
it a sudden flirt behind, and the sugar will fly off 
like feathers. 

It now arrive.s at the state called crackled 
sugar, to obtain which the mass must be boiled 
longer than in the preceding degree; then dip a 
sticii in it and put it directly into a pan of cold 
water, draw off the sugar which hangs to the 
stick in the water, and if it turns hard and snapa 
it has acquired the proper degree of crystalliza- 
tion ; if otherwise, boil it again until it acquires 
that brittleness. 

The last stage of refining this article is called 
caramel sugar, to obtain which it must be boiled 
longer than in any of the preceding methods; 
prove it by dipping a stick first into the sugar and 
then into cold water, and the moment it touches 
the latter it will, if matured, snap like glass. Be 
careful that the fire is not too fierce, a.'< by flaming 
up the sides of the pan it will burn, discolor uud 
spoil the sugar. 

French Method. 

Put into a pan syrup enough of clarified sugar 
to fill the mould ; boil it until it comes to the state 
called small feather ; skim it well; lake the pan 



CONFECTIONERY. 



233 



from the fire and pour it into a small quantity of 
fcpirits of wine, sufficient to make it sparkle; let 
it rest till the skin wliich is the candy rises on 
the surface; take it off with a skiuituer and pour 
it directly into the mould, which keep in the stove 
at 90° heat for eight days ; then striiin the candy 
by a hole, slanting the mould on a basin or pan 
to rcieive the drainings ; let it drain till it is per- 
fectly dry, then loosen the paper by moistening 
it with warm water; warm it all round near the 
fire and turn the candy by striking it hard on the 
table. Put it on a sieve in the stove to finish dry- 
ing it. but do not touch it while there, and keep 
up an equal heat, otherwise there will be only a 
mush instead of a candy. Spirits of wine will 
take otf grease and not affect the candy, as it soon 
evaporates. 

To make Barley Sugar. 

Take a quantity of clarified sugar in that state 
that on dipping the finger into the pan the sugar 
which adheres to it will break with a slight noise ; 
this is called cmck. When the sugar is near this 
put in 2 or 3 drops of lemon-juice, or a little 
vineirar to prevent its graining. When it has 
come to the crack take it off instantlj' and dip the 
pan in cold water to prevent its burning; let it 
stand a little, and then pour it on a marble, which 
must be previously rubbed with oil. Cut the sugar 
into small pieces, when it will be ready for use. 
One drop of citron will flavor a considerable 
quantity. 

Boiihona, 

Provide leaden moulds, which must be of va- 
rious shapes, and be oiled with oil of sweet al- 
monds. Take a quantity of brown sugar syrup 
in proportion to their size, in that state called a 
hl'jw, which may be known by dipping the skim- 
mer into the sugar, shaking it and blowing through 
the holes, when gleams of light may be seen ; add a 
drop of any esteemed essence. If the bovbniin 
are preferred white, when the sugar has cooled a 
little, stir it round the pan, till it grains and shines 
on the surface; then pour it into a funnel and fill 
the little mould, when it will take a proper form 
and harden ; as soon as it is cold take it from the 
mimlds; dry it in two or three days and put it 
upon paper. If the bimbons are required to be 
colored, add the color just as the sugar is ready to 
be taken off the fire. 

To Candy Givger. 

Put 1 ounce of race ginger grated fine, 1 pound 
of loaf sugar beaten fine, into a preserving pan, 
with as much water as will dissolve the sugar. 
Stir them well together over a slow fire till the 
sugar begins to boil; then stir in annther pound 
of sugar beaten fine, and keep stirring till itgmws 
thick ; then take it off the fire and drop it in cakes 
upon earthen dishes. Set them in a warm place 
to dry, when they will become hard and brittle, 
and look white. 

To Candy Hoarhoiind. 

Boil it in water till the juice is e.\tracted ; then 
boil a sufficient quantity of sugar to a great height 
and add the juice to it; stir it with a spoon against 
the sides of the sugar pan, till it begins to grow 
thick; then pour it out into a paper case that is 
dnsteil with fine sugar and cut it into squares; dry 
the hoarhound and put it into the sugar finely 
powdered and sifted. 

To mnke White Sugar Candy. 
Sugar crystallized by the saturated syrup being 
left in a very warm place, from 90° to 100° Fahr- 
enheit, and the shooting prom,)ted bj' placing 
sticks or a net of threads at small distances from 
each other in the liquor; it is also deposited from 



compound syrup, and does not retain any of the 
foreign substances with which the syrup is loaded. 

To Clarify Loaf Sugar. 
Break the same into a copper pan, which will 
hold one-third more, put .J a pint of water to each 
pound of sugar, mix 1 white of an egg to every 6 
pounds; when it rises in boiling throw in a little 
cold water, which must be kept ready in case it 
should boil over ; skim it the fourth time of rising, 
continue to throw in a little cold water each time 
till the scum ceases to rise, and strain it through 
a sieve, cloth or flannel bag. Save the scum, 
which, when a certain quantity is taken off, may 
be clarified. The latter skimming will do to ad4 
to fermented wines. 

To Clarify Coarse Brown Sugar. 
Put 50 pounds of coarse brown sugar into a pan 
which will contain one-third more; pour in 20 
pints of water, well mixed with 5 whites of eggs; 
pound 5 pounds of small charcoal, mix it in the 
pan while on the fire, and boil it till it looks aa 
black as ink. If it rises too fast, add cold water, 
strain it through a bag, and though at first it will 
be black, continne to strain it until it becomes 
quite clear, which may be seen by putting the 
syrup in a glass. Put it back until it comes out 
as fine as clarified loaf sugar. 

To Improve and Increase Sugar. 

To 5 pounds of coarse brown sugar add 1 pound 
of flour, and there will be obtained 6 pounds of 
sugar worth ten per cent, more in color and 
quality. 

Starch Sugar. 

Mix 100 parts of starch with 200 of water, and 
add to it gradually another 200 of water, previ- 
ously mixed with as much of oil of vitriol, and 
brought to a boiling heat in a tinned copper vessel ; 
keep the mixture boiling for 36 hours, and occa- 
sionally add water to keep up the original quan- 
tity ; then add some powdered charcoal and also 
Some chalk to get rid of the acid ; strain and 
evaporate it by a gentle heat to the consistence of 
a syrup, and set by to crystallize. 
Birch Sugar. 

Wound the trees in the spring of the year by 
buring a hole under a large arm of the tree quite 
through the wood as far as the bark of the oppo- 
site side ; collect the sap which flows from the 
wound and evaporate it to a proper consistence; 
these are the native sugars of cold countries, and 
might be made in England for all the purposes of 
home consumption. 

To make Pear Sugar. 

It is obtained by expressing the juice, adding 
chalk to remove the superabundant acid, and 
evaporating it to a due consistence ; it does not 
crystallize and is a kind of white treacle. One 
hundred weight of pears yields about 84 pounds 
of this juice, which will produce nearly 12 pounds 
of this substance. 

Grape Sugar. 

The brown sugar obtained from grapes by the 
usual process, being previously freed from the 
acids and sulphate of lime that existed m the 
original juice, yields by refining 75 per cent, of a 
white granJlar sugar, 24 of a kind of treacle with 
a little gum and some malate of lime. 

To Candy Orange-peel. 
Soak the peels in cold water, which change 
frequently till they lose their bitterness; then 
put them into syrup till they become soft and 
transparent. Then they are to be taken out and 
drained. 



234 



CONFECTIONERY. 



Lemon-peel. 
This is made l)y boilin;; Iciiion-pee] with sugar, 
and then exposing to the air until the sugar crys- 
tallizes. 

To Color Candied Siiijar. 
lied. — Boil an ounce of eix'hineal in half a pint 
of water for five niinutcH, add an ounce of crciim 
of tartar, i an ounce of jioundeil alum, and boil 
them on a -slow fire ten niinules; if it shows the 
color clear on white paper, it is sufficient. Add 2 
ounces of suk'h"! "f^l bottle it for use. 

JlliiK. — Put a little warm water on a plate, and 
rub an indigo-stone in it till the color has come to 
the tint rerpiired. 

* Yfllow. — Rub with some water a little gamboge 
on a plate : or infuse the heart of a yellow lily 
flower with milk warm water. 

Green. — IJoil the leaves of spinach about a 
minute in a little water, and when strained bottle 
the li<iu()r for use. In coloring refined sugars, 
taste and fanoy must guide. 

7Vi moke Devices in Siij/fir, 
Steep gum tragacanth in rose-water, and with 
double retiiieil sugar make it into a paste, and 
color and mouhl it to fancy. 

Whipped Sj/llohuh. 
Rub a lump of loaf sugar on the outside of a 
lemon, and put it into a i)int of thick cream, and 
sweeten it to taste. S(|uee/.e in the juice of a 
lemon, and :idd a glass of Madeira wine, or French 
bratidy. Mill it to a froth with a chocolate mill, 
take ofif the froth as it rises, and lay it in a hair 
sieve. Fill one-half of the glass with red wine, 
then lay the froth as high as possible, but take care 
that it is well drained in the sieve, otherwise it will 
mix with the wine, and the syllabub be spoiled. 
Solid .Si/lhihiih. 
To a quart of rich ereain put a quart of white 
■wine, the juico of 2 lemons, with the rind of 1 
grated, an<l sweeten it to taste. Whip it up well, 
and take otf the froth aa it rises. Put it upon a 
hair sieve, and let it stand in a pool jilace till the 
next day. Then half fill the glasses with the scum, 
and heaj) up the froth as liigh as jiossible. The 
bottom will look clear and it will keej) several days. 
Snow litdh. 
Pare and take out the cores of 5 liirgo baking 
apples, and fill the holes with orange or quince 
niarnialade. Then take some good hot ))asto, roll 
the apples in it, and make the crust of an ei|Ual 
thickness ; ))Ut them in a tin dripping-pan, biiUe 
them in a moderate oven, and when taken out, 
make icing for them ; let the same be a quarter 
of an iucli thii;k, and set them a, good distance 
froiri the (ire until they hecomc hardened, but be 
cautious that they are not browned. 
Copilluire. 
Mix 6 eggs well beat up, with 14 poun<ls of loaf 
nugar, and 3 pounds of coarse sugar. Put them 
into .3 (piarts of water, boil it twice, skim it well, 
and add a J of a pint of orange-flower water; 
Strain it through a jelly-bag, and put it into bot- 
tles for use. A sjioonful or two of this syru]) put 
into a draught of either cold or warm water, makes 
an exceedingly pleasant drink. 

To moke Confeetioncrtj Drops. 
Take doulile-refined sugar, pound and sift it 
through a hair sieve, not too fine; and then sift it 
through a silk sieve, to take out all the fine dust, 
which would destroy the beauty of the drop. Put 
the sugar into a clean pan, and moisten it with any 
favorite aromatic: if rose water, jiour it in slowly, 
stirring it with a paddle, which the sugar will fall 
from, as soon as '.t is moist enough, without stick- 



ing. Color it with a small qunntit)' of liquid car* 
mine, or any other color grouml line. Take a 
small pan with a lip, fill it three parts with pastey 
place it ()n a small siove, the half hole being of the 
size of the pan, and stir the sugar with a little ivory 
or bone hiiiidio, until it Ix^couies lii|uid. When it 
almost boils, take it from the lire and continue to 
stir it; if it be tiio moist take a little of the pow- 
dered sugar, and aild a spoonful to the paste, and 
stir it till it is of such a consistence as to run with- 
out too much extension. Have a tin i)late, very 
clean and suiooth ; take the little pan in the left 
hand, and h<dd in the right a bit of iron, cupper, ot 
silver wire, four inches long, to take off the drop 
from the lip of the pan, and lot it fall roL^ularly on 
the tin )>late; two hours afterwards take off the 
drops with the blade of a knife. 
Chocohile Drops. 
Scrape the chocolate to powder, and put an ounce 
to each pound of sugar; moist<'n the paste with 
clear water, work it as above, only takecat-e to use 
all the paste prepared, as, if it be put on the fire 
a second time, it greases, and the drop is not of 
the proper thickness. 

Oroui/e-JJower Drops, 
These are made as the sugar drops, only using 
orange-flower water; or instead of it, use the es- 
sence of neroli, which is the essential oil of that 
flower. 

Coffee Drops. 
An ounce of cofTce to a pound of sugar will form 
a strong decoction ; when cleared, use it to moisten 
the sugar, and then make the drops as above. 
I'ejiperniiiit Drops, 
The only requisites to make these are, extreme 
cleanliness, the finest sugar, and a few drops of 
the essence of peppermint. 

Clone Drops. 
These are made as the j)cppermint drops, the 
cloves being pounded, or the essence used. Oood 
cloves should bo black, heavy, of a pungent smell, 
hot to the taste, and full of oil. 
Gintjer Drops, 
Pound and sift through a silk sieve the required 
qiumtity of ginger, according to the strength 
wanted, and add to it tho sugar with clear water. 
China ginger is best, being aromatic as well as 
hot and sharp-tasted. 

L{<j iioriee Lozeiiijes, 
Take of extract of li((uorice, double-refined sugar, 
each 10 ounces; tragacanth, powdered, 3 ounces. 
Powder them thoroughly, and make them into 
lozenges with rose-water. These are agreeable 
pectorals, and may he used at jilcasure in tickling 
coughs. The above receipt is the easiest and best 
mode of making these lozenges. Refined extract 
of liquorice should be used ; and it is easily |)ow- 
dereil in the cold, after it has been laid for some 
days in a dry and rather warm place. 
Ejctriiet of Liquorice, 
The liquorice root is to be boiled in eight times 
its weight of water, to one half; the liquor is then 
to be exi)resscd, ami after the lieces have subsided, 
to be filtered ; it is then to be evaporated, -with a 
heat between 200° and 212°, until it becomes thick- 
ish ; and, lastly, it is to be evaporated with a heat 
less than 200°, and freciuently stirred, until it ac- 
quires a consistence proper for forming pills. This 
is made into little pastils, or flat cakes, often 
bearing the impression of the places where they 
are made; and a bit now and then put into the 
mouth takes off the tickling of a cough. It should 
be dissolved slowly in the mouth to make it 
pleasant. 



CONFECTIONERY. 



235 



To Prepare Liquorice Juice. 
Take up the rootH in July ; clcim thuni porfectly 
aa 8u<>n us out of the earth, than han^ tlieiii up in 
the air, till nearly dry ; after tlii.i cut tlieui int<» thin 
Bli'-e";, mill hnil tlieni in water till the deuiictinn is 
extreux'ly Htrnrif^; then press it hard out to oht.iin 
all the jiiii-e Iroin the roots. This decocti'in is lel't 
to settle a little, and when it has depusited its 
courser parts, pour it off into vessels, evaporate it 
ovei a lire, stronj? first, hut mild afterwards, till it 
becomes of a thick consisienoe ; then let the (ire (^o 
out, and when the extract is cool t^ike out larj^e 
pan'els of it at a time, and work them well with 
tbo han<ls, forming then; into cylindrie masse.', 
which cut into i^ueh len;^tlis as rei|Uired, roil them 
over half dried hay leaves, which adhere to their 
surfaces, and leave them exposed Ui the sun. till 
perfectly dried. Ureal nicety is to he oliserved at 
the end of the evaporation, to j;et the extract to a 
proper consistence without lettinj^ it burn. 

Hejiited Liifitorirt;. 
That description of article which is vended in 
thin, rounded and ghiKeil pieces about the thick- 
ness of a crow's (juill, is chiefly prepared in I'lii;^- 
land. 'I he whole process con.-ist.^ in evaporiitiiif^ 
the lii|Uoriee-lmll anew, and purifying it by rest, 
with the help of isinglass, etc. 

To Gnndif Orunije- aHiiriiialiide, 
Cut the clearest Seville oranges into fwo, take 
out all the juice and pulp into a basin, and pick 
all the i-kins and seeds out of it. Boil the rind^ 
in hard water till they become tender, and change 
the water two or ttiree times while they are boiling. 
Then pound them in a marble mortar and adil to 
it the juice and pulp; ]iut them next into a pre 
serving |ian with double their weight in loaf sugar, 
and set it over a slow fire. Boil it mther more 
than half an hour, put it into pots; cover it with 
brandy-paper and tie it close down. 

To niitke Traiinj/nreiit Miirvaihidn. 
Cut very pale Seville oranges into quarters, take 
out the pulp, put it into a baiiin and pick out the 
skins and seeds. Put the peels into a little salt 
and water and let tiiem statid all tiight, then boil 
tbeiu in a good quantity of spring-water until 
they are tender, cut them in very thin slices and 
put them into the pulp. To every pound of luar- 
Uialade put li pounds of double-refined beaten 
sugar; boil them together gently for 20 minutes; 
if they are not traii.«paretit boil them a few min- 
utes longer. Stir it gently ail the time, and take 
care not to break the slices. When it Is cold put 
it into jelly and sweetmeat glasses tied down tight. 

Darherry M/irmtiliide. 
Mash the liarberrics in a little water on a warm 
stove; pass them through a hair sieve with a 
paddle; weigh the pulp and put it back on the 
lire; reduce it to i, clarify a pound of sugar and 
boil it well; put in the pulp and boil it together 
for a few minutes. 

Quince Marmnhidc. 
Take quinces that are quite ripe, phre and cut 
them in quarters, take out the cores, put thciu in 
a stewpan with B|)ring water, nearly enough to 
cover them, keep them closely covered and let 
thcu) stew gently till they are quite soft and red, 
then mash and rub them through a hair sieve. 
Put them in a pan over a gentle lire, with as much 
thick clarified sugar as the weight of the quinces; 
boil tliem an hour Bnd stir the whole time with a 
Woollen spoon to prevent its slicking; put it into 
pot.' :ind when culd tie them down. 



i^cotch Miirmalnde. 
Take of the juice of Seville oranges, 2 pints, 
yellow honey, 2 lbs. Boil to a proper consistence. 

H(irlnhorn Jelly. 
Boil i a pound of hartshorn in .3 quarts of water 
over H gentle tire till it becomes a jelly; when a 
little hangs on a sponn it is d'liie enough. Strain 
it hot, put it into a well tinned saucepan, and add 
to it i a [lint of Hhi^nish wine and j^ of a pound 
of loaf sugar. Bent the whites of 4 eggs or more 
to a froth, stir it sufficiently for the whites to mix 
well with the jelly, and pour it iti as if cooling it. 
Boil it two or three minutes, tlicr put in the juico 
of 4 l<!iiioiis, and let it boil two iiiiniitcs longer. 
When it is finally curdled and of a [iiire white, 
pour it into a swanskin jelly-hag over a China 
basin, and pour it back again until it liecoiiics aa 
clear as ruck-water; set a very clean t/'biiia basin 
under, fill the glasses, put some thin lemon-rind 
into the basin, and when the jelly is all run out 
of the bag, with a clean spoon fill the rest of the 
glasses, and they will look of a fine amber color. 
Put in lemon and sugar agreeable to the palate. 

Whi/ijittd Crenni. 
Mix the whites of 8 eggs, a quart of thick cream, 
and i a (liiit of sack; sweeten them to taste with 
double relined sugar. It may be perfumed with 
a little musk or ambergris tied in a rag and steeped 
in a little cream. Whifi it up with a whisk, and 
some lemon-peel tied in the middle of the whisk. 
Then lay the froth with a apoon in the glasses or 
basins. 

J'inliifhio Cream. 

Beat i a pound of pistachio nut kernels in a mor- 
tar with a spoonful of brandy. Put them into a 
|)an with a pint of good cream and the yolks of 2 
eggs beaten fine. Stir it gently over the fire till 
it grow.M thick, and then put it into a China soup- 
plate. When it is cold stick it over wilh small 
pieces of the nuts and send it to table. 

lue Gifom. 
To a pound of any preserved fruit add a quart 
of good cream, squeeze ibe juice of 2 lemons into 
it and some sugar to taste. Let the whole be 
rubbed through a fine hair sieve, and if raspberry, 
strawlierry, or any red fruit, add a little cochineal 
to heighten the color; have the freezing can nice 
and clean, put the cream into it and cover it, then 
put it into the tub with ice beat small, and some 
salt; turn the free-zing can quickly, and as thecrcam 
sticks to the sides scrape it down with an ice spoon, 
ami so on till it is frozen. The more the cream is 
worked to the side with the spoon, the smoother 
and better flavored it will be. After it is well 
frozen take it out and put it into ice-moulds with 
salt am) ice; tbcn carefully wa.sii the moulds for 
fear of any salt adhering to them; dip them in 
lukewarm water and send them to table. 

Another Method — ( Water-ice). 
Bruiae 1 quart of strawberries in a basin with 
i a pint of good cream, a little currant jelly, and 
some cold clarified sugar; rub tlii.s well through 
the tammy and put it into an ice can well covered; 
then set it in a tub of broken ice with jilenty of 
salt; when it grows thick about the sides, stir it 
with a spoon and cover it close again till it is per- 
fectly frozen through ; cover it well with ice and 
salt both under and over, and when it is frozen 
eliange it into a mould and cover well with ice. 
Sweeten a little plain cream with sugar and 
orange-flower water, and treat it the same; like- 
wise any other fruit, without cream, may be mixed 
as above. This is called waler-icu. 



236 



CONFECTIONERY. 



Blacklerry Brandy — U. S. Sanitary Commission 
Receipt. 

Ten qiinrts of blackberries make 1 gallon of 
juice. To 1 gallon of juice add 4 pounds of white 
suufar. Boil and skim it. Add 1 ounce of cloves, 
1 ounce of ground cinnamon, 10 grated nutmegs; 
boil again. When cool add 1 quart of best whiskey 
or brandy. 

Blackberry Brnndy. 

To 1 quart of strained blackberry juice add 1 
pouml of white sugar. 1 teaspoonful of powdered 
allspice, 1 teaspoonful of ground cloves. Boil a 
few minutes, then remove from the fire, and add 
i a pint of fourth-proof brandy or good Monon- 
giihela whiskey. Bottle and cork close. It is fit 
for immediate use. On no account use inferior 
brandy. 

Extract of Btackherries. 

Fill a quart bottle half full of ripe berries, add 
1 teaspoonful of whole allspice and a few cloves. 
Fill the buttle with best whiskey. At the end of 
a month it will be fit for use. In using mix with 
a little sugar and water. 

Blackberry Cordial. 

To 1 gallon of blackberry juice add 4 pounds of 
•white sugar; boil and skim off, then add 1 ounce 
of cloves, 1 ounce of cinnamon. 10 grated nut- 
megs, an<l boil down fill quite rich ; then let it 
cool and settle, afterward drain off, and add 1 
pint of good brandy or whiskey. 
Blackberry Syrup. 

Take 2 pounds of the smaller blackberry roots 
and 2 gallons of water, and boil them down to .3 
quarts; add 5 pounds of crushed sugar and 1 pint 
of best brandy. To 60 ,i;allons thus prepared add 
3 pounds of allspice and 2 pounds each of cloves 
and cassia. The smaller roots are much better 
than the larger ones, on account of their possess- 
ing superior astringent qualities. 

Another Recipe. 
To 2 quarts of blackberry juice add \ an ounce 
each of piiwdered nutmeg, cinnamon and allspice, 
and i of an ounce of powdered cloves. Boil these 
together ; and, while hut, add a pint of pure French 
brandy, and sweeten with loaf sugar. 

Blackberry Wine. 
The following is given by the Tribune as an ex- 
cellent recipe: To 2 quarts of blackberry juice put 
li pounds of white sugar, i an ounce of cinnamon, 
i an ounce of nutmeg, i an ounce of cloves, 1 ounce 
of allspice; let it boil a few minutes, and when 
cool add 1 pint of brandy. 

Superior Receipt for Tee Cream, 
One gallon of cream, 2 pounds of rolled loaf 
sugar, 1 teaspoonful of oil of lemon. If for vanilla 
cream, 2 eggs beaten and IJ tablespoon fuls of 
tincture of vanilla should be used; mix well and 
freeze in the usual way. The vanilla or lemon 
should be tcell mixed with the sn</ar, before it is 
added to the cream; by this means the cream will 
all be flavored alika 

Freezing Ice Cream. 
Take a bucket of ice and pound it fine ; mix 
with it salt (2 (aarts), place your cream in a 
freezer, cover it close, and put it in the bucket; 
iraw the ice round it so as to touch every part in 
a few minutes, put in a spoon and stir it from the 
eige to the centre. When the cream is put in a 
Uiould, close it and move it in the ice, instead of 
using a spoon. 

Lemon Ice Cream. 
Koll 2 fresh lemons in as much powdered loaf 



sugar as will be sufficient to sweeten t quart of 
rich cream ; if the juice is wished, you can put 
some in with more sugar; freeze it. A good plan 
is to rub the lemon on a large lump of sugar, and 
then use the sugar in sweetening the cream. 

Ice Cream with Fruit. 
Mix the juice of the fruit with the sugar before 
you add the cream, which need not be very rich. 

Calf a- Foot Jelly. 
Split the feet, and soak them in cold water 
four orfive hours; wash them and boil in fi quarts 
of water; when it is reduced one-half strain it 
throuirh a colander, and skim off all the fat that 
is on the top; set it away to cool, and when the 
jelly is very stiff, wipe it with a towel, to take off 
anv grease that should remain ; cut it in pieces, 
and pare off all the dark parts: put it in your 
preserving kettle, with 3 gills of wine, the juice 
and peel of 2 lemons, sugar and mace to your 
taste, and the shells and whites of 6 eggs; after 
it has boiled twenty minutes, pour in sutne cold 
water to make it settle: if any scum arises, take it 
off; let it boil five minutes longer, and take it off 
the fire; keep it covered for about an hnur; when 
done, strain it through a bag that has been dipped 
in hot water, and put it in your glasses. 

Currant Jelly. 

Take the juice of red currants, 1 pound ; sugar, 
6 ounces. Boil down. 

Another Method. 

Take the juice of red currants, add white sugar, 
equal quantities. Stir it gently and smimthly for 
three hours, put it into glasses, and in three days 
it will concrete into a firm jelly. 

Block Currant Jelly. 

Put to 10 quarts of ripe dry black currants, 1 
quart of water; put them in a large stewpan, the ^ 
paper close over them, and set them for two hours ' 
in a cool oven. Squeeze them through a fine 
cloth, and add to every quart of juice li pounds 
of loaf sugar broken into small pieces. Stir it till 
the sugar is melted ; when it boils, skim it quite 
clean. Boil it pretty quickly over a clear fire, till 
it jellies, which is known by dipping a skimmer 
into the jelly, and holding it in the air; when it 
hangs to the spoon in a drop it is done. If the 
jelly is boiled too long, it will lose its flavor and 
shrink very much. Pour it into pots, cover them 
with brandy papers, and keep them in a dry place. 
Red and white jellies are made in the same way, 
Apple Jelly. 

Take of apple juice strained, 4 pounds; sugar, 
1 pound. Boil to a jelly. 

Strawberry Jelly. 

Take of the juice of strawberries, 4 poundsj 
sugar, 2 pounds. Boil down. 

Gooseberry Jelly. 

Dissolve sugar in about half its weight of water, 
and boil ; it will be nearly solid when cold ; to thii 
syrup add an equal weight of gooseberry juice, 
and give it a boil, but not long; for otherwise it 
will not fix. 

Raspberry Cream, 

Rub 1 quart of raspberries through a hair sieve, 
and take out the seeds, and mix it well with 
cream; sweeten it with sugar to your taste, then 
put it into a stone jug, and raise a froth with a 
chocolate mill. As the froth arises, take it offwith 
a spoon, and lay it upon a hair sieve. When 
there is as much froth as wanted, put what cream 
remains in a deep China dish, and pour the frothed 
cream upon it, as high as it will lie on. 



CONFECTIONERY. 



237 



Raspberry Yinegar. 

Pour 1 qunrt of vinegar on 1 quart of raspber- 
ries, the next c!ay strain it upon another quart of 
the fruit, unci repeat this every day for six days. 
Then add 1 pound of white sugar to every pint of 
the vinegar, and put it into a jar, which must lie 
placed in a pot cf boiling water to be scalded 
through. 

Viirrniit Wive. 

To 1 quart of currant juice put 2 quarts of water 
and 1 pound of sugar. After mi.xing, let these 
Stand twenty-four hours; then skim and put into 
a jug or barrel unstojiped, and leave it to ferment 
in a coot f)I:ice for a weel< or so. Then cork 
tightly, and bottle off when clear. 
Raspberry Jam. 

Mash a qnnntity of fine, ripe, dry raspberries, 
strew on them their own weight of loaf sugar, and 
half their weight of vfhite currant juice. Boil 
them half an hour over a clear slow fire, skim them 
well, and put them into pots or glasses; tie them 
down with brandy papers, and keep them dry. 
Strew on the sugar as quick as possible after the 
berries are gathered, and in order to preserve 
their flavor they must not stand long before boil- 
ing them. 

Strawberry Jam, 

Bruise very fine some scarlet strawberries, 
gathered when quite ripe, and put to them a little 
juice of red currants. Beat and sift their weight 
in sugar, strew it over them, and put them into a 
preserving-pan. Set them over a clear slow fire, 
skim them, then boil them twenty minutes, and 
put them into glasses. 

Raspberry Paste. 

Mash 1 quart of raspberries, strain one-half, 
and put the juice to the other half; boil them a 
quarter of an hour, put to them a pint of red cur- 
rant juice, and let them boil all together, till the 
raspberries are done enough. Then put li pounds 
of double-refined sugar into a clean pan, with as 
much water as will dissolve it, boil it to a sugar 
again ; then put in the raspberries and juice, scald 
and pour them into glasses. Put them into a stove 
to dry, and turn them when necessary. 

Pineapple Jelly. 

Peel a pineapple of about 1 pound weight, cut 
it into slices about a quarter of an inch thick, and 
put these into a basin. Clarify 1 pound of loaf 
sugar with 1 pint of spring-water, the juice of 2 
lemons, and half the white of an egg whipped 
with a little water; when thoroughly skimmed, 
strain the syrup on to the pineapple, allow it to 
boil for three minutes, then cover it down with a 
sheet of paper twisted round the basin, and allow 
the infusion to stand for several hours in order to 
extract the flavor. When about to mix the jelly, 
strain the syrup through a napkin into a basin, 
and put the pieces of pineapple to drain upon a 
sieve ; add 2 ounces of clarified isinglass to the 
pineapple syrup, and then pour the jelly into a 
mould previously imbedded in rough ice. 
Cnrratit and Raspberry Jelly. 

Pick the stalks from 1 quart of red currants and 
1 quart of raspberries ; then put these into a large 
basin with J a pound of pounded sugar and a 
gill of spring-water; bruise them thoroughly by 
squeezing them with the back part of the bowl of 
a wooden spoon against the sides of the basin ; 
then throw the whole into a beaver jelly-hag and 
filter the juice, pouring it back into the bag until 
it runs through perfectly bright ; next add i a 
pint of clarified syrup and 2 ounces of clarified 
isinglass to the juice, and pour the jelly into a 
mould placed in rough ice to receive it. 



Punch Jelly. 
Put the prepared stock from 4calvos-rcet into a 
stewpan to melt on the stove fire; then withdraw 
it, and add thereto the following ingredients : Two 
piiuiids of loaf-sugar, the juice of 6 lemons and 4 
oranges, the rind of 1 Seville orange and of 4 
lemons, i a nutmeg, 12 cloves and 2 sticks of cin- 
namon, a small cup of strong green tea, a pint of 
rum, and 4 a pint of brandy. Stir these well to- 
gether, then add 6 whites and 2 whole eggs whip- 
ped up with a little Sherry and spring-waicr, and 
continue whisking the punch on a brisk stove 
fire until it begins to simmer; then set it down 
by the side of the fire and cover the stewpan with 
its lid containing some live embers of charcoal; 
about ten minutes after pour the jelly into a flan- 
nel or beaver filtering-bag ; keep pouring the jelly 
back into the bag until it becomes quite clear and 
bright, and when the whole has been run through 
set it in a mould in ice in the usual way. 

Coffee Cream. 
Roast 8 ounces of Mocha coffee-berries in i 
small preserving pan over a stove fire, stirring it 
the whole time with a wooden spoon until it as- 
sumes a light brown color; then blow away the 
small burnt particles and throw the roasted coffee 
into a stewpan, and set it aside to allow the infu- 
sion to draw out the flavor of the coffee. Next 
strain this through a napkin into a stewpan con- 
taining 8 yolks of eggs and 12 ounces of sugar; 
add a very small pinch of salt, stir the cream over 
the stove fire until it begins to thicken ; then 
quicken the motions of the spoon, and when the 
yolks of eggs are sufficiently set strain the cream 
through a tammy or sieve into a large basin. Mix 
4 a pint of whipped cream and IJ ounces of clari- 
fied isinglass in with this; pour the whole into a 
mould ready set in rough ice for the purpose, and 
when the cream has become firm dip the mould 
in warm water and turn the cream out on its dish. 

Damson Cheese. 
Boil the fruit in a sufiicient quantity of water 
to cover it; strain the pulp through a very coarse 
sieve; to each pound add 4 ounces of sugar. Boil 
it till it begins to candy on the sides, then pour it 
into the moulds. Other kinds of plums may be 
treated in the same way, as also cherries, and sev- 
eral kinds of fruit. 

All Omelette Souffle. 
Put 2 ounces of the powder of chestnuts into a 
skillet, then add 2 yolks of new-laid eggs, and 
dilute the wh<de with a little cream, or even a little 
water; when this is done and the ingredients well 
mixed, leaving no lumps, add a bit of the best 
fresh butter about the size of an egg and an equal 
quantity of powdered sugar; then put the skillet 
on the fire, and keep stirring the contents; when 
the cream is fixed and thick enough to adhere to 
the spoon, let it bubble up once or twice, and take 
it from the fire; then add i of the white of an 
egg to those you have already set aside, and whip 
them to the consistency of snow; then amal- 
gamate the whipped whites of eggs and the cream, 
stirring them with a light and equal hand; pour 
the contents into a deep dish, sift over with double- 
refined sugar, and place the dish on a stove, with 
a fire over it as well as under, and in a quarter 
of an hour the cream will rise like an omelette 
souffle; as soon as it rises about four inches it is 
fit to serve up. 

Orgeat Paste. 

Blanch and pound | of a pound of sweet and a 
J of a pound of bitter almonds ; pound them in a 
mortar and wet them sufficiently with orange- 



238 PICKLING 

flower wator, thnt they mny not. oil. When thoy 
nre pinindcd lino mid i <il' n, poiiiKl nf finely pow- 
deri^l HU^iir to tlictn and mix llie whole in a ftiff 
»)iiwle. wiiieh juit into pods for ubo. It will keep 



fix months ; when wanted to be used take a piece 
»lK>ut the size of an egj.; and mix it witli J a pint 
»f water and sqnce/.e it through a napkin. 
Pule (le GiiiiiKUire. 
Tfike of decoction of marsh mil Mow roots 4 ounces; 
water 1 p;iillon. Uoil down to 4 pints and strain ; 
tlicn add gnin iiriihic i a pound, retined sufrar 2 
pounds. Kvaporatcio an exiraet; then lake from 
the fire, stir it quickly "i(h the whites of 12 e^rgs 
previously heateii to a truth; then add, while stir- 
ring, i ounce of orimge-tlower water. 

Aiiiiilier. — Take of very white gnm arahic and 
white sugar, each 2i pounds, with a sufTieient 
quantity of boiling water. Dissolve, strain and 
evaporate without boiling to tlie consistency of 
honey ; boat up the white of (> eggs with 4 drachms 
of orange-flower water, which mix gradually with 
the paste, and evaporate over a slow fire, stir- 
ring it continually till it will not stick to the fin- 
gcis, it should 1)0 very light, spongy and ex- 
tremely white. 

Pale de Jiijiihe^. 
Take of raisins, stoned, 1 pound; currants, 
picked, jujubes, opened, each 4 ounces; water, a 
stitlicieiit rpiantity. B'lil, strain with expression, 
adil sugar 2h pounds, gum arable 2i pounds, |)ro- 
viously made into a mucilage with some water, 
and strain; evaporiite gently, pour into nnuilds, 
finish by drying in a stove, and then divide it. 

PICKLINCt. 

Thi.s brunch of domestic economy comprises a 
great variety of articles, which are essentially ne- 
cessary to tho convenience of families. It is at 
the same time too prevalent a practice to make use 
of brass utensils to give pickle a tine color. This 
pernicious custom is easily avoided by heating tho 
litiuor and ket^piug it in a ]iroper ilegrce of warmth 
before it is p"ured upon the pickle. Stone jiirs 
are the best adapted for sound keeping. Pickles 
should never bo handled with the fingers, but by 
a spoon kept for the purpose. 

To Pi, ■kin OniouH. 

Put a sufficient quantity into salt and water for 
nine days, observing to change the water every 
day; next put them into jars and pour fresh boil- 
ing salt ami water over them ; cover them close 
U|) till they are cold; then make a second decoc- 
tion of salt tmd water, and pour it on boiling. 
When it is cold drain the onions on a hair sieve, 
and put them into wide-mouthed bottles ; fill thorn 
up with distilled vinegar; put into every bottle a 
elice or two of ginger, a blade of mace and a tea- 
spoonful of sweet oil, which will keep the onions 
white. Cork them up in a dry place. 

To make Sour Krout. 
Take a large, strong, wooden vessel or cask re- 
sembling a salt-beef cask, and capable of contain- 
ing as much as is sufficient for the winter's con- 
Bumption of a family. Gradually break down or 
chop tho cabbages (deprived of outside green 
leaves) into very small pieces ; begin with one or 
two cabbages at the bottom of the cask, and add 
Others at intervals, pressing them by means of a 
wooden spado against tho side of the citsk until it 
is full. Then place a heavy weight upon the top 
of it, and allow it to stand near to a warm j)lace 
for four or five days. By this time it will have 
undergone fermentation, and bo ready for use. 
Whilst tho cabbages are passing through the pro- 
cess of fermentation, a very disagreeable, fetid, 



acid smell is exhaled from them ; now remove the 
cask to a cool situation. an<l keep it always cov- 
ered up. Strew aniseeds among the layers of the 
cabbages during its (jroparatiun which couimuni- 
cates a peculiar flavor to the saur kraut at an after 
period. 

In boiling it for the table, two hours is the pe- 
riod for it to lio on tho fire. It forms nn excellent 
nutritious and uiitiscorbutic fuoil for winter use. 

I'icraliH! — Indian method. 

This consists of all kinds of pickles mixed and 
put into one large jar — sliced cucumbers, button 
onions, cauliflowers, broken in pieces. Salt them, 
or put theiu in a large hair sieve in the sun to dry 
for three days, then scald them in vinegar a low 
minutes ; when cold j>ut them together. Cut a 
large white cabbage 'n <|uariers, with the outside 
leaves taken off and i. Jt fine; salt it, and put it in 
the sun to dry three or four days; then scald it 
in vinegar, the same as cauliflower; carrots, three 
parts, l)oiled in vinegar and a little bay salt. 
French beans, reddish poils, and nasturtiums all 
go through the same process as capsicums, etc. 
To 1 gallon of vinegtir put 4 ounces of ginger 
bruised, 2 ounces of whole white pe|(per, 2 ounces 
of allspice, i ounce chillies bruised, 4 ounces of 
turmeric, 1 pound of the best mustard, i |><>und 
of shallots, 1 ounce of garlic, and i pound of bay 
salt. The vinegar, spice, and other ingredients, 
oxcei)l the musta,rd, must boil half an hour; then 
strain it into a pan, put the mustard into a large 
basin, with a little vinegar; mix it quite fine and 
free from lumps, then add more. When well 
mixed put it into the vinegar just strained off, 
and when (juite cold put tho pickles into a largo 
pan, and the liquor over theiu; stir them repeat- 
edly, .so as to mix them all. Finally, put. them 
into ajar, and tie them over first with a bladder, 
an.l afterwards with leather. The capsicums want 
no preparation. 

To Pickle Samphire, 

Put the quantity wanted into a clean pan, 
throw over it two or three handsful of salt, and 
cover it with spring- water twenty-four hours; 
next put it into a clean saucepan, throw in a 
handful of salt, and cover it with good vinegar. 
Close tho pan tight, set it over a slow fire, and let 
it stand till the samphire is green and crisp, then 
take it off instantly, for should it remain till it is 
soft it will be totally spoiled. Put it into the 
pickling-pot and cover it close; when it is quite 
cold tie it down with a bladder and leather, and 
set it by for use. Samphire may be preserved all 
the year by keeping it in a very strong brine of 
salt and water; and just before using it put it for . 
a few minutes into some of tho best vinegar. 
Miii>hrooma. 

Put the smallest that can bo got into spring- 
water, and rub them with a piece of new flannel 
dipped in salt. Throw them into cold water as 
they are cleaned, which will make them keep their 
color; next put them into a saucejian with a hand- 
ful of salt u|)on thotn. Cover them close, and set 
them over tho fire four or five minutes, or till the 
heat draws the liquor from them ; next lay them 
betwixt two dry cloths till they are cold; put 
them into glass bottles, and fill them up with dis- 
tilled vinegar, with a blade of mace and a tea- 
spoonful of sweet oil into every bottle; cork them 
up close and sot them in a dry cool place. As a 
substitute for distilled vinegar, use white wine 
vinegar, or ale. Alegar will do, but it must be 
boiled with a little mace, salt, and a few slices of 
ginger, and it must be quite cold before it Is 
poured upon tho mushrooms. 



PRESKRVINQ. 



289 



Another Milhod. 

BiuifO a ((lumtity of wdl-nrown flnps of tniiHh- 
rooiiiH with tli« IhiikLs, mid thi-ti Ktniw a fiiir iiro- 
I«iitii)ii of .suit over llictn ; let tlic-iii ftiiiid nil iiif;lit, 
mid tlic M(^\td!ly piittliuiii into t<l.uw|iiiiiH ; Mot tliciii 
ill II i|iii(!k Dvoii for twelve Iiihum, mid striiin tliciii 
(liiiiiigli a liiiir xicve. To every giilli>n of li(m()r 
jiiit of eJovoH, lilaek jio|ipcr, mid giiij^er 1 oiiiioo 
liueli, J |ioiind of coiiiiiion Hiilt; Met it on a .slow 
li I, iiiid let it boil till half the li(|(ior Ih wa.sled ; 
tlieii |>iit it into a clean put, and when cold botllu 
it lor u.so. 

Cuv.mnhcrg. 

Lot Uieiii bo nn free from spots as possible. 
Take tlie ,siniille,''t tliat can be got, put tlicin into 
Btroiig suit and water for iiiiii^ <liiys, till tliey be- 
come yellow; stir them at least twiee ii day; 
sbould they become perfectly yellow, pour the 
wat<!r oil and cover them with plenty of virio- 
Icavea. Sot the wiiter over the (ire, ami when it 
boils, pour it over them, and m'X tliein iipoii Ibe 
earth to keep wiirni. When the water is aliiKisl 
cold make it boil iigiiin, and pour it upon them; 
proceed thus till they are of a lino green, which 
they will be in four or five times; keep tliciii well 
covered wiih vine-leaves, with a. oluili mid t\'\n\\ 
over lliii top to keep in the steam, which will help 
to green tliein. 

When they are greened jiut them in a hair sieve 
to drain, and then to every 2 (iiinrls of white-wine 
vinegar put J iin ounce of niiiee, II) or 12 eluves, 
1 ounce of ginger cut into slice.-, 1 ounce of black 
pepper, anil a handful of salt. ISoil them all to- 
gul licr for live minutes ; pour it hot on the pickles, 
and tic them down for use. They miiy also be 
pickled with ale, ale vinegar, or distilled vinegar, 
and adding .5 or 4 cloves id' garlic and shallots. 
WnlnutH Wliilo. 

Pare green walnuts very thin till the white ap- 
pears, then throw them into spring. water with a 
handlLiI of salt; keep them uriiier water six hours, 
then put them inio a stewpaii to siiiiiner five min- 
utes, but ilo not let them boil; take them out and 
put ihcni in cold water anil salt; tliey must be 
kept ((iiito under the water with u board, other- 
wise tliey will not pickle white; then lay them on 
a cloth and cover them with another to dry; care- 
fully rub them with a soft cloth, and put llicni 
into the jar, with some blades of mace and nutmeg 
sliced tiiin. Mix the spice between the nuts and 
pour distilled vinegar over them; when the jar is 
full of nuts pour mutton fat over them, and tie 
them close down with a bladder and leather, to 
keej) out the air. 

Artificial Anrhnviet, 

To a peck of sprats put 2 pounds of salt, 3 
ounces of bay salt, 1 pound of saltpetre, 2 ounces 
of prunella, and a few grains of cochineal; pound 
all in a mortar; put into a stone pan lirst a layer 
of sprats and then one of the (compound, and so 
on alternately to the top. Press thi^ni down hard; 
cover them close for six months, and tliiiy will be 
fit for use, and will really produce a most cxcel- 
lunt-Uavored sauce. 

Sdlniim. 

IJoil the fish gently till done, and then take it 
up, strain the li(|uor, add bay leaves, |icpper corns, 
and salt; give these a boil, and when cold add 
the best vinegar to them; then put the whole suf- 
ficiently over the lish to cover it, and let it remain 
a month at least. 

To I'rcaerve Finh with Smjar, 
Fish may be preserved in a dry btato, and per- 
fectly fresh, by means of sugar alone, and even 
with a very nuiuil quantity of it. 



Fresh fish may be kept in that state for anme 
days, so as to be as good when boiled as if just 
caught. If dried, iind ke|)l free from moiildiness, 
there seems no limit to their preservation ; and 
tliey are iniic.h better in this way than when salted. 
The sugar gives no disngreeablo taste. 

This process is particularly valuable in making 
what is culled ki|ipereil saiiiion ; and the finli pre- 
served in this iniinner are far sii|)erior in quality 
and flavor to those which are salted or smnked. 
If desired, so miiidi salt miiy be used as to givo 
the taste that miiy be re((uired ; but this substanoo 
iloes nut oondiicc to thiMr preservation. 

In the iirescrvation it is barely necessary to open 
the (ish, and to apply the sugar to the muscular 
parts, placing it in a hori/.ontal position for two or 
three days, Hint this substance may ))('netnite. 
After this it may lie dried; and it is only further 
necessary to wipe and ventilate occasionally, to 
prevent moiildiness. 

A lablespoonfiil of brown sugar is suflFioiont in 
this maniKtr for a salmon of five or 8i.\ pounds 
weight; and if salt is desired, n. teasixionful or 
inort' may be added. Saltpetre may be used in- 
steail, in the same proportion, if it is desired to 
make the kipper hard. 

Ti> Suit flnniH. 

For three hams pound and mix together J pock 
ofsa.lt, i ounce of salt prunella,, li ounces of salt- 
petre, and 'I pounds of coarse salt; rub the hams 
well with this, and lay what is to spare over them, 
let theiii lie three ilays, then hang them up. Take 
the pickle in which the hams were, put walor 
enough to cover the ha.ms with more common salt, 
till it will boar an egg, then boil and skim it well, 
|iut it ill the salting tub, and the next morning put 
it to the hams; keep them down the same as 
|iickled pork ; in a. fortnight take them out of the 
lii|iior, rub them well with brine, and hang tliein 
up to dry. 

7o I)ri/.nnll Itrrfuvd Pork. 

Tjay the meat on a table or in a tub with a dou- 
I)le bottom, that the brine may drain olf as fast as 
it, forms, rub the salt well in, and be careful lo ap- 
ply it in every niche; afterwards put it into either 
of the above utensils, when it must be frequently 
turned ; aftiT the brine has ceased running, it, must 
be quite buried in sail, and kept closely |)(icked. 
Meat which has had the bones taken out is the 
liest for salting. In some places the salted meat 
is pressed by heavy weights or a screw, lo extract 
the moisture sooner. 

Ti) Pickle in Itrine. 

A good brine is made of bay salt and water, 
thoroughly saturated, so that some of the salt re- 
mains undissolved ; into this brine the substiiiicos 
to bo preserved are plunged, and kept covered 
with it. Among vegetables, French beans, arti ■ 
chokes, olives, and the dill'erent sorts of samphire 
may be thus preserved, and among animals, her- 
rings. 

To Suit by another method. 

Mix brown sugar, bay salt, common salt, each 
2 jiouinls; saltpetre, H ounces; water, 2 gallons; 
this pickle gives meat a fine red color, while the 
sugar renders them mild and of exctdlent lluvor. 
liiirge quantities are to be managed by the above 
proportions. 



TO PUKSKRVE FRUITS, 
Some rules are necessary to be observed in thia 
branch of confectionery. In the lirst |ilace, ob- 
(:erve in making syrups that the sugar is well 
pounded and dissolved, liefore it is placeil on the 
lire, otherwise their scuiu will nut rise well, uor 



240 



PRESERVING. 



the fruit oVitain \ts fine color. When stone fruit 
is preserved, cover them with mutton suet render- 
ed, to exclude the air, which is sure to ruin them. 
All wet sweetmeats must be kept dry and cool to 
preserve them from mouldiness and damp. Dip a 
piece of writing paper in brandy, lay it close to 
the sweetmeats, cover them tight witii paper, and 
they will keep well for any length of time; but 
will inevitably spoil without these precautions. 

Another Method. 

The fruit, if succulent, is first soaked for some 
hours in very hard water, or in a weiik alum water, 
to harden it, and then to be drained from the fruit, 
either prepared or not; pour syrup, boiled to a 
candy height, and half cold; after some hnurs the 
syrup, weakened by the sauce of the fruit, is to be 
poured ofi', re boiled, and poured on again, and 
this repeat several times. When the syrup is 
judged to be no longer weakened, the fruit is to 
be taken out of it, and well drained. 
To Bottle Damsons, 

Put damsons, before they are too ripe, into wide- 
mouthed bottles, and cork them down tight; then 
put them into a moderately heated oven, and about 
three hours more will do them; observe that the 
oven is not too hot, otherwise it will iiuike the 
fruit fly. All kinds of fruit that arc bottled may 
be done in the same way, and they will keep two 
years; after they are done, they must be put away 
with the mouth downward, in a cool place, to keep 
them from fermenting. 

To Preserve Barherriel, 

Set an equal quantity of barberries and sugar in 
a kettle of boiling water, till the sugar is melted. 
and the barberries quite soft; let them remain all 
night. Put them ne.xt day into a preserving-pan, 
and boil them fifteen minutes, then put them into 
jars, tie them close, and set them by for use. 

To Preserve Grapes. 

Take close bunches, whether white or red, not 
too ripe, and lay them in a jar. Pat to them \ 
pound of sugar candy, and fill the jar with com- 
mon brandy. Tic them up close with a bladder, 
and set them in a dry place. 

To Dry Cherries. 

Having stoned the desired number of morello 
cherries, put IJ pounds of fine sugar to every 
pound ; beat and sift it over the cherries, and let 
them stand all night. Take them out of their 
sugar, and to every pound of sugar, put two spoon- 
fuls of water. Boil and skim it well, and then put 
in the cherries ; boil the sugar over them, and next 
morning strain them, and to every pound of syrup 
put i pound more sugar; boil it till it is a little 
thicker, then put in the cherries and let them boil 
gently. The next day strain them, put them in a 
Btove, and turn them every day till they are dry. 
To Clarify Honey. 

The best kind is clarified by merely melting it 
in a water bath, and taking off the scum ; the mid- 
dling kind by dissolving it in water, adding the 
white of an egg to each pint of the solution, and 
boiling it down to its original consistence, skim- 
ming it from time to time. The inferior kind re- 
quires solution in water, boiling the solution with 
1 pound of charcoal to 25 pounds of honey, adding, 
when an excess of acid is apprehended, a small 
quantity of chalk or oyster-shell powder; next by 
straining it several times through flannel, and re- 
ducing the solution to its original consistence by 
evaporation. 

To Preserve Candied Orange-Jlowera. 

Free them from their cups, stamina and pistils, 



put 4 ounces into 1 pound of sugar, boil to a candy 
height, and pour on a slab, so as to form them 
into cakes. 

Fruits in Brandy or other Spirits. 
Gather plums, apricots, cherries, penches, ana 
other juicy fruits, before they are perfectly ripe, 
and soak them for some hours in hard VFater tc 
make them firm; as the moisture of the fruit 
weakens the s])irit, it ought to be strong, there 
fore add 5 ounces of sugar to each quart of spirit 

Seville Oranges whole. 
Cut a hole at the stem end of the oranges, the 
size of a five or ten cent piece, take out all the 
pulp, put the oranges in cidd water for two days, 
changing it twice a day ; boil them rather more 
than an hour, but do not cover them, as it will 
.spoil the cidor; have ready a good syru|), into 
which put the oranges, and boil them till tliey 
look clear; then take out the seeds, skins, etc. 
from the pulp first tiiken out of the oranges, and 
add to it one of the whole oranges, y)revi()usly 
boiled, with an equal weight of sugar to it and 
the pulp ; boil this together till it looks clear, over 
a slow fire, and when cold fill the oranges with 
this marmalade, and put on the tops; cover them 
with syrup, and put brandy paper on the tup of 
the jar. It is better to take out the inside at first, 
to preserve the fine flavor of the juice and pulp, 
which would be injured by boiling in the water. 

Strawberries nihole. 

Take an equal weight of fruit and double-re- 
fined sugar, lay the former in a large dish, and 
sprinkle half the sugar in fine powder; give a 
gentle shake to the dish, that the sugar may touch 
the under side of the fruit. Next day make a 
thin syrup with the remainder of the sugar, and 
allow 1 pint of red currant-juice to every 3 pounds 
of strawberries; in this simmer them until suffi- 
ciently jellied. Choose the largest scarlets, and 
not dead ripe. 

Apricots. 

Infuse young apricots before their stones be- 
come hard into a pan of cold spring-water, with a 
plenty of vine leaves, set them over a slow fire 
until they are quite yellow, then take them out, 
and rub them with a flannel and salt to take ofiF 
the lint: put them into a pan to the same water 
and leaves, cover them close at a distance from 
the fire, until they are a fine light green, then 
pick out all the bad ones. Boil the best gently 
two or three times in a thin syrup, and let them 
be quite cold each time before you boil them. 
When they look plump and clear make a syrup 
of double-refined sugar, but not too thick ; give 
your apricots a gentle boil in it, and then put 
them into the pots or glasses. Dip a paper in 
brandy and lay it over them; tie them close, and 
keep them in a dry place. 

To keep Fruit fresh without Sugar. 

Air-tight cans are now made by which, with 
proper care, peaches, plums, cherries, tomatoes, or 
other fruit or vegetables may be kejit for almost 
any length of time with all the qualities of the 
fresh article. All that is required is to heat the 
can containing the fruit suflnciently to drive out 
the air, and then seal it tightly. The following 
plan has also succeeded perfectly : 

Cut the fresh peaches (always choosing the best 
varieties) in half, after paring them, and take the 
stones out. Put them in the can, which will gen- 
erally hold a pint, and which should be entirely 
filled ; and then solder the lid closely. Place the 
can in a kettle containing cold water enough to 
cover it, and bring the water to a boil. If there 



THE ART OF CARVING. 



241 



be any part of the can not air-ti(/ht, it will be 
shown liy bubbles escaping from it; and the can 
must then be taken out, and the leak carefully 
soldered over. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
Solids. 

Butter, when soft, one pound is one quart. 

Esgs, ten are one pound. 

Fbjur, wheat, one pound is one quart. 

Meal, Indian, one pound two ounces is one 
quart. 

Sugar, best brown, one pound two ounces is one 
quart. 

Sugar, loaf, broken, one pound is one quart. 



Sugar, white, powdered, one pound one ounce 
is one quart. 

Flour, four quarts are half a peck. 
Flour, sixteen quarts are half a bushel. 

Liquids. 
Four tablespoonfuls are half a gill. 
Eight spoonfuls are one gill. 
Two gills, or sixteen spoonfuls, are half a pint. 
Two pints are one quart. 
Four quarts are one gallon. 
Sixty drops are one teaspoonful. 
Four tablespoonfuls are one wineglassful. 
Twelve spoonfuls are one teacuptul. 
Sixteen spoonfuls, or half a pint, are one tum- 
blerful. 



THE .AUT OF CA^Tl^lNGr, 



Persons unaccustomed to serving at table will, 
with the help of these cuts, and the instructions 
accompanying them, soon be able to carve well: 
if, at the same time, they will, as occasion offers, 
take notice how a good carver proceeds when a 
joint or fowl is before him. 

We will begin with those joints, etc., that are 
simple and easy to be carved, and afterwards pro- 
ceed to such as are more complicate and difficult. 

Leg of 3tutton. 




This cut represents a leg or jigot of boiled mut- 
ton ; it should be served up in the dish as it lies, 
lying upon its back; but when roasted, the under 
Bide, as here represented by the letter </, should lie 
uppermost in the dish, as in a ham (which see); 
and in this case, as it will be necessary occasion- 
ally to turn it, so as to get readily at the under 
side, and cut it in the direction of a b, the shank, 
which is here broken and bent for the convenience 
of putting it into a less pot or vessel to boil it, is 
not broken or bent in a roasted joint, of course, 
Bhould be wound round (after it is taken off the 
spit) with half a sheet of writing paper, and so 
sent up to table that a person carrying it may 
take hold of it without greasing his hands. Ac- 
cordingly, when he wishes to cut it on the under 
side, it being too heavy a joint to be easil3' turned 
with a fork, the carver is to take hold of the shank 
with his left hand, and he will thus be able to turn 
it readily, so as to cut it where he pleases with his 
right. 

A leg of wether mutton, which is by far the best 
flavored, may be readily known when bought, by 
the kernel, or little round lump of fat, just above 
the letters a e. 

When a leg of mutton is first cut, the person 
carving should turn the joint towards him, as it 
here lies, the shank to the left hand ; then holding 
16 



it steady with his fork, he should cut in deep on 
the fleshy part, in the hollow of the thigh, quite 
to the bone, in the direction a b. Thus will he 
cut right through the kernel of fat, called the 
pope's eye, which many are fond of. The most 
juicy parts of the leg are in the thick part of it, 
from the line a b, upwards towards e, but many 
prefer the drier part, which is about the shank or 
knuckles; this part is by far the coarser, but as I 
said, some prefer it, and call it the venison part, 
though it is less like venison than any other part 
of the joint. The fat of this joint lies chiefly on 
the ridge e e, and is to be cut in the direction e f. 
In a leg of mutton there is but one bone readily 
to be got at, and that a small one; this is the 
cramp-bone, by some called the f/eiit/eman's bone, 
and is to be cut out by taking hold of the shank- 
bone with the left hand, and with a knife cutting 
down to the thigh-bone at the point d, then pass- 
ing the knife under the cramp-bone, in the direc- 
tion d c, it may easily be cut out. 

A Shoulder of Mutton. — No. 1. 




Figure 1 represents a shoulder of mutton, which 
is sometimes salted and boiled by fanciful people j 
but customarily served up roasted, and laid in a 
dish, with the back or upper side uppermost, aa 
here represented. 

When not over-roasted it is a joint very full of 
gravy, much more so than a leg, and as such by 
many preferred, and particularly as having many 
very good, delicate, and savory parts in it. 

The shank-bone should be wound round with 
writing paper, as pointed out in the leg, that the 
person carving may take hold of it to turn it as, 
he wishes. Now, when it is first cut, it should be 
in the hollow part of it, in the direction a b, and 
the knife should be passed deep to the bone. 



242 



THE ART OF CARVING. 



The gravy then runs fast into the dish, and the 
part cut opens wide enough to take many slices 
from it readily. 

The best fat, that which is full of kernels and 
best flavored, lies on the outer edge, and is to be 
cut out in thin slices in the direction e /. If many 
are at table, and the hollow part, cut in the line 
a b, is all eaten, some very good and delicate 
elices may be cut out on each side of the ridge of 
the blade-bone, in the direction c d. The line 
between these two dotted lines is that in the di- 
rection of which the edge or ridge of the blade- 
bone lies, and cannot be cut across. 

A Shoulder of Mutton — No. 2. 




On the under side of the shoulder, as repre- 
sented in figure 2, there are two parts very full of 
gravy, and such as many persons prefer to those 
of the upper side. One is a deep cut in the di- 
rection g h, accompanied with fat, and the other 
all lean in a line from i to k. The parts about 
the shank are coarse and dry, as about the knuckle 
in the leg, but yet some prefer this dry part, as 
being less rich or luscious, and of course less apt 
1 3 cloy. 

A shoulder of mutton over-roasted is spoiled. 
A Leg of Pork, 
Whether boiled or roasted, is sent up to table as 
a leg of mutton roasted, and cut up in the same 
manner; of course I shall refer jou to what I 
have said on that joint, only that the close firm 
flesh about the knuckle is by many reckoned the 
best, which is not the case in a leg of mutton. 
A Shoulder of Pork 

Is never cut or sent to table as such, but the 
shank-bone, with some little meat annexed, is often 
served up boiled, and called a spring, and is very 
good eating. 

Edge-Bone of Beef. 




The upper part, as here shown, is certainly the 
handsdtnesr, fullest of gravy, most tender, and is 
encircled with fat; but there are still some who 
prefer a slice on the under side, which is quite 
lean. But as it is a heavy joint and very trouble- 
some to turn, that person cannot have much good 
manners who requests it. 

The skewer that keeps the meat together when 
boiling is here shown at a. It should be drawn 
out before the dish is served up to table, or if it 
be necessary to leave a skewer in, that skrwer 
should be a silver one. 

. A Knuckle of Veal, 



In carving it, as the outside suffers in its flavor 
from the water in which it is boiled, the dish should 
be turned towards the carver, as it is here repre- 
sented, and a thick slice should be first cut ofi" the 
whole length of the joint, beginning at a and cut- 
ting it all the way even and through the whole 
surface, from (i to h. 

The soft fat that resembles marrow lies on the 
back below tlie letter d, and the firm fat is to be 
cut in thin horizontal slices at the point c ; but as 
some persons prefer the soft fit and others the 
firm, each should be asked what he likes. 




A knuckle of veal is always boiled, and is ad- 
mired for the fat, sinewy tendons about the knuckle, 
which, if boiled tender, are much esteemed. A 
lean knuckle is not worth the dressing. 

You cannot cut a handsome slice, but in the di- 
rection o b. The most delicate fat lies about the 
part d, and if cut in the line d c, you will divide 
two bones, between which lies plenty of fine, mar- 
rowy fat. 

The several bones about the knuckle may bo 
readily separated at the joints, and, as they are 
covered with tendons, a bone may be given to 
those who like it. 

A Breast of Veal, Roasted. 




This is the best end of a breast of veal, with the 
sweetbread lying on it, and, when carved, should 
be first cut down quite through in the first line on 
the left, d c; it should ne.vt be cut across in the 
line a c ; from c to the last a on the left, quite 
through divides the gristles from the rib-bones; 
this done, to those who like fat and gristle, the 
thick or gristly part should be cut into pieces as 
wanted, in tlie lines a h. When a breast of veal 
is cut into pieces and stewed, these gristles are 
very tender and eatable. To such persons as pre- 
fer a bone a rib should be cut or separated from 
the rest in the line d c, and with a part <)f the 
breast, a slice of the sweetbread, e, cut across the 
middle. 



THE ART OF CARVING. 



243 



A Saddle of Mutton. 




This is by some called a chine of mutton, the 
saddle being the two necks; but ;is the two necks 
are now seklum sent to table together, they call 
the two loins a saddle. 

A saddle of mutton is a genteel nnd handsome 
dish; it consists of the two luins tofjether, the 
back-bone running down the middle to the tail. 
Of course, when it is to be carved, you must out 
a long slice in either of the fleshy parts on the 
Bide of the back-bone, in the direction a b. 

There is seldom any great length of the tail 
left on, but if it is sent up with the tail many are 
fond of it, and it maj* readily be divided into 
several pieces by cutting between the joints of 
the tail, which are about the distance of one inch 
apart. 

A saddle of venison is cut similarly to the above. 
A Spare-Rib of Pork. 




A spare-rib of pork is carved by cutting out a 
slice from the fleshy part in the line a b. This 
joint will aff'ord many good cuts in this direction, 
with as much fat as people like to eat of such 
strong meat. When the fleshy part is cut away, 
a bone may be easily separated from the next to 
it in the line d b c, disjointing it at c. 
Half a Calf's Head Boiled. 




There are many delicate bits about a calf's head, 
and when young, perfectly white, fat and well- 
dressed, half a head is a genteel dish, if a small 
one. 

When first cut it should be quite along the cheek 
bone, in the fleshy part, in the directi(m c b, where 
many handsome slices may be cut. In the fleshy 
part at the end of the jaw-bone, lies part of the 
throat sweetbread, which may be cut into in the 



line c d, and which is esteemed the best part in 
the head. Many like the eye, which is to be cut 
from its socket <•(, by forcing the point of a carving 
knife down to the bottom on one edj;e of the socket, 
and cutting quite round, keeping the point of the 
knife slanting towards the middle, so as to sep- 
arate the meat from the hone. This piece is seldom 
divided, but if you wish to oblige two persons with 
it, it may lie cut into two parts. The palate is 
also reckoned by some a delicate morsel. This is 
found (m the under side of the roof of the mouth ; 
it is a crinkled, white, thick skin, and may Vie easily 
separated from the bone by the knife by lilting tho 
head up with your left hand. 

There is also some good meat to be met with on 
the under side, covering the under jaw; and some 
nice gristly fat to be pared off about the ear, 7. ■ 

There are scarcely any bones here to be sepa- 
rated, but one may be cut off at the neck, in the 
line /"e, but this is a coarse part. 

There is a tooth in the upper jaw, the last tooth 
behind, which, having several cells, and being full 
of jelly, is called the sweet tooth. Its delicacy is 
more in the name than in anything else. It is a 
dcjuble tooth, lies firm in its socket at the further 
end, but if the calf is a young one, may readily 
be taken out wilh the point of a knife. 

A Ham. 




A ham is cut two ways ; across, in the line h c, 
or with the point of a carving knife, in the circular 
line in the middle, taking out a small piece as at 
a, and cutting thin slices in a circular direction, 
thus enlarging it by degrees. This last method 
of cutting it is to preserve the gravy and keep it 
moist, which is thus prevented from running out. 

A Haunch of Venison. 




In carving a haunch of venison, first cut it 
across down to the bone, in the line d c a, then 
turn the dish with the end a towards you, put in 
the point of the knife at c, and cut it down as deep 
as you can in the direction c b ; thus cut, you may 
take out as many slices as you please, on the right 
or left. As the fat lies deeper on the left, between 
6 and a, to those who are fond of fat, as most 
venison eaters are, the best flavored and fattest 
slices will be found on the left of the line e 6, 
supposing the end a turned towards you. Slices 
of venison should not be cut thick nor too thin; 
and plenty of gravy should be given with them. 



244 



THE ART OF CARVING. 



An Ox Tongue. 




A tonjjue is to be cut across, in the line a, b, and 
a' slice taken from thence. The most tender and 
juicy slices will be about the middle, or between 
the line n h, and the root. Towards the tip, the 
meat is closer and dryer. For the fat, and a ker- 
nel with that fat, cut off a slice of the root on the 
right of the letter b, at the bottom next the dish. 
A tongue is often cut lengthways, as fmni c to d. 
A tongue is generally eaten with white meat, veal, 
chicken, or turkey; and to those whom you serve 
with the latter, you should give of the former. 

A Brisket of Beef. 




This is a part always boiled, and is to be cut in 
the directic.n of a b, quite down the bone, but 
never help any one to the outside slice, which 
should be taken off pretty thick. The fat cut with 
this slice is a firm gristly fat, but a softer fat will 
be found underneath, for those who prefer it. 

A 2}iece of Sirloin of Beef. 



To those who like the upper side, and would 
rather not have the first cut or outside slice, that 
outside slice should be first cut off, f|uite down to 
the bone, in the direction c rf. Plenty of soft, 
marrowy fat will be found underneath the ribs. If 
a person wishes to have a slice underneath, the 
joint musfbe turned up. by taking hold of the end 
of the ribs with the left hand, and raising it, until 
it is in the position as here represented. One slice 
or more may now be dpt in the direction of the 
line a b, passing the knife down to the bone. The 
slices, whether on the upper or under side, should 
be cut thin, but not too much so. 

A Buttock of Beef 
Is always boiled, and requires no print to point 
out how it should be carved. A thick slice should 
be cut off" all round the buttock, that your friends 
may be helped to the juicy and prime part of it. 
This cut into, thin slices may be cut from the top; 
but as it is a dish that is frequently brought to the 
table cold a second day. it should always be out 
handsome and even. To those to whom a slice all 
round would be too much, a third of the round 
may be given, with a thin slice of fat. On one 
side there is a part whiter than ordinary, by some 
called the white muscle. A buttock is generally 
divided, and this white part sold separate as a deli- 
cacy, but it is by no means so, the meat being 
close and dry, whereas the darker colored parts, 
though apparently of a coarser grain, are of a looser 
texture, more tender, fuller of gravy, and better 
flavored; and men of discriminating palates ever 
prefer them. 

A Fore-quarter of Lamb roasted. 



Whether the whole sirloin, or part of it only, 
be sent to table, is immaterial, with respect to 
carving it. The figure here represents part of the 
joint only, the wh<de being too large for families 
in general. It is drawn as standing up in the dish, 
in order to show the inside or under part: but 
when sent to table, it is always laid down, so as 
that the part described by the letter c lies close 
on the dish. The part c d then lies uppermost, 
and the line rr 6 underneath. 

The meat on the upper side of the ribs is firmer 
and of a closer texture than the fleshy part under- 
neath, which is by far the most tender; of course, 
Bome prefer one part, and some another. 





Before any one is helped to a. part of this joint, 
the shoulder should be separated from the breast, 
or what is by some called the coast, by passing the 
knife under, in the direction c g d e. The shoul- 
der being thus removed, a lemon or orange should 
bu squeezed upon the part, and then sprinkled 
with salt where the shoulder joined it. and the 
shoulder should be laid on it again. The gristly 
part should next be separated from the ribs, in the 
line / (I. It is now in readiness to be divided 
among the company. Tlie ribs are generally most 
esteemed, and one or two may be separated from 
the rest, in the line a b ; or, to those who prefer 
the gristly part, a piece or two, or more, may be 
cut off in the lines h i, etc. Though all parts of 
young lamb are nice, the shoulder of a fore-quar- 
ter is least thought of; it is not so rich. 

If the fore-quarter is that of a grass lamb and 
large, the shoulder should be put into another dish 
when taken off; and it is carved as a shoulder of 
mutton, which see. 

A Fillet of Veal, 

Which is the thigh part, similar to a buttock of 
beef, is brought to table always in the same form, 
but roasted. The outside slice of the fillet is by 
many thought a delicacy, as being most savory; 
but it does not follow that every one likes it; each 
person should therefore be asked, what part ho 



THE ART OF CARVING. 



245 



prefers. If not the outside, cut off a thin slice, 
and the second cut will be white meat, but cut it 
even and close to the bone. A fillet of veal is 
generally stuffed under the s^kirt or flap with a 
savory pudding, called forcemeat. This is to be 
cut deep into, in a line with the surface of the fil- 
let, and a thin slice taken out; this, with a little 
fat cut from the skirt, should be given to each per- 
son present. 

A Roasted Pig. 




A roasted pig is seldom sent to table whole, the 
head is cut off by the cook, and the body slit down 
the back and served up as here represented ; and 
the dish garnished with the chaps and ears. 

Before any one is helped, the shoulder should 
be separated from the carcass, by passing the 
knife under it, in the circular direction; and the 
leg separated in the same manner, in the dotted 
lines c d e. The most delicate part in the whole 
pig is the triangular piece of the neck, which may 
be cut off in the line / </. The next best parts 
are the ribs, which may be divided in the line, a 
b, etc. Indeed, the bones of a pig of three weeks 
old are little less than gristle, and may be easily 
cut through, next to these, are pieces cut from the 
leg and shoulder. Some are fond of an ear, and 
others of a chap, and those persons may readily be 
gratified. 

A Hahhit. 




This is a rabbit, as trussed and sent up to table. 
After separating the legs, the shoulders or wings 
(which many prefer) are to be cut off in the circu- 
lar dotted line e f g. The back is divided into 
two or three parts, in the lines i k, without divid- 
ing it from the belly, but cutting it in the line 
g h. The head may be given to any person who 
likes it, the ears being removed before the rabbit 
is served up. 

A Goose, 




Like a turkey, is seldom q-.iite dissected, unless 
the company is large; but when it is, the follow- 



ing is the method : Turn the neck towards you, 
and cut two or three long slices, on each side the 
breast, in the lines n b, quite to the bone. Cut 
these slices from the bone, which done, proceed to 
take off the leg, by turning the goose up on one 
si<le, putting the fork through the small end of the 
leg bone, pressing it close to the body, which, 
when the knife is entered at d, raises the joint 
from the body. The knife is then to be passed 
under the leg in the direction d e. If the leg 
hangs to the carcass at the joint e, turn it back 
with the fork, and it will readily separate if the 
goose is young; in old geese, it will require some 
strength to separate it. When the leg is off, pro- 
ceed to take off the wing, by passing the fork 
through the small end of the pinion, pressing it 
close to the body, and entering the knife at the 
notch e, and passing it under the wing, in the di- 
rection c, d. It is a nice thing to hit this notch e, 
as it is n<it so visible in the bird as in the figure. 
If the knife is put into the notch above it, you 
cut upon the neck-bone, and not on the wing- 
joint. A little practice will soon teach the differ- 
ence; and if the goose is young the trouble is not 
great, but very much otherwise if the bird is an 
old one. 

When the leg and wing on one side are taken 
off, take them off" on the other side ; cut off the 
apron in the line / e g, and then take off the 
merry-thought in the line i h. The neek-bones 
are next to be separated as in a fowl, and all 
other parts divided as there directed, to which I 
refer you. 

The best parts of a goose are in the following 
order: the breast slices; the fleshy part of the 
wing, which may be divided from the pinion ; the 
thigh-bone, which may be easily divided in the 
joint from the leg-bone, or drumstick, as it is 
called; the pinion, and next the side-bones. 

A Green Goose. 
Is cut up in the same way, but the most deli- 
cate part is the breast and the gristle, at the lower 
part of it. 

A Pheasant. 




The pheasant, as here represented, is skewered 
and trussed for the spit, with the head tucked un- 
der one of the wings, but when sent to table the 
skewers are withdrawn. 

In carving this bird, the fork should be fixed 
in th^ breast, in two dots there marked. You have 
then the command of the fowl, and can turn it as 
you please; slice down the breast in the lines n h, 
and then proceed to take off the leg on the out- 
side, in the direction d e, or in the circular dot- 
ted line b d, as seen in the figure "a boiled fowl," 
next page. Then cut off the wing on the same 
side in the line c d, in the figure above, and a h 
b, in the figure at the bottom of this column, 
which is lying on one side, with its back towards 
us. Having separated the leg and wing on one 
side, do the same on the other, and then cut off 
or separate from the breast-bone on each side of 



246 



THE AET OF CARVING. 



the breast the parts you before sliced or cut down. 
In making ofif the wing be attentive to cut it in 
the notch a, as seen in the print of the fowl, for if 
you cut too near the neck, as at ,'/, you will find the 
neck-bone interfere. The wing is to be separated 
from the neck -bone. Next cut off the merry- 
thought in the line / g, by passing the knife un- 
der it towards the neck. The remaining parts 
are to be cut up, as is described in the fowl, which 
Bee. 

A Partridrfe, 




The partridge, like the pheasant, is here trussed 
fot the spit; when served up the skewers are with- 
drawn. It is cut up like a fowl (which see), the 
wings taken off in the lines a b, and the merry- 
thought in the lines c d. Of a partridge the prime 
parts are the white ones, viz., the wings, breast, 
merry-thought. The wing is thought the best, the 
tip being reckoned the most delicate morsel of the 
whole. 

A Fowl, 




The fowl is here represented as lying on its side, 
with one of the legs, a wing and a neck-bone 
taken off. It is cut up the same way, whether it 
be roasted or boiled. A roasted fowl is sent to 
table trussed like a pheasant (which see), except 
that instead of the head being tucked under one 
of the wings, it is, in a fowl, cut off before it is 
dressed. A boiled fowl is represented below, the 
leg-boncs of which are bent inwards and tucked 
in within the belly, but the skewers are withdrawn 
prior to its being sent to the table. In order to 
cut up a fowl, it is best to take it on your plate. 

Having shown how to take off the legs, wings 
and merry-thought, when speaking of the pheas- 
ant, it remains only to show how the other parts 
are divided : k is the wing cut off, i the leg. When 
the leg, wing and merry-thought are removed, the 
next thing is to cut off the neck-bones described 
at L This is done by putting in the knife at y, 
and passing it under the long, broad part of the 
bone in the line </ h, then lifting it up and break- 
ing off the end of the shorter part of the bone 
which cleaves to the breast-bone. All parts being 
thus separated from the carcass, divide the breast 
from the back by cutting through the tender-ribs 
on each side, from the neck quite down to the vent 
Or tail. Then lay the back upwards on your 



plate, fix your fork under the rump, and laying 
the edge of your knife in the line bee, and 
pressing it down lift up the tiiil or lower part of 
the back, and it will reiidily divide with the help 
of your knife in the line bee. Tiiis done, lay 
the croup or lower part of the back upwards in 
your plate, with the rtiinp from you, and with 
yiiur knife cut off the side-bones by fdroing the 
knife through the rump hone in the lines e /, and 
the whole fowl is completely carved. 

A Boiled Fowl. 




Of a fowl, the prime parts are the wings, breast 
and merry-thought, and next to these the neck- 
bones and side-liones; the legs are rather coarse; 
of a boiled fowl the legs are rather more tender, 
but of a chicken every part is juicy and good, and 
next to the breast the legs are certainly the fullest 
of gravy and the sweetest, and as the thigh-bones 
are very tender and easily broken with the teeth, 
the gristles and marrow render them a delicacy. 
Of the leg of a fowl the thigh is much the 
best, and when given to any one of your company 
it should be separated from the drum-stick at the 
joint i (see the cut, viz., " a fowl," preceding 
column), which is easily done if the knife is in- 
troduced underneath in the hollow, and the thigh- 
bone turned back from the leg-bone. 

A Turkey, 
Roasted or boiled, is trussed and sent up to 
table like a fowl, and cnt up in every re.«pect like 
a pheasant. The best parts are the white ones — 
the breast, wings and neck-bones. Merry-thought 
it has none; the neck is taken away, and the 
hollow part under the breast stuffed with force- 
meat, which is to be cut in thin slices in the di- 
rection from the rump to the neck and a slice 
given with each piece of turkey. It is cnstomary 
not to cut up more than the breast of this bird, 
and, if any more is wanted, to take off one of the 
wings. 

A Pigeon. 
No. 1. No. 2. 




This is a representation of the back and breast 
of a pigeon. No. 1, the back ; No. 2, the breast. 
It is sometimes cut up as a chicken, but as the 
croup, or lower part with the thigh, is most pre- 
ferred, and as a pigeon is a small bird, and half a 
one not too much to serve at once, it is seldom 
carved now, otherwise than by fixing the fork at 
the point a, entering the knife just before it, and 



THE CHOICE OF ANIMAL FOOD. 



247 



dividing the pigeon into two, cutting away in the 
lines II b. and a e, No. 1 ; at the same time bring- 
ing the knite out at the back in the direction a b, 
aod a c, y-). 2. 

A Cod^t Head. 




Fish, in general, requires very little carving; 
the middle or thickest part of the fish is generally 
esteemed the best, except in a carp, the most deli- 
cate part of which is the palate. This is seldom, 
however, taken out, but the whole head is given 
to those who like it. The thin part about the tail 
of a fish is generally least esteemed. 

A cod's head and shoulders, if large and in sea- 
son, is a very genteel and handsome dish, if nicely 
boiled. When <ut, it should be done with a spoon 
or fish trowel The parts about the back-bone, on 
the shoulder.-', are the most firm and best. Take 
off a piece quite down to the bone, in the direc- 
tion a b d c, putting in the spoon at a e, and 
■with each slice of fi.-h give a piece of the sound, 
which lies underneath the back-bone and lines it, 
the meat of which is thin and a little darker co- 
lored than the body of the fish itself: this may be 
got bj' passing a knife or spoon underneath, in the 
direction d «. 

There are a great many delicate parts about the 
head, some firm kernels, and a great deal of the 
jelly kind. The jelly parts lie about the jaw- 
bone, the firm pans within the head, which must 
be broken into with a spoon. Some like the pal- 
ate and some the tongue, which likewise may be 
got by putting the spoon into the mouth, in the 
direction of the line e «. The green jelly of the 
eye is never given to any one. 

A piece of Boiled Salmon, 




or boiled salmon there is one part more fat and 
rich than the other. The belly part is the fattest 
of the two, and it is cnst<jmary to give to those 
that like both a thin slice of each ; for the one, 
cut it out of the belly part, in the direction d c ; 
the other, out of the back, in the line a b. Those 
who are fond of salmon generally like the skin ; of 
course, the slices are to be cut thin, skin and all. 

There are but few directions necessary for cut- 
ting up and serving fish. In turbot the fish-knife i 
or trowel is to be entered in the centre or middle, ! 
over the back-bone, and a piece of the flesh, as 



much aa will lie on the trowel, to be t.nken off on 
one side close to the bones. The thicke-t part of 
the fish is always most esteemed, but not too near 
the head or tail; and when the meat on one side 
of the fish is removed close to the bones, the 
whole back-bone is to be rai.sed with the knife 
and fork, and the under side is then to be divided 
among the company. Turbot eaters esteem the 
fins a delicate part. 

The rock-fish and sheepshead are carved like 
the turbot. The latter is considered the most del- 
icate fish of the Atlantic coast; and the former, 
•though common, are highly esteemed, particularly 
those caught in frcfh water. 

The halibut is also frequently brought to mar- 
ket. The fins and parts lying near them are of a 
delicate texture and flavor; the remaining part of 
the fi.sh is coarse. 

Soles are generally sent to table two ways, some 
fried, others boiled; these are to be cut right 
through the middle, bone and all, and a piece of 
the fii-h, perhaps a third or fourth part, according 
to its size, given to eaih. The same may be done 
with other fishes, cutting them across, as may bo 
seen in the cut of the mackerel, below d e c b. 

A M'lr-htrel. 




A mackerel is to be thus cut — Slit the fish all 
along the back with a knife, in the line n e h, and 
t:ike off one whole side as far as the line b c, not 
tiio near the head, as the meat about the gills is 
generally bla<k aod ill flavored. The roe of a 
male fish is soft like the brain of a calf; the roe 
of the female fi>h is full of small eggs and hard. 
Some prefer one and some another, and part of 
such roe as your friend likes should be givjen to 
him. 

The meat about the tail of all fish is generally 
thin and less esteemed, and few like the head of 
a fish, except it be that of a carp, the palate of 
which is esteemed the greatest delicacy of the 
whole. 

Eels are cut into pieces throngb the bone, and 
the thickest part is reckoned the prime piece. 

There is some art in dressing a lobster, but as 
this is seldom sent up to table whole, I will only 
say that the tail is reckoned the prime part, and 
next to this the claws. 



THE CHOICE OF ANIMAL FOOD. 

TVe conclude the foregoing treatise on the Art 
of Carving by t le following instructions, intended 
to aid housekeepers in the purchase of the most 
common descriptions of meat for the table. 

B.ef. 
If the flesh of ox-beef is young, it will bapve a 
fine smooth open grain, be of a good red, and feel 
tender. The fat should lo. !% wv-ite rather than 
yellow ; for when that is of a detp col r the meat 
is seldom good ; beef fed by oil cakes is in general 
so, and the flesh is flabby. The grain of cow-beef 
is closer, and the fat whiter, than that cf ox-beef, 



248 



QUALITIES OF FOOD. 



but the lean is not of so bright a red. The grain 
of bull-beef is closer still, the fat hard and skinny, 
the lean of a deep red and a str<in.;;;er scent. Ox- 
beef is the reverse. O.x-beef is the richest and 
largest ; but in small families and to some tastes, 
heifer-beef is better if finely fed. In old meat 
there is a streak of horn in the ribs of beef; the 
harder this is, the older, and the flesh is not finely 
flavored. 

Veal. 

The flesh of a bull calf is firmest, but not so 
white. The fillet of the cow-calf is generally 
preferred for the udder. The whitest is not the 
most juicy, having been made so by frequent 
bleeding, and having had whiting to lick. Chi)ose 
the meat of which the kidney is well covered with 
white thick fat. If the bloody vein in the shoulder 
looks blue or of a bright red, it is newly killed ; 
but any other color shows it stale. The other 
parts should be dry and white; if clammy or 
spotted the meat is stale and b:id. The kidney 
turns first in the loin, and the suet will not then 
be firm. 

Mntton. 

Choose this by the fineness of its grain, good 
color, and firm white fat. It is not the better for 
being young; if of a good breed and well fed, it 
is better for age; but this only holds with wether 
mutton ; the flesh of the ewe is paler, and the 
texture finer. Ram mutton is very strong fla- 
vored, the flesh .is of a deep red, and the fat is 
spongy. 

Lamb. 

Observe the neck of a fore-quarter: if the vein 
is bluish it is fresh ; if it has a green or yellow 
cast it is stale. In the hind-quarter if there is a 
faint smell under the kidney, and the knuckle is 
limp, the meat is stale. If the eyes are sunk, the 
head is not freish. Grass-lamb comes into season 
in April or May, and continues till August. Ilouse- 
lamb may be had in great towns almost all the 
year, but is in highest perfection in December and 
January. 

Pork. 

Pinch the lean, and if young it will break. If 
the rind is tough, thick, and cannot easily be im- 
pressed by the finger, it is old. A thin rind is a 
merit in all pork. When fresh the flesh will be 
smooth and cool; if clammy it is tainted. What 
is called measly pork is very unwholesome, and 
may be known by the fat being full of kernels, 
which in good pork is never the case. Pork fed 
at still-houses does not answer for curing any way, 
the fat being spongy. Dairy-fed pork is the best. 

A Turkey-Cork, 
If young, has a smooth black leg, with a short 
spur. The eyes full and bright if fresh, and the 
feet supple arid moist. If stale, the eyes will be 
sunk and the feet dry. A hen-Uirkey is known by 
the same rules, but if old her legs will be red and 
rough. 

Forols. 

If a cock is young, his spurs will be short; but 
take care to see they have not been cut or pared, 
which is a trick often practised. If fresh the vent 
will be close and dark. Pullets are best just be- 
fore they begin to lay and yet are full of eggs ; if 
old hens, their combs and legs will be rough ; if 
young, they will be smooth. A good capon has a 
thick belly and a large rump ; there is a particular 
fat at his breast, and the comb is very pale. Black- 
legged fowls are most moist, if for roasting. 
Geese. 

The bill and feet of a young one will be yellow, 
and there will be but few hairs upon them; if old, 



they will be red ; if fresh, the feet will be pliable, 
if stale, dry and stiS". Geese are called green till 
three or four months old. Green geese should be 
scalded; a stubble-goose should be picked dry. 

Ducks. 

Choose them by the same rules of having supple 
feet, and by their being hard and thick on the 
breast and belly. The feet of a tame duck are 
thick, and inclining to dusty yellow; a wild one 
has the feet reddish and smaller than the tame. 
They should be picked dry. Ducklings must be 
scalded. 

Shad. * 

If good, they are white and thick. If too fresh 
they eat tough, but must not be kept above twu 
days without salting. 

Herrings. 

If good, their gills are of a fine red, and the 
eyes bright, as is likewise the whole fish, which 
must be stitf and firm. 

Lobsters. 
If they have not been long taken the claws will 
have a strong motion when you put your finger 
on the eyes and press them. The heaviest are the 
best. The cock-lobster is known by the narrow 
back part of his tail, and the two uppermost fins 
within it are stifi" and hard ; but those of the hen 
are soft, and the tail broader. The male, though 
generally smaller, has the highest flavor, the flesh 
is firmer, and the color when boiled is a deeper red. 

Crabs. 
The heaviest are best, and those of a middling 
size are sweetest. If light they are watery ; when 
in perfection the joints of the legs are stiff, and 
the body has a very agreeable smell. The eyea 
look dead and loose when stale. 

Oysters. 

When alive and strong the shell is close. They 
should be eaten as soon as opened, the flavor be- 
coming poor otherwise. 

The abundance and variety of fish daily 
brought to market in every seaport town of the 
United States, cannot be surpassed in any other 
part of the world. 



QUALITIES OF THE ARTICLES OF FOOD 

IN COMMON USE. 

Beef. 

When this is the flesh of a bullock of middle 

age, it affords good and strong miurishment, and 

is peculiarly well adapted to those who labor or 

take much exercise. It will often sit easy upon 

stomachs that can digest no other kind of food; 

and its fat is almost as easily digested as that of 

veal. 

Veal 

Is not a proper food for persons suffering from 
indisposition, and should not be given to febrile 
patients. It affords less nourishment and is less 
digestible than the flesh of the snuie animal in a 
state of maturity. The fat of it is lighter than 
that of any other animal, and shows the least dis- 
position to putrcscency. Veal is a suitable food 
in costive habits ; but of all meat it is the least 
calculated for removing acidity from the stomach. 

Mutton, 
From the age of four to six years, and fed on dry 
pasture, is an excellent meat. It is of a middle 
kind between the firmness of beef and the tender- 
ness of veal. The lean part of mutton, however, 
is the most nourishing and conducive to health; 
the fat being hard of digestion. The head of th« 



QUALITIES OF FOOD. 



249 



sheep, especially when di rested of the skin, is very 
temler; and the feet, on account of the jelly they 
contain, are highly nutritive. 

Lamh 
Is net so nourishing as mutton ; but it is light and 
extremely suitable to delicate stomachs. 

Pork 
Affords rich and substantial nourishment, and its 
juices are wholesome when properly fed, and when 
the animal enjoys pure air and exercise. But the 
flesh of hogs reared in towns is both hard of di- 
gestion and unwholesome. Pork is particularly 
improper for those who are liable to any foulness 
of the skin. 

Smoked Hams 
Are a strong kind of meat, and rather fit for a 
relish than for diet. It is the quality of all salted 
meat that the fibres become rigid, and therefore 
more difficult of digestion; and when to this is 
added smoking, the heat of the chimney occasions 
the salt to concentrate, and the fat between the 
muscles sometimes to become rancid. 

Bacon 
Is also of an indigestible quality, and is apt to 
turn rancid on weak stomachs ; but for those in 
health it is an excellent food, especially when used 
with fowl or veal, or even eaten with peas, cab- 
bages, or cauliflowers. 

Goat's Flesh 
Is hard and indigestible ; but that of kids is ten- 
der as well as delicious, and affords good nourish- 
ment. 

Venison, 
Or the flesh of deer, and that of hares, is of a 
nourishing quality, but is liable to the inconveni- 
ence that though much disposed to putrescency 
of itself, it must be kept for a little time before it 
becomes tender. 

The Blood of Animals 
Ib occasionally used as an aliment, but man could 
not long subsist upon it unless mixed with oat- 
meal, etc. ; for it is not very soluble alone, by the 
digestive powers of the human stomach, and there- 
fore cannot prove nourishing. 

Jllilk 
Is of very different consistence in different ani- 
mals ; but that of cows, being the kind used in 
diet, is at present the object of our attention. 
Milk, where it agrees with the stomach, affords 
excellent nourishment for those who are weak and 
cannot digest other aliments. It does not readily 
become putrid, but with some persons becomes 
sour on the stomach, and thence produces heart- 
burn, or gripes, and in some constitutions a loose- 
ness. The best milk is from a cow at three or four 
years of age, about two months after producing a 
calf. It is lighter, but more watery than the milk 
of sheep and goats; while on the other hand it is 
more tliick and heavy than the milk of asses and 
mares, which are next in consistence to human 
milk. 

On account of the acid which is generated after 
digestion, milk coagulates in all stomachs ; but 
the caseous or cheesy part is again dissolved by 
the digestive juices, and rendered fit for the pur- 
poses of nutriticm. It is improper to eat acid 
substances with milk, as these would tend to pre- 
vent the due digestion of it. 

Cream 
Is very nourishing, but on account of its fatness 
is diflicult to be digested in weak stomachs. Vio- 
lent exercise after eating it will in a little time 
cmvert it into butter. 



Bfrtter. 

Some writers inveigh against the use of butter as 
universally pernicious, but they might with equal 
reason condemn all vegetable oils, wliich form a 
considerable part of diet in southern climates, and 
seem to have been beneficially intended by nature 
for that purpose. Butter, like every other oily 
substance, has doubtless a relaxing quality, and 
if long retained in the stomach is liable to become 
rancid; but if eaten in moderation it will not pro- 
duce those effects. It is, however, imprcper in 
bilious constitutions. 

Cheese 
Is likewise reprobated by many as extremely un- 
wholesome. It is doubtless not easy of digestion, 
and when eaten in a great quantity may overload 
the stomach ; but if taken sparingly its tenacity 
may be dissolved by the digestive juices, and it 
may yield a wholesome, nourishing chyle. Toasted 
cheese is agreeable to most palates, but it is rend- 
ered more indigestible by that process. 
,fowls. 

The flesh of birds differs in quality according 
to the food on which they live. Such as feed upon 
grain and berries afford, in general, good nour- 
ishment; geese and ducks are hard of digestion, 
especially the former. A young hen or chicken 
is tender and delicate food, and extremely well 
adapted to those in whom the digestive powers 
are weak. But of all tame fowls, the capon is the 
most nutritious. 

Turkeys, etc. 

Turkeys, as well as Guinea or India fowls, af- 
ford a substantial nutriment, but are not quite so 
easy of digestion as the common domestic fowls. 
In all birds those parts are the most firm which 
are most exercised; in the small birds, therefore, 
the wings, and in the larger birds the legs, are 
commonly the most difficult of digestion. 
Wild Folds. 

The flesh of wild birds in general, though mor« 
easily digested, is less nourishing than that oi 
quadrupeds, as being more dry on account of 
their almost constant exercise. Those birds are 
not wholesome which subsist upon worms, insects 
and fishes. 

The eggs of birds are a simple and wholesome 
aliment. Those of the turkey are superior in all 
the qualifications of food. The white of eggs is 
by heat rendered tough and hard. The yolk con- 
tains much oil, and is highly nourishing, but has 
a strong tendency to putrefaction, on which ac- 
count eggs are improper for people of weak stom- 
achs, especially when they are not quite fresh. 
Eggs boiled hard or fried are difficult of digestion, 
and are rendered still more indigestible by the ad- 
dition of butter. All eggs require a sufficient 
quantity of salt, to promote their solution in the 
stomach. 

Fish, 
Though some of them be light and easy of diges- 
tion, afford less nourishment than the flesh of 
quadrupeds, and are, of all the animal tribes, the 
most disposed to putrefaction. Salt water fish 
are, in general, the best; but when salted, though 
less disposed to putrescency, they become difficult 
of digestion. Whitings and flounders are the 
most easily digested. Acid sauces and (lickles, 
by resisting putrefaction, are a proper addition to 
fish, both as they retard putrescency and correct 
the relaxing tendency of butter, so generally used 
with this kind of aliment. 

Oysters and Cockles 
Are eaten both raw and dressed. Oysters are 
very nourishing and easy of digestion. 



250 



QUALITIES OF FOOD. 



Muscles and Perixoinlclea 
Are far inferior to oysters, both in point of diges- 
tion and nutriment. Sea muscles are by some 
supposed to be of a poisonous nature, but though 
this opinion is not much countenanced by expe- 
rience, the safest way is to eat them with vinegar, 
or some other vegetable acid. 

Brend. 
At the head of the vegetable class stands bread, 
that article of diet which, from general use, has 
received the name of the staff of life. Wheat is 
the grain chiefly used for the purpose in this coun- 
try, and is the most nutritive of all the farina- 
ceous kinds, as it contains a great deal of gluten 
and starch. Bread is very jiroperly eaten with 
animal food, but is most expedient with such arti- 
cles of diet as contain much nourishment in a 
small bulk, because it then serves to give the 
stomach a proper degree of expansion. To render 
bread ea.^y of digestion it ought to be well fer- 
mented and baked, and it never should be used 
by dyspeptics till it has stood 24 hours after 
being taken out of the oven, otherwise it is apt to 
occasion various complaints in them, such as flatu- 
lence, heartburn, watchfulness, and the like. The 
custom of eating butter with bread, hot from the 
oven, is compatible only with strong digestive 
powers. 

Pastry, 

Especially when hot, has all the disadvantages of 
hot bread and butter; and .still more so when it 
is tough and hard, or made with rancid butter or 
lard. Dry toast with butter is by far the most 
wholesome breakfast. Brown wheaten bread, in 
which there is a good deal of rye or bran, though 
not so nourishing as that made of fine flour, is 
both palatable and wholesome, but apt to become 
sour on weak stomachs. 

Oats, Barley and Rice. 
Oats, when deprived of the husk, and particu- 
larly barley, when properly prepared, are some- 
what softening, and afford wholesome and cooling 
nourishment. Rice likewise contains a nutritious 
mucilage, and is less used than it deserves, both 
on account of its wholesomeness and economical 
utility. The notion of its being hurtful to the 
sight is a vulgar error. It some constitutions it 
tends to induce costiveness, but this seems to be 
owing chiefly to flatulence, and may be corrected 
by the addition of some spice, such as caraways, 
aniseed, and the like. 

Potatoes 
Are an agreeable and wholesome food, and yield 
nearly as much nourishment as any of the roots 
used in diet. The farinaceous or mealy kind is in 
general the most easy of digestion, and they are 
much improved by being roasted or baked. They 
ought always to be eaten with meat, and never 
without salt. The salt should be boiled with 
them. 

Green Peas and Beans, 
Boiled in their fresh state, are both agreeable to 
the taste and wholesome, being neither so flatu- 
lent nor so difiicult of digestion as in their ripe 
state, in which they resemble the other leguminous 
vegetables. French beans possess much the same 
qualities, but yield a more watery juice, and have 
a greater disposition to prodnee flatulence. 

Salads, 
Being eaten raw, require good digestive powers, 
but the addition of oil and vinegar, qualified with 
mustard, renders the moderate use of them con- 
sistent even with a weak stomach. 



Spinach 
AiTords a soft, lubricating aliment, but contains 
little nourishment. In weak stomachs it is apt to 
produce acidity, and freqoently a looseness. To 
obviate these eflFects, it ought always to be well 
beaten, and have but little butter ui.Y.ed with it. 

Axparatjus 
Is a nourishing article in diet, and promotes the 
secretion of urine; but disposes a little to flatu- 
lence. 

Ariichohes 
Resemble asparagus in their qualities, but seem to 
be more nutritive and less diuretic. 

CahhfKjes 
Do not aiford much nourishment, but are an 
agreeable addition to animal food, and not quite 
so flatulent as the common greens. They are 
likewise diuretic, and somewhat laxative. Cab- 
bage has a stronger tendency to putrefaction than 
most other vegetable substances; and, during its 
putrefying state, sends forth an offensive smell, 
much resembling that of putrefying animal bodies. 
So far, however, from promoting a putrid dispo- 
sition in the human body, it is, on the contrary, a 
wholesome aliment in scurvy. 

Beets, 
When j'oung and tender, are very digestible. 

Indian Corn, 
Before ripening, is wholesome for most persons 
when boiled upon the ear; and is very nourishing. 

J'nrnips 
Are a nutritious article of vegetable food, but not 
very easy of digestion, and are flatulent. This 
effect is in a good measure obviated by pressing 
the water out of them before they are eaten. 

Carrots 
Contain a considerable quantity of nutritious juice, 
but are among the most flatulent of vegetable 
productions. 

Parsnips 
Are more nourishing and less flatulent than car- 
rots, which they also exceed in the sweetness of 
their mucilage. By boiling them in two difterent 
waters, they are rendered less flatulent, but their 
other qualities are thereby diminished in pro- 
portion. 

Parsley 
Is of a stimulating and aromatic nature, well cal- 
culated to make agreeable sauces. It is also a 
gentle diuretic, but preferable in all its qualities 
when boiled. 

Celery 
Affords a root both wholesome and fragrant, but 
is difiicult of digestion in its raw state. It gives 
an agreeable taste to soups, as well as renders 
them diuretic. 

Onions, Garlic, and Shallots 
Are all of a stimulating nature, by which they 
assist digestion and expel flatulency. They are, 
however, most suitable to persons of a cold and 
phlegmatic constitution. 

Radishes 
Of all kinds, particularly the horse-radish, agree 
with the three preceding articles. Thej excite 
the discharge of air lodged in the intestines. 

Tomatoes 
Are generally considered the most wholesome ol 
all vegetables. 

Apples 
Are a wholesome fruit; but, in general, they agree 
best with the stomach when eaten cither roasted 
or boiled. The more aromatic kinds of apples are 
the fittest for eating raw. 



BREWING AND DISTILLATION. 



251 



Pears 
BosemWe much in their effects the sweet kind of 
apples, but have more of a laxative quality, and 
a greater tendency to flatulence. 

Cherries 
Are in general a wholesome fruit, when perfectly 
fresh, but not otherwise. 

Plums 
Are nourishing, but are apt to produce flatulence. 
If eaten fresh, and before they are ripe, especially 
in large quantities, they occasion colics, and other 
complaints of the bowels. 

Peaches 

Are of a nourishing quality, and they abound in 

juice J they are serviceable in bilious complaints. 

ApricDts 

Are more pulpy than peaches, but are apt to fer- 
ment, and produce acidities in weak stomachs. 

Gooeeherriea and Citrroiits, 
When ripe, are similar in their qualities to cher- 
ries, and when used in a green state they are 
agreeably cooling. 

Strawherries 
Are an agreeable, cooling aliment. 

Ciiciinihers 
Are cooling, and agreeable to the palate in hot 
weather; but to prevent them from proving hurt- 
ful to the stomach, the juice ought to be squeezed 
out after they are sliced, and vinegar, pepper and 
salt afterwards added. 

Ten. 
By some, the use of this exotic is condemned in 
terms the most vehement and unqualified, whilst 
others have either asserted its innocence, or gone 
so far as to ascrU)e to it salubrious, and even ex- 
traordinary, virtues. The truth seems to lie be- 
tween these two extremes : there is however an 
essential difference in the effects of green tea and 
of black, or of bohea ; the former of which is much 
more apt to affect the nerves than the latter, more 
especially when drunk without cream, and like- 
■wise without bread and butter. That, taken in a 
large quantity, or at a later hour than usual, tea 



often produces wakefulness, is a point that can- 
not be denied ; but it' used in moderation, and ac- 
companied with the additions just now luenti'ined, 
it does not sensibly discover any hurtl'ul effects, 
but greatly refreshes one who is fatii;ued, and 
abates a pain of the head. It ought always 
to be made of a moderate degree of strength ; for 
if too weak it certainly relaxes the stnuiach. As 
it has an astringent taste, which seeuis n^t very 
consistent with a relaxing power, there is ground 
fir ascribing this effect not so much to the herb 
itself as to the hot water, which not being iui]>reg- 
nated with a sufficient quantity of tea, to correct 
its own emollient tendency, produces a relaxati<in, 
unjustly imputed to some noxious quality of the 
plant. But tea, like every other commodity, is 
liable to damage, and when this happens, it may 
produce effects not necessarily connected with its 
original qualities.* 

Coffee. 
It is allowed that coffee promotes digestion, and 
exhilarates the animal spirits; besides which, va- 
rious other qualities are ascribed to it, such as dis- 
pelling flatulency, removing dizziness of the head, 
attenuating viscid humors, increasing the circu- 
lation of the blood, and consequently jierspira- 
tion : with a great many persons, even if not taken 
strong, it affects the nerves, occasions wakeful- 
ness, and tremor of the hands ; though in some 
phlegmatic constitutions it is apt to jiroduce sleep. 
Indeed, it is to persons of that habit that coffee is 
best accommodated; for to people of a thin and 
dry habit of body it seems to be especially injuri- 
oi)S. Turkey coffee is greatly preferable in flavor 
to that of the West Indies. Drunk, only in the 
quantity of one dish, after dinner, to promote 
digestion, it answers best without either sugar or 
milk; but if taken at other times, it should have 
both; or rather in place of the latter, cream, 
which not only improves the beverage, but tends 
to mitigate the effect of coflee upon the nerves. 

Chocolate 
Is a nutritive and wholesome composition, if taken 
in a small quantity, and not repeated too often; 
but is sometimes hurtful to the stomach of those 
with whom a vegetable diet disagrees. 



BREWINa and DISTILLATION. 



FERMENTATION. 

Before proceeding to the consideration of the 
manufacture of wines, "beer, and spirits, a general 
survey of the subject of fermentation will not be 
out of place. 

Alcholic Beverages 

May be divided into fermented drinks including 
beer and wines, and distilled drinks or spirits, 
■which are obtained from the former by distillation. 
Spirits usually contain about fifty per cent, of 
alcohol, beer and wines from one to twenty per 
cent. The alcohol in all cases results from the 
breaking up of the sugar in the fermenting liquid. 
Siiffars. 

Ordinary sugar, or cane sugar; uncrystallizable, 
or fruit sugar ; and grape sugar, or glucose, are 
the three most important varieties. Fruit sugar 
exists in all the sub-acid fruits as grapes, currants, 
apples, peaches, etc. When these are dried, it 
changes to grape sugar forming the whitish grains 
which are seen on the outside of prunes, raisins, 



etc. Grape sugar is found to a limited extent in 
fruits associated with fruit sugar. Cane sugar is 
readily changed by the action of acids or ferments 
into fruit sugar, and the latter into grape tugar, 
but the process cannot be reversed. Grape sugar 
is the only fermentable variety, the others becom- 
ing changed into it before fermentation. 
Transformation of Stai-ch, etc. 

Under the influence of acids, or diasiaie, a 
principle existing in germinating grains, rtarch 
is changed first into gum (dextrine) and after- 
wards into grape sugar. Hence one of our most 
important sources of alcohol is to be found in the 
starch of barley, corn, wheat, potatoes, etc. Wood 
may be converted into grape sugar by the action 
of strong sulphuric acid, which is afterwards neu- 
tralized. An attempt- to produce alcohol in this 
way on a commercial scale was made in France, 
but was not successful. 

Ferment. 

A solution of pure sugar will remain unchanged 



252 



BREWING AND DISTILLATION. 



for an indefinite period of time. To induce fer- 
mentation, a portion of some nitrogenous body, 
itself undergoing decomposition, must be added. 
Such ferments are albumen (white of egg), fibrin 
(fibre of flesh), casein (basis of cheese), gluten 
(the piisty matter of flour). Yeast consists of 
vegetable egg-shaped cells, which is increased 
during its action as a ferment. 

C!rc>imsf(uices iiijluevcuic/ Fermentation. 

In order that fermentation shall begin we re- 
quire, besides the contact of the ferment, the pre- 
sence of air. The most easily decomposed articles 
of food may be preserved for an indefinite j)eriod 
by hermetically sealing them in jars, after drawing 
out the air. When once begun, however, fermeiit- 
afion will go on, if the air be excluded. Tempera- 
ture is important. The most favorable tempera- 
ture is between 68° and 77° Fnhr. At a low 
temperature fermentation is exceedingly slow. 
Bavarian or lager beer is brewed between 32° and 
46i° Fahr. A boiling heat instantly stops fer- 
mentation, by killing the ferment. 

To chick fcrmoitotion we may remove the yeast 
by filtration. Hops, oil of mustard, sul|)hurous 
acid (from burning sulphur), the suljihites, sul- 
phuric acid, 'check the process by killing the 
ferment. 

Too much sugar is unfavorable to fermentation, 
the best strength for the syrup is ten parts of 
water to one of sugar. 

Changes during Fermentation, etc. 

The grape-sugar breaks up into carbonic acid 
which escapes as gas, alcohol and water which 
remain. In malting the grain is allowed to ger- 
minate, during which process the starch of the 
grain is changed into gum and sugar: the root- 
lets make their appearance at one end and the 
stalk or aorospire at the other. The germination 
is then checked by heating in a kiln; if allowed 
to proceed a certain portion of the sugar would 
be converted into woody matter, and lost. 

In brewing the saccharine matter is extracted 
from the malt during ihe mashing. Yeast is added 
to cause fermentation; an infusion of hops after- 
wards, to add to the flavor and to check fermen- 
tation. In wine making there is sufficient albu- 
minous matter in the grape to cause fermentation 
without the use of yeast. 

Distillation separates the alcohol in great part 

from the water. Alcohol boils at 179° Fahr., and 

water at 212°. It is not possible, however, to 

separate entirely alcohol and water by distillation. 

Acetic Fermentation. 

Weak fermented liquors will become sour on 
exposure to the air. This is owing to the conver- 
sion of their alcohol into acetic acid (see Vinegar). 
This change is due to the absorption of the oxygen 
of the air, and is much promoted by the presence 
of a peculiar plant, the mother of vinegar. It is 
sometimes called the acetous fermentation. 
Viscous Fermentation. 

By the action of yeast on beet-sugar a peculiar 
fermentation is set up; but little alcohol is formed. 
The same gives ropiness to wines and beer. It is 
checked by vegetable astringents. 

BKEWING. 
To Jit lip a small Brew-konse. 
Provide a copper holding full two-thirds of the 
quantity proposed to be brewed, with a gauge- 
stick to determine the number of gallons in the 
copper. A mash-tub, or tun, adapted to contain 
two-thirds of the quantity proposed to be brewed, 
and one or two tuns of equal size to feiment the 
wort; three or four shallow coolers ; one or two 



wooden bowls; a thermometer; half a dozen 
casks of different sizes ; a large funnel ; two or 
three clean pails, and a hand-jiump. 

This proceeds on the supposition of two mashes 
for ale; but if only one luash is adapted for ale, 
with a view of making the table-beer liettor, then 
the copper and mash tun should hold one-third 
more than the quantity to be brewed. 

The expenses of brewing depend on the price 
of malt and hops, and on the proposed strength 
of the article. One-quarter of good malt •**^ 
eight pounds of good hops ought to make tw\. 
barrels of good ale and one of table-beer. The 
other expenses consist of coal and labor. 

Of public breweries, and their extensive utensils 
and machinery, .we give no description, because 
books are not likely to be resorted to by the class 
of persons engaged in those extensive manufacto- 
ries for information relative to their own partic- 
ular business. 

To choose Water for Brewing. 

Soft water, or hard water softened by exposure 
to the air, is generall3' preferred, because it makes 
a stronger extract, and is more inclined to fer- 
ment; but hard water is better for keeping beer, 
and is less liable to turn sour. Some persons 
soften hard water by throwing a spoonful of soda 
into a barrel, and others do it with a handful of 
common salt mixed with an <mnce of salt of tartar. 

To make Malt. 
Put about 6 quarters of good barley, newly 
threshed, etc., into a stone trough full of water, 
and let it steep till the water be of a bright red- 
dish color, which will be in about 3 days, more or 
less, according to the moisture or dryness, small- 
ness or bigness of the grain, the season of the 
year, or the temperature of the wither. In sum- 
mer malt never makes well; in winter it requires 
longer steeping than in spring or autumn. It 
may be known when steeped enough by other 
marks besides the color of the water. The grains 
should be soft enough to be pierced with a needle, 
but not to be crushed between the nails. When 
sufiiciently steeped take it out of the trough, and 
lay it in heaps, to let the water drain from itj 
then, after 2 or 3 hours, turn it over with a scoop, 
and lay it in a new heap, 20 or 24 inches deep. 
This is called the coming heap, in the right man- 
agement of which lies the principal skill. In this 
heap it may lie 40 hours, more or less, according 
10 the aforementioned qualities of the grain, etc., 
before it comes to the right temper of malt. While 
it lies it must be carefully looked to after the first 
15 or 16 hours, for about that tiuie the grains 
begin to put forth roots, which, when they have 
equally and fully done, the malt must, within an 
hour after, be turned over with a ecoop ; other- 
wise the grains will begin to put forth the blade 
and spire also, which must by all means be pro- 
vented. If all the malt do not come equally, but 
that which lies in the middle, being warmest, 
come the soonest, the whole must be turned, so 
that what was outmost may be inmost; and thus 
it is managed till it be all alike. As soon as the 
malt is sufiiciently come, turn it over, and spread 
it to a depth not exceeding 6 or 6 inches; and by 
the time it is all spread out begin and turn it ever 
again 3 or 4 times. AftevTrards turn it over in 
like manner once in 4 or 5 hours, making the heap 
deeper by degrees, and continue to do so for the 
space of 48 hours at least. This cools, dries, and 
deadens the grain, so that it becomes mellow, 
melts easily in brewing, and separates entirely 
from the husk. Then throw up the malt into a 
heap as high as possible, where let it lie till it 
grows as hot as the hand can bear it, which usually 



BREWING. 



253 



■happens in about the space of 30 hours. This 
perfucts the sweetness and mellowness i)f the malt. 
After being sufficiently heated, throw it iibroiul to 
cool, and turn it over again about 6 or S hours 
after; and then l;iy it on a kiln with a hair cloth 
or wire spread under it. After one fire, which 
must last 24 hours, give it another more slow, and 
afterwards, if need be, a third; for if the niMJt be 
not thoroughly dried, it cannot be well ground, 
neither will it dissolve well in the brewing; but 
the ale it makes will be red, bitter, and unfit for 
keeping. 

To grind Malt. 

To obtain the infusion of malt it is necessary to 
break it, for which purpose it is pjissed through 
stones filaced at such distance, as that they may 
crush each grain without reducing it to powder ; 
for if ground too small it makes the worts thick, 
while if not broken at all the extract is not ob- 
tained. In general, pale malts are ground larger 
than^mber or brown malts. 

Malt should be used within two or three days 
after it is ground, but in the London brew-houses 
it is generally ground one day and used the next. 
A quarter of malt ground should yield nine bushels, 
and sometimes ten. Crushing mills or iron rollers 
have lately been used in preference to stones which 
make a considerable grit with the malt. On a 
small scale, malt may be broken by wooden rollers, 
by the hands. 

Steel mills like coifee mills have also been used 
for crushing malt with great success. 

To deterviiiie the Qimlities of Bfalt. 

First, examine well if it has a round body, 
breaks soft, is full of flour all its length, smells 
well, and has a thin skin ; next chew some of it, 
and if sweet and mellow, then it is good. If it is 
hard and steely, and retains something of a bar- 
ley nature, it has not been rightly made, and will 
weigh heavier than that which has been properly 
malted. 

Secondly, take a glass nearly full of water ; put 
in some malt, and if it swims, it is good, but if 
any sinks to the bottom then it is not true malt. 

Pale- malt is the slowest and least dried, pro- 
ducing more worts than high dried malt, and of 
better quality. Amber colored malt, or'that be- 
tween pale and brown, produces a flavor much 
admired in many malt liquors. Brown malt loses 
much of its nutritious qualities, but confers a pe- 
culiar flavor desired by many palates. Roasted 
malt, after the manner of coffee, is used by the 
best London brewers, to give color and flavor to 
porter, which in the first instance has been made 
from pale malt. 

To choose Hops. 
Rub them between the fingers or the palm of 
the hand, and if good, a rich glutinous substance 
will be felt, with a fragrant smell, and a fine yel- 
low dust will appear. The best color is a fine 
olive green, but if too green, and the seeds are 
small and shrivelled, they have been picked too 
Boon ar.d will be deficient in flavor. If of a dusty 
brown iolor, they were picked too late, and should 
not be chosen. When a year old, they are con- 
sidered as losing one-fourth in strength. 

To determine the Proportion between the Liquor 
boiled and the Qiiantity produced. 
From a single quarter, two barrels of liquor will 
produce but one barrel of wort. Three barrels 
will produce one barrel and three quarters. Pour 
barrels will produce two barrels and a half. Five 
barrels will produce three barrels and a quarter. 
Six barrels will produce four barrels. Eight bar- 
rels will produce five barrels and a half, and tea 



barrels will produce seven barrels, and so on in 
proportion for other quantities. 

To determine the Hentu of the Liquor or Water for 

the Firnt and Second Mashes on different kinds 

of Molt. 

First Jlfash. — For very pale malt turn on the 
liquor at 176° Fahr. For pale and amber mixed, 
172°; all amber, 170°; high-colored amber, 168°. 
An equiil quantify of pale, amber, and brown, 
160°. If the quantity of brown is very dark, or 
any part of the grains charred by the fire upon the 
kiln, 155°. 

Second Mnsh. — For very pale malt turn on the 
liquor at 182°. For pale and amber mixed. 178°; 
all amber, 176°; high-colored amber, 172°. An 
equal quantity of pale, amber and brown, 166°, 
If the quaniity <if brovvn is very dark, or any part 
of the grains charred by the fire, 16-1°. 

The heat should in some measure be regulated 
by the temperature of the atmosphere, and should 
be two or three degrees higher in cold than in 
warm weather. 

The proper degree of heat will give the strong- 
est wort and in the greatest quantify, for though 
the heat were greater and the strength of the wort 
thereby increased, yet a greater quantity of liquor 
would be retained in the malt; and again, if it 
were lower, it would produce more wort, but the 
strength of the extract would be deficient; the 
beer without spirit, and likely to turn sour. 

To determine the Strength of the Worts. 
To effect this a saccharometer is necessary, and 
may be purchased at any mathematical instrument 
maker's. It determines the relative gravity of 
wort to the water used, and the quantity of fari- 
naceous matter contained in the wort. It is used 
in all public breweries after drawing oft" the worfc 
from each mash, and regulates the heat and quan- 
tity of liquor turned on at each succeeding mash, 
that the ultimate strength may be equal though 
the quantity is less. This signifies little to the 
private, but it is of great consequence to the pub- 
lic brewer. Those who brew frequently and de- 
sire to introduce it will obtain printed tables and 
instructions with the instrument. 

To proportion the Hops. 

The usual quantity is a pound to the bushel of 
malt, or 8 lbs. to the quarter; but for keeping- 
beer, it should be extended to 10 or 12, and if for 
one or two years to 14 lbs. to the quarter. Small 
beer requires from 3 to 6 lbs. the quarter, and 
rather more when old hops are used. 

Some persons, instead of boiling the hops with 
the wort, macerate them, and put the strong ex- 
tract into the tun with the first wort, and make 
2 or 3 extracts in like manner for the second and 
third worts 

To Boil Worts. 

The first wort should be sharply boiled for 1 
hour, and the second for 2 hours; but if intended 
for beer of long-keeping, the time should be ex- 
tended half an hour. The hops should be strained 
from each preceding wort, and returned into the 
copper with the succeeding one. Between the 
boilings the fires should be damped with wet cin- 
ders, and the copper door set open. 

For small beer only half an hour is necessary 
for the first wort, 1 hour for the second, and 2 hours 
for the third. The diminution from boiling is from 
one-eighth to one-sixteenth. 

To Cool the Worth. 
Worts should be laid so shallow as to cool within 
6 or 7 hours to the temperature of 60°. In warm 
weather the depth should not exceed 2 or 3 inches. 



254 



BREWING. 



but in cold weather it may be 5 inches. As soon 
as they have fallen to 60° they should instantly 
be tunned and yeasted. 

To Choone Heats for Tiiiining, 

In cold weather the heats in the coolers should 
lie 5° or 6° higher than in mild and warm weather. 
For ale, in cold weather, it should be tunned as 
soon .IS it has fallen to 60° F.ihr. in the coolers; 
for porter to 64°, and for table beer to 74°, and in 
warm weather stronf; beer should be 4° or 5° less, 
and table beer 7° or 8°. Care should also be taken 
that the w<irts do not get cold before the yeast is 
mixed to produce fermentation. The best rule 
for mixini; the j'east is IJ lbs. to every barrel of 
strong beer wort, and 1 lb. to every barrel of ta- 
ble beer wort. 

Tu Mix the Yeast with the Worts, 

Ale brewed for keeping in winter should be no 
more than blood warm when the yeast is put to 
it. If it is intended for immediate drinking, it 
ma}' be yeasted a little warmer. The best method 
of mixing the yeast is to take 2 or 3 quarts of the 
hot water wort in a wooden bowl or pan, to which, 
when cool enough, put yeast enough to work the 
brewing, generally 1 or 2 quarts to the hogshead, 
according to its quality. In this bowl or pan the 
fermentation will commence while the rest of the 
worts are cooling, when the whole may be mixed 
together. 
2'o Appvrtioti Yeast and Apply it to the Worts. 

The yeast of strong beer is preferable to that 
from small beer, and it should be fresh and good. 
The quantity should be diminished with the tem- 
perature at which the worts are tunned, and less 
in summer than in winter. For strong beer a 
quart of yeast per quarter will be suffif'ont at 58°, 
but less when the worts are higher and when the 
weather is hot. If estimated by the more accu- 
rate criterion of weight, li lbs. should be used 
for a barrel of strong beer, and IJ lbs. for a bar- 
rel of small beer. If the fermentation does not 
commence add a little more yeast, and rouse the 
worts for some time. But if they get cold, and 
the fermentation is slow, fill a bottle with hot wa- 
ter and put it into the tun. 

In cold weather small beer should be tunned at 
70°, keeping beer at 60° and strong beer at 64°. 
In mild weather at 50° for each sort. The fer- 
mentation will increase the heat 10°. 

To Manage the Fermentation. 

A proportion of the yeast should be added to 
the first wort as soon as it is let down from the 
soolers, and the remainder as soon as the second 
wort is let down. 

The commencement of fermentation is indica- 
ted by a line of small bubbles round the sides of 
the tun, which in a short time extends over the 
surface. A crusty head follows, and then a fine 
rocky one, followed by a light, frothy head. In 
the last stage the head assumes a yeasty appear- 
ance, and the color is yellow or brown, the smell 
of the tun becoming strojigly vinous. As soon as 
this head begins to fall, the tun should be skim- 
med, and the skimming continued every 2 hours 
till no more yeast appears ; this closes the opera- 
tion, and it should then be put in casks, or, in 
technical language, cleansed. A minute attention 
to every stage of this process is necessary to se- 
eure fine flavored and brilliant beverage. Should 
the fermentation be unusually slow, it should be 
accelerated by stirring or rousing the whole. 
After the first skimming, a small quantity of salt 
and flour, well mixed, should be stirred in the tun. 
The fermentation will proceed in the casks, to 
encourage which the bung-hole should be placed 



a little aside, and the casks kept full liy being 
filled up from time to time with oU beer. AVhea 
this fermentation Las ceased the casks may be 
bunged up. 

To Accelerate the Fermentation. 

Spread some flour with the hand over the sur- 
face, and it will form a«rust, and keep the worts 
warm, or throw in an ounce or two of powdered 
ginger, or fill a bottle with boiling water and sink 
it in the worts, or heat a small quantity of the 
worts and throw into the rest, or beat up the 
whites of two eggs with some brandy and thr'"«7 
it into the tun or cask, or tie up some bran in a 
coarse, thin cloth and put it into the vat, ant 
above all things do not disturb the wort, as f^r, 
mentation will not commence during any agita- 
tion of the wort. 

To Check a Too Rapid Fermentation. 

Mix some cold raw wort in the tun, or divide 
the whole between two tuns, where, by beWig in 
smaller body, the energy of the fermentation of 
the whole will be divided. Also open the doors 
and windows of the brew-house; but. if it still 
frets, sprinkle some cold water over it; or if it 
frets in the cask, put a mixture of a J of a lb. of 
sugar with a handful of salt, to the hogshead. 

To Brew Porter on the London System. 

Thames or New River water is indiflferently 
used, or hard water, raised into backs and exposed 
for a few days to the air. 

Take a mixture of brown, amber and pale malts, 
in nearly equal quantities, and turn them into the 
m.ish-tub in this order. Turn on the first liquor 
at 165°. mash 1 hour and then coat the whole with 
dry malt. In 1 hour set the tap. 

Mix 10 lbs. of brown hops to the quarter of 
malt, half old, half new ; boil the first wort briskly 
with the hops for three-quarters of an hour, and 
after putting into the copper H lbs. of sugar and 
li lbs, of Leghorn juice (extract of liquorice> to 
the barrel, turn the whole into the coolers, rousing 
the wort all the t me. 

Turn on the second liquor at 174°, and in an 
hour set tap again. This second wort having run 
ofi", turn on again at 145°; mash for an hour and 
stand for the saint-, in the meantime boiling the 
second wort with the same hops for an hour. Turn 
these into the coolei.^ as before, and let down into 
the tub at 64°, mixiiig the yeast as it comes down. 
Cleanse the second day at 80°, previously throw- 
ing in a mixture of flour and salt, and rousing 
thoroughly. 

For private use, eve'"y quarter of malt ought to 
yield 2 barrels and a half, but brewers would run 
3 barrels to a quarter. 

To Breic three Barrels of Porter. 

Take 1 sack of pale malt, ^ a sack of amber 
malt, and i a sack of brown malt. 

Turn on 2 barrels for first mash at 165°; second 
mash, li barrels at 172°; third mash, 2 barrels 
at 142°. Boil 10 lbs. of new and old hops, and 2 
oz. of porter extract in the first wort. Cool, fer- 
ment, and cleanse according to the previous in- 
structions. 

Brown Stout, 

The procedure is the same as in the preceding 
article, except that one-third or one-half the malt 
should be brown. 

To brew Ale in Small Families. 
A bushel and three-quarters of ground malt and 
a pound of hops are sufiicient to make 18 gallons 
of good family ale. That the saccharine matter 
of the malt may be extracted by infusion, without 
the farina, the temperature of the water shou d 



ALE. 



255 



nol exceed 155° or 160°. The quantity of water 
should be poured on the malt as speedily as pos- 
sible, iind the whole being well iiii.\ed together by 
active stirring, the ve.'^scl should be closely covered 
over for an hour ; if the weather be cold, (or an 
hour and a half. If hard water be employed it 
should be boiled, and the temperature allowed, by 
exposure to the atmosphere, to fall to 155°#r 160°; 
but if rain water is used, it may be added to the 
malt as soon as it arrives to 155°. During the 
time this process is going on, tlie hops should be 
infused in a cl"Se vessel, in as much boiling wafer 
as will cover them, for 2 hours. The liciuor may 
then be squeezed out, and kept closely covered. 

The hops should then be boiled for about 10 
minutes, in doul.le the quantity of water obtained 
from the infused hops, and the strained liquor, 
when cold, may be added with the infusion to the 
wort," when it has fallen to the temperature of 70°. 
The object of infusing the hops in a close vessel 
previously to boiling, is to preserve the essential 
oil of hops, which renders it more sound, and 
at the same time more wholesome. A pint of 
good thick yeast should be well stirred into the 
mixture of wort and hops, and covered over in a 
plaee of the temperature of 65°; and when the 
fermentation is completed, the liquor may be 
drawn off into a clean cask previously rinsed with 
boiling water. When the slow fermentation which 
will ensue has ceased, the cask should l)e loosely 
bunged for two days, when, if the liquor be left 
quiet, the bung may be properly fastened. The 
pale malt is the best, because, when highly dried, 
it does not afford so much saccharine matter. If 
the malt be new, it should be exposed to the air, 
in a dry room, for 2 days previously to its being 
used ; but if it be old, it may be used in 12 or 20 
hours after it is ground. The great difference 
in the flavor of ale made by different brewers 
appears to arise from their employing different 
species of hops. 

Another Method of Brewing Ale, 
For 36 gallons, take of malt (usually pale), 2J 
bushels; sugar, 3 lbs. just boiled to a color; hops, 
2 lbs. 8 oz. ; coriander seeds, 1 oz. ; capsicum, i a 
drachm. 

Work it 2 or 3 days, beating it well up once or 
twice a day ; when it begins to fall, cleanse it by 
adding a handful of salt and some wheat H /ur. 
Table Beer only, from Pale Malt. 
The first mash should be at 170°, viz. 2 barrels 
per quarter; let it stand on the grains 2 of an 
hour in hot weather, or 1 hour if cold. Second 
mash, 145° at li barrels per quarter, stands i an 
hour. Third, 165°, 2 barrels per quarter, stands 
i an hour. Fourth, 130°, 3 barrels, stands 2 
hours. The first wort to be boiled with 6 lbs. of 
hops per quarter for 1^ hours, the second wort to 
be boiled with the same hops 2 hours, and the re- 
mainder 3 hours. The whole is to be now heated 
as low as 55° if the weather permits, and put to 
work with about 5 pints of yeast per quarter; if 
the weather is too warm to get them down to 55°, 
a less proportion will be sufficient. The 8 barrels 
of liquor first used will be reduced to 6 of beer 
to each quarter; 1 barrel being left in the grains, 
and another evaporated in boiling, cooling and 
working. 

Ale and Small Beer on Mr. Cobbett'a Plan, 
Ulenni'ls. 
These are first, a copper that will contain at 
least 40 gallons. Second, a mashing-tub to con- 
tain 60 gallons; for the malt is to be in this along 
with the water. It must be a little broader at top 
than at bottom, and not quite so deep as it is wide 
across the bottom. In the middle of the bottom 



there is a hole about 2 inches over, to draw the 
wort off. Into this hole goes a stick a foot or two 
longer than the tub is high. This stick is to be 
about 2 inches through, and tapered for about 3 
inches upwards, at the end that goes into the 
hole, which at last it fills -ip as closely as a cork. 
Before anything else is put into the tub, lay a 
little bundle of fine birch about half the bulk of a 
biri-h broom, and well tied at both ends. Thij 
being laid over the hole (to keep back the graina 
as the wort goes out), put the tapered end of the 
stick down through it into the hole, and thus cork 
the whole up. Then have something of w ,ight 
sufficient to keep the birch steady at the bottom 
of the tub, with a hole through it to slip down the 
stick; the best thing for this purpose will be a 
leaden collar for the stick, with the hole large 
enough, and it should weigh 3 or 4 pounds. 

Third, an underback or shallow tub, to go under 
the niiish-tub for the wort to run into when drawn 
from the- grains. 

Fourth, a tun-tub that will contain 30 gallons, 
to put the ale into to work, the mash-tub serving 
as a tun-tub for the small beer. Besides these, a 
couple of coolers or shallow tube, about a foot 
deep; or, if there are four it may be as well, in 
order to effect the cooling more quickly. 

Process of Brewing the Ale. 

Begin by filling the copper with water, and next 
by making the water boil. Then put into the 
mashing-tub water sufiieient to stir and separate 
the malt. The degree of heat that the water is to 
be at, before the malt is put in, is 170° by tho 
thermometer; but, without one, take this luls; 
when you can, looking down into the tub, see ycui 
face clearly in the water, the water is hot enough. 
Now put in the malt and stir it well in the water. 
In this state it should continue for about i of an 
hour. In the meanwhile till up the copper, and 
make it boil; and then put in boiling water suffi- 
cient to give 18 gallons of ale. 

When the proper quantity of water is in stir the 
malt again well, and cover the mashing-tub over 
with sacks, and there let the mash stand for 2 
ho-'rs^ then draw ott' the wort. The mashing-tub 
is placed on a couple of stools, so as to be able to 
put the underback under it to receive the wort as 
if .omes out of the hole. When the underback is 
put in its place, let out the wort by pulling up the 
stick that corks the hole. But observe, this stick 
(which goes 6 or 8 inches through the hole) must 
be raised by degrees, and the wort must be let out 
slowly in order to keep back the sediment. So 
that it is necessary to have something to keep the 
stick up at the point where it is to be raised, and 
fixed at for the time. To do this the simplest 
thing is a stick across the mashing-tub. 

As the ale-wort is drawn off into the small un- 
derback, lade it out of that into the tun-tub; put 
the wort into the copper, and add li pounds of 
good hops, well rublied and separated as they are 
put in. Now make the copper boil, and keep it, 
with the lid ofi', at a good brisk boil for a full 
hour, or an hour and a half. When the boiling is 
done, put the liquor into the coolers, but strain 
out the hops in a small clothes-basket or wicker- 
basket. Now set the coolers in the most conve- 
nient place, in doors or out of doors, as most con- 
venient. 

The next stage is the tun-tub, where the liquor 
is set to work. A great point is, the degree of 
heat that the liquor is to be at, when it is set to 
work. The proper heat is 70° ; so that a ther- 
mometer makes the matter sure. In the country 
they determine the degree of heat by merely put- 
ting a finger into the liquor. 



256 



BREWING. 



When cooled to the proper he.it, put it into the 
tun-tub, iinrl put in .about half a pint of goncl yeast. 
But the yeast should first be put into half a gallon 
of the liquor, and mixed well; stirring in with the 
yeast a hamlful of wheat or rye-flour. This mix- 
ture is tlien to be poured out clean into the tun- 
tub, and the mass of the Ii((unr agitated well, till 
the yeast be well mixed with the whole. When 
the liquor is thus properly put into the tun -tub 
and set a working, cover over the top, by laying a 
sack or two across it. 

The tun-tub should stand in a place neither too 
warm nor too cold. Any cool place in summer, 
and any warm place in winter, and if the weather 
be verj' cold, some cloths or sacks should be put 
round the tun-tub while the beer is working. In 
about 6 or 8 hours a frothy head will rise upon the 
liquor ; and it will keep rising, more or less slowly, 
for 48 hours. The best way is to take off the froth, 
at the end of about 24 hours, with a common skim- 
mer, and in 12 hours take it otf again, and so on, 
till the liquor has done working, and sends up no 
more yeast. Then it is beer; and, when it is quite 
cold (for ale or strong beer), put it into the cask 
by means of a funnel. It must be cold before this 
is done, or it will be foxed; that is, have a rank 
tnd disagreeable taste. 

The cask should lean a little on one side when 
tiling it, because the beer will work again, and 
send more yeast out of the bung hole. Something 
will go off in this working, which may continue for 
2 or 3 days, so that when the beer is being put 
in the cask, a gallon or two should be left, to keep 
filling up with as the working produces emptiness. 
At last when the working is completely over, 
block the cask up to its level. Put in a handful 
of fresh hops, fill the cask quite full, and bung it 
tight, with a bit of coarse linen round the bung. 

When the cask is empty, great care must be 
taken to cork it tightly up, so that no air gets in; 
for, if so, the cask is moulded and spoilt for ever. 
The Smnll Beer. 

Thirty-six gallons of boiling water are to go into 
the mashing-tub; the grains are to be well stirred 
up, as bel'ore ; the mashing-tub is to be covered 
over, and the mash is to stand in that state for an 
hour; then draw it off into the tun-tub. 

By this time the copper will be empty again, by 

putting the ale liquor to cool. Now put the small 

beer wort into the copper with the hops used be- 

ore, and with half a pound of fresh hops added 

o them ; and boil this liquor briskly for an hour. 

Take the grains and the sediment clean out of 
the mashing-tub, put the birch twigs in again, and 
put down the stick as before. Put the basket over. 
and take the liquor from the copper (putting the 
fire out first) and pour it into the mashing-tub 
through the basket. Take the basket away, throw 
the hops on the dunghill, and leave the small beer 
liquor to cool in the mashing-tub. 

Here it is to remain to be set to working; only, 
more yeast will be wanted in proportion; and there 
should be for 36 galls, of small beer, 3 half pints 
of good yeast. 

Proceed now as with the ale, only, in the case 
of the small beer it should be put into cask, not 
quite cold; or else it will not work in the barrel, 
as it ought to do. It will not work so strongly 
nor so long as ale; and may be put in the barrel 
much sooner, in general the next day after it is 
brewed. 

All the utensils should be well cleaned and put 
away as soon as they are done with. " I am now," 
says Mr. Cobbet, "in a farm house, where the 
same set of utensils has been used for forty years; 
and the owner tells me, that they may last for 
forty years longer." 



To BreiD Ale and Porter from Sugar and Malt. 

To every quarter of malt take 100 lbs. of brown 
sugar, and in the result, it will be found that the 
.sugar is equal to the malt. The quarter of malt 
is to be brewed with the same proportions, as 
though it were 2 quarters; and sugar is to be put 
into the tun, and the first wort let down upon it, 
rousinglthe whole well together. 

The other wrts are then to be let down, f nd 
the fermentation and other processes carried on 
as in the brewing of malt. 

To Brew Barton Ale. 
Of this strong ale, only a barrel and a half is 
drawn from a quarter, at 180° for the first mash, 
and 190° for the second, followed by a gyle of 
table beer. It is tunned at 58°, and cleansed at 
72°. The Burton brewers use the finest pale malt, 
and grind it a day or two before being used. They 
employ Kentish hops, from 6 to 8 lbs. per quarter. 

To Brew Notiuyham Ale in the small way. 

The first copperful of boiling water is to be put 
into the mash-tub, there to lie a quarter of an hour, 
till the steam is far spent; or as soon as the hot 
water is put in, throw into it a pail or two of cold 
water, which will bring it at once to a proper tem- 
perature; then let 3 bus. of malt run leisurely in- 
to it, and stir or mash all the while, but no more 
than just to keep the malt from clotting or ball- 
ing; when that is done, put 1 bu. of dry malt at 
the top, and let it stand covered 2 hours, or till 
the next copperful of water is boiled, then lade 
over the malt 3 handbowlsful at a time. These 
run off at the cock or tap by a very small stream 
before more is put on, which again must be re- 
turned into the mash-tub till it comes off exceed- 
ingly fine. This slovy way takes 16 hours in brew- 
ing 4 bus. of malt. Between the ladings, put cold 
water into the copper to boil, while the other is 
running off; by this means, the copper is kept up 
nearly full, and the cock is kept running to the 
end of the brewing. Only 21 galls, must be saved 
of the first wort, which is reserved in a tub, where- 
in 4 oz. of hops are put, and then it is to be set by. 

For the second wort there are 20 galls, of water 
in the copper boiling which must be laded over in 
the same manner as the former, but no cold water 
need be mixed. When half of this is run out into 
a tub, it must be directly put into the copper with 
half of the first wort, strained through the brew- 
ing sieve as it lies on a small loose wooden frame 
over the copper, in order to keep those hops that 
were first put in to preserve it, which is to make 
the first copper 21 galls. Then, upon its begin- 
ning to boil, put in 1 lb. of hops in 1 or 2 canvas 
bags, somewhat larger than will just contain the 
hops, that an* allowance may be given for their 
swell; this boil very briskly for i an hour, when 
take the hops out and continue boiling the wort 
by itself till it breaks into particles a little ragged; 
it is then done, and must be dispersed into the 
cooling tubs very shallow. Put the remainder of 
the first and second wort together, and boil it in 
the same manner, and with the same quantity of 
fresh hops, as the first. 

By this method of brewing, ale may be made as 
strong or as small as is thought fit, and so may 
the small beer that comes after. 

To brew Essex Ale. 

Procure 2 mashing-tubs, 1 that will mash 4 
bus., and the other 2 bus., and a copper that holds 
i a hogshead. The water, when boiled, is put in- 
to the largest tub, and a pail of cold water imme- 
diately on that; then put the malt in by a hand- 
bowlful at a time, stirring it all the while, and so 
on in a greater quantity by degrees (for the danger 



BEER. 



257 



of balling is mostly at first), till at last J a bus. 
of dry malt is left for a top-cover; thus let it stand 
3 hours. In the meanwhile, another copper of 
water is directly heated, and put as before into the 
Other mash-tub, for mashing 2 bus. of malt, which 
stands that time. Then, after the wort of the 4 
bus. is run off, let that also of the 2 bus. spend, 
and Inde it over the 4 bus., the cock running all 
the while, and it will make in all a copper and 
a half of wort, which is boiled twice; that is, 
when the first copper is boiled an hour, or till it 
breaks into large flakes; then take half out, and 
put the remaining raw wort to it, and boil it about 
i an hour till it is broken. Now while the 2 worts 
are running off, a copper of water almost scalding 
hot is made ready, and put over the goods or 
grains of both tubs ; after an hour's standing the 
cock is turned, and this second wort is boiled away, 
and put over the grains of both tubs to stand 1 
hour ; when off, it is put into the copper and boiled 
again, and then serves hot instead of the first 
water, for mashing 4 bus. of fresh malt; after it 
has again lain 3 hours, and is spent off, it is boil- 
ed ; but while in the mash-tub, a copper of water 
is heated to put over the goods or grains, which 
stands 1 hour, and is then boiled for small beer. 
And thus may be brewed 10 bus. of malt with 2i 
lbs. of hops for the whole. 

To breiv Edinburgh Ale. 

Adopt the best pale malt. 

1st. Mash two barrels per quarter, at 183° 
(170°) ; mash three-quarters of an hour, let it 
stand one hour, and allow half an hour to run off 
the wort. 

2nd. Mash one barrel per quarter, at 190° 
(183°); mash three-quarters of iin hour, let it 
stand three-quarters of an hour, and tap as before. 

3rd. Mash one barrel per quarter, at 160°; 
mash half an hour, let it stand half an hour, and 
tap as before. 

The first and second wort may be mixed to- 
gether, boiling them about an hour or an hour 
and a quarter, with a quantity of hops proportioned 
to the time the beer is intended to be kept. 

The two first may be mixed at the heat of 60° 
or 65° in the gyle-tun, and the second should be 
fermented separately for small beer. 

Bavarian or Lager Seer. 

The malt is first mixed with water of ordinary 
temperature; for 1 part of malt about 39 parts of 
water are employed. The whole is allowed to rest 
6 or 8 hours, after which the mashing is begun by 
mixing the mass with 3 parts of boiling water 
added gradually during continual agitation, by 
which its temperature is raised to 106° Fahr. The 
thick part of the mash is then transferred to the 
copper and heated to boiling with constant agi- 
tation, and after an hour's boiling again returned 
to the mash-tun and mixed thoroughly with its 
liquid contents, by which the temperature in the 
mash-tun is raised to 133°. The thick part of the 
mash is once more transferred to the copper and 
boiled for an hour and returned to the mash-tun, 
by which the temperature is raised to 154°. The 
fluid part of the mash is then transferred to the 
copper and boiled for a quarter of an hour, and 
then poured back upon the masn in the tun, and 
mixed thoroughly with it. The temperature is 
thereby raised to from 167° to 180°. After agita- 
tion for a quarter of an hour the mash is left at 
rest for an hour or an hour and a half, after which 
the clear wort is drawn off. 

The fermentation of lager is peculiar, it is per- 
formed very slowly, and at a temperature from 
82° to 46i° Fahr. The yeast, instead of rising, falls 
to the bottom. The high temperature of the mash 
17 



causes all albuminous matter to be coagulated, 
and much gummy matter remains unchanged. 
This, together with the bottom fermentation, car- 
ries off all nitrogenous matter; the beer is ex- 
ceedingly clear. It is put in hogsheads lined with 
common rosin, and is preserved a long time in 
vaults or cellars before being used. 
White Beer. 
Boil enough ale wort, preferably pale, for 1 
barrel, with 3 handsful of hops and 14 pounds of 
groats (hulled oats), until all the soluble matter is 
extracted from the latter. Strain, and when luke- 
warm add 2 pints of yeast, and when fermenting 
briskly bottle in strong stoneware bottles. 

Cheap and Agreeable Table Beer. 
Take 15 galls, of water and boil one-half, put- 
ting the other into a barrel ; add the boiling water 
to the cold, with 1 gall, of molasses and a little 
yeast. Keep the bung-hole open till the fermen- 
tation is abated. 

To make Sugar Beer. 
Very excellent beer is made of sugar, and also 
of treacle. First boil a peck of bran in 10 galls, 
of water; strain the bran off, and mix with the 
branny water 3 pounds of sugar, first stirring it 
well. When cool enough add a teacupful of the 
best yeast, and a tablcspoonful of flour to a bowl 
nearly full of the saccharine matter, which, when 
it has fermented for about an hour, is to be mixed 
with the remainder, and hopped with about i lb. 
hops ; and the following day it may be put into the 
cask, to ferment further, which usually takes 3 
days, when it is to be bunged, and it will be fit 
for drinking in a week. Treacle beer is made in 
the same way, 3 lbs. of it being used instead of 
3 lbs. of sugar. 

N. B. — This beer will not keep any length of 
time. 

Spruce Beer 
Boil 8 galls, of water, and when in a state of 
complete ebullition pour it into a beer barrel which 
contains 8 galls, more of cold water; then add 16 
lbs. of molasses, with a few tablespoon fuls of the 
essence of spruce, stirring the whole well together; 
add half a pint of yeast, and keep it in a tempe- 
rate situation, with the bung-hole open for two 
days till the fermentation be abated, when the 
bung may be put in and the beer bottled off. It 
is fit to drink in a day or two. If you can get no 
essence of spruce make a strong decoction of the 
small twigs and leaves of the spruce firs. 
Another Receipt. 
Take of oil of spruce, sassafras, and wintergreen, 
each 40 drops ; pour 1 gall, of boiling water on the 
oils, then add 4 galls, of cold water, 3 pints of mo- 
lasses, 1 pint of yeast. Let it stand for 2 hours 
and bottle. 

Root Beer. 
Take 3 galls, of molasses ; add 10 galls, of water 
at 60° Fahr. Let this stand 2 hours, then pour 
into a barrel, and add powdered or bruised sassa- 
fras and wintergreen bark, each J lb., bruised sar- 
saparilla root i lb., yeast 1 pint, water enough to 
fill the barrel, say 25 galls. Ferment for 12 hours 
and bottle. 

Ginger Pop. 
Crushed white sugar 28 lbs, water 30 galls., 
yeast 1 pint, powdered ginger (best) 1 lb., essence 
of lemon i oz., essence of cloves \ oz. To the ginger 
pour half a gallon of boiling water and let it stand 
15 or 20 minutes. Dissolve the sugar in 2 galls, of 
warm water, pour both into a barrel half filled with 
cold water, then add the essence and the yeast; let 
it stand half an hour, then fill up with cold watex 
Let it ferment 6 to 12 hours^ and bottle. 



258 



BREWING. 



Ginger Beer. 
Take of good Jamaica ginger 2^ oz., moist sugar 
3 lbs., cream of tartar 1 oz., the juice and peel of 
two middling-sized lemons, brandy i pint, good 
solid ale yeast i pint, water 3i galls. This will 
produce 4^ dozen of excellent ginger beer, which 
■will keep 12 months. Bruise the ginger and sugar, 
and boil them for 20 or 25 minutes in the water; 
slice the lemon and put it and the cream of tartar 
into a large pan ; pour the boiling liquor upon 
them, stir it well round, and when milk warm add 
the yeast. Cover it over, let it remain 2 or 3 days 
to work, skimming it frequently; then strain it 
through a jelly-bag into a cask, add the brandy, 
bung down very close, and at the end of a fort- 
night or 3 weeks draw it off and botfle, and cork 
very tight; tie the cork down with twine or wire. 
If it does not work well at first, add a little more 
yeast, but be careful not to add too much, lest it 
taiste of it. 

Mead. 
Take of honey 3 galls., heat to the boiling point, 
taking great care that it does not boil over; pour 
this into a barrel half filled with cold water; let 
it stand 20 or 25 minutes, and add yeast 1 pint, 
oil nutmeg 1 tablespoonful, oil of lemon or orange 
1 ounce. Fill the barrel with water, and let it 
ferment. 

Sarsajiarilla Beer, or Lisbon Diet Drink. 
Take of compound syrup of sarsaparilla 1 pint, 
good pale ale 7 pints. Use no yeast. 
Cheap Beer. 
Pour 10 galls, of boiling water upon 1 peck of 
malt in a tub, stir it about well with a stick, let it 
stand about half an hour, and then draw off the 
wort; pour 10 galls, more of boiling water upon 
the malt, letting it remain another half hour, stir- 
ring it occasionally, then draw it off and put it 
to the former wort. When this is done, mix 4 oz. 
of hops with it, and boil it well ; then strain the 
hops from it, and when the wort becomes milk 
warm put some yeast to it to make it ferment ; 
when the fermentation is nearly over, put the 
liquor into a cask, and, as soon as the fermenta- 
tion has perfectly subsided, bung it close down. 
The beer is then fit for use. 

To make Beer and Ale from Pea-shells. 
No production of this country abounds so much 
with vegetable saccharine matter as the shells of 
green peas. A strong decoction of them so much 
resembles, in odor and taste, an infusion of malt 
(termed wort) as to deceive a brewer. This decoc- 
tion, rendered slightly bitter with the wood sage, 
and afterwards fermented with yeast, affords a 
very excellent beverage. The method employed 
is as follows : 

Fill a boiler with the green shells of peas, pour 
on water till it rises half an inch above the shells, 
and simmer for three hours. Strain off the liquor, 
and add a strong decoction of the wood-sage, or 
the hop, so as to render it pleasantly bitter; then 
ferment in the usual manner. The wood-sage is 
the best substitute for hops, and, being free from 
any anodyne property, is entitled to a preference. 
By boiling a fresh quantity of shells in the decoc- 
tion before it becomes cold, it may be so thor- 
oughly impregnated with saccharine matter as to 
afford a liquor, when fermented, as strong as ale. 
Required Time for Keeping Beer. 
This depends on the temperature at which the 
malt has been made, thus : 

Malt made at 110° will produce beer which may 
be drawn in a fortnight; at 124°, in a month; at 
129°, in 3 months; at 134°, in 4 months; at 138°, 
in 6 months; at 143°, in 8 months j at 148° in 10 



months; at 152°, in 15 months: at 157', in 2> 
months^ at 162°, in 24 months. 
To give any required Brightness or Color to Beer. 

This depends on the temperature at which the 
malt has been made, and on its color, thus : 

Malt made at 119° produces a white; at 124°, 
a cream color; at 129°, alight yellow; at 134°, 
an amber color. 

These, when properly brewed, become sponta- 
neously fine, even as far as 138°. When brewed 
for amber, by repeated fermentations, they be- 
come pellucid. At 138°, a high amber; at 143°, 
a pale brown. 

By precipitation, these grow bright in a short 
time. At 148°, a brown; at 152°, a high brown. 

With precipitation these require 8 or 10 months 
to be bright. At 157°, a brown, inclining to black; 
at 162°, a brown speckled with black. 

With precipitation these may be fined, but will 
never become bright. At 167°, a blackish brown 
speckled with black; at 171°, a color of burnt 
coffee; at 176°, a black. 

These with difficulty can be brewed without 
setting the goods, and will by no means become 
bright, not even with the strongest acid men- 
struum. 

To Brew Amber Beer. 

Amber is now out of fashion, but formerly was 
drunk in great quantities in London, mixed with 
bitters, and called purl. The proportions of malt 
were 3 qrs. amber, and 1 qr. pale, with 6 lbs. of 
hops to the qr. The first liquor is usually tunned 
at 170°, and the second at 187°. The worts are 
boiled together for 2 hours. It is tunned at 64°, 
and after 24 hours roused every 2 hours till the 
heat is increased to 74°. It is then skimmed 
every hour for 6 hours and cleansed, and gene- 
rally used as soon as it has done working in the 
barrels. 

Another Method of Brewing Amber Beer, or Two- 
peimy. 

For 36 galls. : malt, Hbus. ; hops, 1 lb. ; liquorice 
root, 1 lb. 8 oz. ; treacle, 5 lb. ; Spanish liquorice, 
2 oz. ; capsicum, 2 drs. Frequently drunk the 
week after it is brewed ; used in cold weather as a 
stimulant. 

To make Molasses Beer. 
For email beer, put 9 lbs. of molasses into a 
barrel-copper of cold water, first mixing it well, 
and boiling it briskly with i lb. of hops or more 

1 hour, so that it may come off 27 galls. 

To Fine Beer. 

To fine beer, should it be requisite, take an ounce 
of isinglass, cut small, and boil it in 3 qts. of beer, 
till completely dissolved ; let it stand till quite cold, 
then put it into a cask, and stir it well with a 
stick or whisk ; the beer so fined should be tapped 
soon, because the isinglass is apt to make it tiat 
as well as fine. 

Another Method. 

Take a handful of salt, and the same quantity 
of chalk scraped fine and well dried; then take 
some isinglass, and dissolve it in some stale beer 
till it is about the consistence of syrup ; strain it, 
and add about a quart to the salt and chalk, with 

2 qts. of molasses. Mix them all well together, 
with a gallon of the beer, which must be dniwn 
off; then put it into the cask, and take a .>itick or 
whisk, and stir it well till it ferments. When it 
has subsided, stop it up close, and in 2 diiy.< it 
may be tapped. This is sufficient for a butt. 

Another. — Take 1 pt. of water, and i an uz. of 

unslaked lime, mix them well together, letting the 

mixture stand for 3 hours, that the lime may set- 

I tie at the bottom. Then pour off the clear liquor, 



BREWING. 



259 



and mix with it i oz. of isinglass, cut small and 
boiled in a little water; pour it into the barrel, and 
in 5 or 6 hours the beer will become fine. 

Anclher. — In general, it will become sufficiently 
fine by keeping; but fineness m;iy be prmiioted by 
putting a handful of sciilded hops into the cask. 
If the beer continues thick, it way then be fined 
by putting 1 pt. of the following preparation into 
the barrel : 

Put as much isinglass into a vessel as will oc- 
cupy J; then fill it up with old beer. When dis- 
solved rub it through a sieve, and reduce it to the 
consistency of treacle with more beer. A pint of 
this put into the cask and gently stirred with a 
short stick, will fine the barrel in a few hours. 

To Fine Cloudy Beer. 

Rack off the cask, and boil 1 lb. of new hops in 
■water, with coarse sugar, and when cold put in at 
the bung-hole. 

Or, new hops soaked in beer, and squeezed, may 
be put into the cask. 

Or, take 10 lbs. of baked pebblestone powder, 
with the whites of 6 eggs, and some powdered bay- 
salt, and mix them with 2 galls, of the beer. Pour 
in the whole into the casks, and in 3 or 4 days it 
will settle, and the beer be fine and agreeable. 

To Recover Thick, Sour Malt Liquor. 

Make strong hop tea with boiling water and 
salt of tartar, and pour it into the cask. 

Or, rack the cask into 2 casks of equal size, and 
fill them up with new beer. 

To Vamp Malt Liquors. 
Old beer may be renewed by racking 1 cask 
into 2, and filling them from a new brewing, and 
in 3 weeks it will be a fine article. 

To Restore Musty Beer. 

Run it through some hops that have been boiled 
in strong wort, and afterwards work it with double 
th^ quantity of new malt liquor; or if the fault is 
in the cask, draw it oflf into a sweet cask, and 
having boiled i lb. of brown sugar in 1 qt. of water, 
add 1 or 2 spoonsful of yeast before it is quite 
cold, and when the mixture ferments, pour it into 
the cask. 

To Enliven and Restore Dead Beer. 

Boil some water and sugar, or water and treacle, 
together, and when cold add some new yeiist; this 
will restore dead beer, or ripen bottled beer in 24 
hours ; and it will also make worts work in the 
tun if they are sluggish. 

Or, a small teaspoonful of carbonate or soda 
may be mixed with a quart of it as it is drawn 
for drinking. 

Or, boil for every gallon of the liquor 3 oz, of 
sugar in water; when cold add a little yeast, and 
put the fermenting mixture into the flat beer, 
whether it be a full cask or the bottom of the cask. 

Or, beer may often be restored which has be- 
come flat or stale, by rolling and shaking the casks 
for a considerable time, which will create such a 
new fermentation as to render it necessary to open 
a vent-peg to prevent the cask from bursting. 

A Speedy way of Fining and Preserving a Cask 
of Ale or Beer. 
Take a handful of the hops boiled in the first 
wort, and dried; i lb. of loaf sugar dissolved in 
the beer; 1 lb. of chalk; and i lb. of calcined 
oyster-shells. Put the whole in at the bung-hole, 
stirring them well and then rebunging. This 
preparation will also suit for racked beer ; in put- 
ting in the hops it may be advisable to place them 
in a net with a small stone in the bottom so as to 
sink them, otherwise they will swim at the top. 



To Prevent Beer Becoming Stale or Flat. — First 

Method. 
To a quart of French brandy put as much wheat 
or bean flour as will make it into a dough, and put 
it in. in long pieces, at the bung-hole, letting it fall 
gently to the bottom. This will prevent the beer 
growing stale, keep it in a mellow state, and in- 
crease its strength. 

Second Method. 
To 1 lb. of treacle or honey add 1 lb. of the 
powder of dried oyster-shells, or of soft mellow 
chalk ; mix these into a stiff paste and put it into 
the butt. This will preserve the beer in a soft 
and mellow state for a long time. 

Third Method. 
Dry a peck of egg-shells in an oven, break and 
mix them with 2 lbs. of soft mellow chalk, and 
then add some water wherein 4 lbs. of coarse sugar 
have been boiled, and put it into the cask. This 
will be enough for 1 butt. 

Fourth Method. 

In a cask containing 18 gals, of beer, put a pint 
of ground malt suspended in a bag, and close the 
bung perfectly ; the beer will be improved during 
the whole time of drawing it for use. 

Make use of any of these receipts most approved 
of, observing that the paste or dough must be put 
into the cask when the beer has done working, or 
soon after, and bunged down. At the end of 9 or 
12 months tap it, and you will have a fine, gen- 
erous, wholesome and agreeable liquor. 

When the great quantity of sediment that lioB 
at the bottom of the cask is neglected to ba 
cleaned, this compound of malt, hops and yeast 
so affects the beer that it renders it prejudicial to 
health. On this account, during the whole process 
of brewing do not allow the least sediment to mix 
with the wort in removing it from one tub or 
cooler to the other; especially be careful, when 
tunning it into the cask, not to disturb the bottom 
of the working tub, which would prevent its ever 
being clear and fine. Again, by keeping it too 
long in the working tub, persons who make a 
profit of the yeast frequently promote an undue 
fermentation, and keep it constantly in that state 
for 5 or 6 days, which causes all the spirit that 
should keep the beer soft and mellow to evaporate; 
and it certainly will get stale and hard unless it 
has something wholesome to feed on. 

It is the practice of some persons to beat in the 
yeast while the beer is working, for several days 
together, to make it strong and heady and to 
promote its sale. This is a pernicious custom. 
Therefore let the wort have a free, natural and 
light fermentation, and one day in the working 
tub will be long enough during cold weather; but 
turn it the second day at the farthest, throw out 
the whole brewing, and afterwards introduce no 
improper ingredients. 

To Prevent and Cure Foxing in Malt Liquors. 

Foxing, sometimes called bucking, is a disease 
of malt fermentation which taints the beer. It 
arises from dirty utensils, putting the separate 
worts together in vessels not deep enough, using bad 
malt ; by turning on the liquors at too great heats, 
and brewing in too hot weather. It renders the 
beer ropy and viscid like treacle, and it soon turns . 
sour. When there is danger of foxing, a handful 
of hops should be thrown into the raw worts while 
they are drawing off and before they are boiled, an 
foxing generally takes place when, from a scanti- 
ness of utensils, the worts are obliged to be kept 
some time before they are boiled. When there is 
a want of shallow coolers, it is a good precaution 



260 



BEEWING. 



to put pome fresh hops into the worts and work 
them with the yeast. If the brewing foxes in the 
tun while working, hops should then be put into 
it, and they will tend to restore it; and extra care 
ought to be taken to prevent the lees being trans- 
ferred to the barrels. 

Some persons sift quick-lime into the tun when 
the brewing appears to be foxed. If care is not 
taken to cleanse and scjild the vessels after foxing, 
subsequent brewings may become tainted. 
Other Methoda of Curing Foxing, 

Cut a handful of hyssop small ; mix it with a 
handful of salt, and put it into the cask. Stir and 
stop close. 

Or, infuse a handful of hops and a little salt of 
tartar in boiling water; when cold strain the 
liquor off and pour it into the cask, which stop 
close. 

Or, mix 1 oz. of alum with 2 oz. of mustard- 
seed, and 1 oz. of ginger; stir them in the rack 
and stop close. 

Or, in a fortnight, rack off the foxed beer, and 
hang 2 lbs. of bruised Malaga raisins in a bag 
within the cask, and put in a mixture of treacle, 
bean-flour, mustard-seed, and powdered alum. 

To restore a Barrel of Ropy Beer. 
Mix a handful of bean-flour with a handful of 
salt, and stir it in at the bung-hole; or take some 
well infused hops, and mix them in with some set- 
tlings of strong wort, and stir the mixture in at 
the bung-hole. Or, powder ^ oz. of alum very 
fine, and mix with a handful of bean-flour. 

To make a Butt of Porter, Stout. 

Insert 4 galls, of molasses and some finings ; 
Btir it well. In a week draw off the cask by a cock 
inserted half way down. 

To restore Frosted Beer. 

Such beer is usually sweet and foul, and will 
never recover of itself; but to remedy this, make 
a pailful of fresh wort, into which put a handful 
of rubbed hops, and boil them half an hour, so 
that it may be very bitter, and when almost cold, 
draw a pailful from the cask, and re-fill it with 
the bitter wort. Fermentation will re-commence, 
but when this is over bung it up for a month. If 
it is not then restored, rack it into another cask, 
and put into it ^ a peck of parched wheat, and 1 
lb. of good hops, dried and rubbed, and tied up in 
a net. Bung it down, leaving the vent-hole open 
for a day or two, and in a month it will be fine 
liquor. 

To give New Ale the Flavor of Old. 
Take out the bung, and put into the cask a 
handful of pickled cucumbers ; or a sliced Seville 
orange, and either mode will add an apparent six 
months to the age of the ale. 

To give Beer a rich Flavor, 

Put six sea-biscuits into a bag of hops, and put 
them into the cask. 

To preserve Brewing Utensils. 

In cleaning them before being put away, avoid 
the use of soap, or any greasy material, and use 
only a brush and scalding water, being particu- 
larly careful not to leave any yeast or fur on the 
sides. 

To prevent their being tainted, take wood 
ashes and boil them to a strong lye, which spread 
over the bottoms of the vessels scalding, and then 
with the broom scrub the sides and other parts. 

Or, take bay-salt, and spread it over the coolers, 
and strew some on their wet sides, turning in 
scalding water and scrubbing with a broom. 

Or, throw some stone-lime into water in the ves- 



sel, and scrub over the bottom and sides, washing 
afterwards with clean w.ater. 

To sweeten Stinking or Musty Casks. 

Make a strong lye of ash, beech, or other hard 
wood ashes, and pour it, boiling hot, into the 
bung-hole, repeating it as often as there is occa- 
sion. 

Or, fill the cask with boiling water, and then 
put into it some pieces of unslaked lime, keeping 
up the ebullition for half an hour. Then bung it 
down, and let it remain until almost cold when 
turn it out. 

Or, mis bay-salt with boiling water, and pour 
it into the cask, which bung down, and leave it to 
soak. 

Or, if the copper be provided with a dome, and 
a steam-pipe from its top, pass the steam into the 
casks. 

Or, unhead the cask, scrub it out, head it again; 
put some powdered charcoal into the bung-hole, 
and two quarts of a mixture of oil of vitriol and 
cold water. Then bung it tight, and roll and turn 
the cask for some time. Afterwasds wash it well, 
and drain it dry. 

Or, take out the head, and brush the inside with 
oil of vitriol, afterwards wash it, then burn a slip 
of brown paper steeped in brimstone within the 
bung-hole, and stop it close for two hours, when 
it should be well washed with hot water. 

Another Method. 

Mix half a pint of the sulphuric acid (not the 
diluted) in an open vessel, with a quart of water, 
and whilst warm, put it into the cask, and roll it 
about in such a manner that the whole internal 
surface may be exposed to its action. The follow- 
ing day add about 1 lb. of chalk or sal soda, and 
bung it up for three or four days, when it may be 
washed out with boiling water. By this process 
a very musty cask may be rendered sweet. 

For sweetening musty bottles, it will be only 
necessary to rinse the inside with the diluted sul- 
phuric acid in the above-mentioned proportions. 
The addition of chalk, if it were immediately 
corked, would burst the bottle, and if the cask be 
old, it would be advisable to let a little of the gaa 
escape before bunging it. 

Another, — If a cask, after the beer is drunk out, 
be well stopped, to keep out the air, and the lees 
be suffered to remain in it till used again, scald it 
well, taking care that the hoops be well driven on, 
before filling ; but should the air get into an empty 
cask, it will contract an ill scent, notwithstanding 
the scalding; in which case a handful of bruised 
pepper, boiled in the water, will remove it, though 
the surest way is to take out the head of the cask, 
that it may be shaved ; then burn it a little, and 
scald it for use; if this cannot be conveniently 
done, get some limestone, put about 3 lbs. into a 
barrel (and in same proportion for larger or 
smaller vessels), put to it about 6 gall, of cold 
water, bung it up, shake it about for some time, 
and afterwards scald it well. Or, in lieu of lime, 
match it well and scald it. Then the smell will 
be entirely removed. If the casks be new, dig 
holes in the earth, and lay them in, to about half 
their depth, with their bung-holes downwards, for 
a week. After which scald them well, and they 
will be ready for use. 

Another. — The process of charring fails only in 
the fire not being able to penetrate into the chasms 
or chinks of the cask, into which the coopers (to 
mend bad work) often insert strips of paper, or 
other substance, to make it water-tight, which in 
time become rotten and offensive ; in order to 
remedy this, put into acifsk containing a quantity 
of water (say about 2 gall, in a hogshead) 1-lOth 



YEAST 



261 



of its weight of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), and 
let this he shaken for some time; this is to be 
poured out, the cask well washed, and then rinsed 
with a few gallons of lime-water or sal soda. It 
is needless to say, that it ought likewise to be 
washed out. 

The theory is, that sulphuric acid has the pro- 
perty, when used alone, of charring wood, and 
when diluted has sufficient strength to destroy 
must, etc., with the additional advantage of en- 
tering into every crevice. The lime in solution 
seizes any particle of acid which the first wash- 
ing might leave, and converts it into an insoluble, 
inoffensive, neutral salt, such as, if left in the 
cask, would not in the least injure the most deli- 
cate liquor. 

London Cooj}erB' mode of Sweetening Caxks. 

It is their system to take out the head, place 
the cask over a brisk fire, and char the inside com- 
pletely. The head is then put in again, and the 
cask, before used, is filled 2 or 3 times with hot, 
liquor, bunged down and well shaken before it is 
used again. 

Method of Seasoning New Casks. 

Put the staves just cut and shaped, before they 
are worked into vessels, loose in a copper of cold 
water, and let them heat gradually so that they 
are well boiled, and in boiling take out a 
handbowl of water at a time, putting in fresh till 
all the redness is out of the liquor, and it becomes 
clear from a scum of filth that will arise from the 
sap so boiled out; also take care to turn the 
staves upside down, that all their parts may 
equally have the benefit of the hot water. Ob- 
serve also that in a dry, sultry summer the sap is 
more strongly retained in the wood, than in a 
cool and moist one, and therefore must have the 
more boiling. Then, when the vessel is made, 
scald it twice with water and salt boiled together, 
and it may be readily filled with strong beer with- 
out fearing any twang from the wood. 

fermentation by Various Means. — First Substitute 
for Yeast. 
Mix 2 quarts of water with wheat flour to the 
consistence of thick gruel; boil it gently for half 
an hour, and when almost cold stir into it J lb. 
of sugar and 4 spoonfuls of good yeast. Put the 
whole into a large jug or earthen vessel with a 
narrow top, and place it before the fire, so that it 
may by a moderate heat ferment. The fermen- 
tation will throw up a thin liquor, which pour off 
and throw away; keep the remainder for use (in 
a cool place) in a bottle or jug tied over. The 
same quantity of this, as of common yenst, will 
suffice to bake or brew with. Four spoonfuls of 
this 3'east will make a fresh quantity as before, 
and the stock may be always kept up by ferment- 
ing the new with the remainder of the former 
quantity. 

Second Substitute. 
Take 6 quarts of soft water and 2 handfuls of 
wheaten meal or barley; stir the latter in the wa- 
ter before the mi.xture is placed over the fire, where 
it must boil till two-thirds are evaporated. When 
this decoction becomes cool incorporate with it, by 
means of a whisk, 2 drachms of salt of tartar and 
1 drachm of cream of tartar, previously mixed. 
The whole should be kept in a warm j)lace. Thus 
a very strong yeast for brewing, distilling and 
baking may be obtained. For the last-mentioned 
purpose, however, it ought to be diluted with pure 
water, and passed through a sieve before it is 
kneaded with the dough, in order to deprive it of 
its alkaline taste. 

In countries where yeast is scarce, it is a com- 



mon practice to twist hazel twigs so as to be full 
of chinks, and then steep them in ale-yeast 
during fermentation. The twigs are then hung 
up to dry, and at the next brewing they are put 
into the wort instead of yeast. In Italy the chipf 
are frequently put into turbid wine for the pur- 
pose of clearing it; this is eflFected in about 24 
hours. 

Third Substitute. 

Take 1 lb. of fine flour, make it the thickness of 
gruel with boiling water, add to it i alb. of raw 
sugar. Mix them well together. Put 3 spoonfuls 
of well purified yeast into a large vessel, upon 
which put the above ingredients; they will soon 
ferment violently. Collect the yeast off the top 
and put it into a brown small-neck pot, and cover 
it up from the air; keep it in a dry and warmish 
place ; when used in part, replace with flour made 
into a thin paste, and sugar in the former pro- 
portions. The above will be fit for use in five 
months, and no yeast is necessary except the first 
time. 

Fourth Substitute. 

Boil flour and water to the consistence of trea- 
cle, and when the mixture is cold saturate it with 
fixed air. Pour the mixture thus saturated into 
one or more large bottles or narrow-mouthed jars ; 
cover it over loosely with paper, and upon that lay 
a slate or board with a weight to keep it steady. 
Place the vessel in a situation where the ther- 
mometer will stand from 70° to 80°, and stir up 
the mixture 2 or 3 times in the course of 24 hours. 
In about 2 days such a degree of fermentation 
will have taken place as to give the mixture the 
appearance of yeast. With the yeast in this state, 
and before it has acquired a thoroughly vinous 
smell, mix the quantity of flour intended for bread 
in the proportion of 6 lbs. of flour to a quart of 
the yeast, and a sufficient portion of warm water. 
Knead them well together in a proper vessel, and 
covering it with a cloth, let the dough stand for 12 
hours, or till it appears to be sufficiently fermented 
in the forementioned degree of warmth. It is 
then to be formed into loaves and baked. The 
yeast would be more perfect if a decoction of malt 
were used instead of simple water. 

Fifth Substitute. 
A decoction of malt alone, without any addi- 
tion, will produce a yeast proper enough for the 
purjiose of brewing. This discovery was made 
by Joseph Senyor, and he received for it a reward 
of 20^. from the Societj' for Promoting Arts, Manu- 
factures and Commerce. The process is as fol- 
lows : Procure 3 earthen or wooden vessels of dif- 
ferent sizes and apertures, one cajiable of holding 
2 quarts, the other 3 or 4, and the third 5 or 6; 
boil i of a peck of malt for about 8 or 10 minutes 
in 3 pints of water, and when a quart is poured 
off' from the grains, let it stand in the first or 
smaller vessel in a cool place till not quite cold, 
but retaining that degree of heat which the brewers 
usually find to be proper when they begin to work 
their liquor. Then remove the vessel into some 
warm situation near a fire, where the thermometer 
stands between 70° a nd 80°, and there let it remain 
till the fermentation begins, which will be plainly 
perceived within 30 hours; add then 2 qts. more 
of a like decoction of malt, when cool as the first 
was, and mix the whole in the second or larger 
vessel, and stir it well in, which must be repeated 
in the usual way, as it rises in a common vat; 
then add a still greater quantity of the same de- 
coction, to be worked in the largest vessel, which 
will produce yeast enough for a brewing of 40 
gallons. 



262 



BREWING. 



Sixth Substitute. 
Boil 1 lb. of good flour, i lb. of brown sugar, 
and a little salt in 2 galls, of water for 1 hour. 
When milk warm bottle it and cork it close. It 
will be fit for use in 24 hours. One pint of this 
■will make 18 lbs. of bread. 

Seventh Substitute, 
To 1 lb. of mashed potatoes (mealy ones are 
best) add 2 oz. of brown sugar and 2 spoonfuls of 
common yeast; the potatoes first to be pulped 
through a colander, and mixed with warm water 
to a proper consistence. Thus a pound of pota- 
toes will make a quart of good yeast. Keep it 
moderately warm while fermenting. 
Eighth Substitute. 
Infuse malt, and boil it as for beer ; in the mean 
time soak isinglass, separated to fibres, in small- 
beer. Proportion the quantity of each, 1 oz. of 
isinglass to 2 qts. of beer. This would suffice for 
a hogshead of boiling wort, and the proportion 
may be diminished or increased accordingly. 
After soaking 5 minutes, set the beer and isin- 
glass on the fire, stirring till it nearly boils; then 
turn it into a dish that will allow beating it up 
■with a syllabub whisk to the consistence of yeast, 
and when almost cold put it to the wort. 
Ninth Substitute. 
Make a wort of the consistence of water-gruel, 
■with either rye or malt, ground very fine; put 5 
galls, of it into a vessel capable of holding a few 
gallons more; dissolve 1 lb. of leaven in a small 
portion of the wort, and add it to the remainder, 
with 2J lbs. of fine ground malt; mix the whole 
by agitation for some minutes, and in half an hour 
add 2 large spoonfuls of good yeast; incorporate 
it thoroughly with the mass, cover it close, and let 
it remain undisturbed for 48 hours in a moderate 
temperature. At the end of that period it will be 
found to be wholly converted into good yeast. It 
is requisite that the rye and malt should be fine, 
and the leaven completely dissolved before being 
put to the remaining wort, which, previous to the 
yeast being added, should be at about 100°. 
To Preserve Yeast. 
Common ale yeast may be kept fresh and fit for 
use several months by the following method : Put 
a quantity of it into a close canvas bag, and gently 
squeeze out the moisture in a screw-press till the 
remaining matter be as firm and stiflf as clay. In 
this state it may be close-packed up in a tight 
cask, for securing it from the air, and will keep 
fresh, sound, and fit for use for a long time. 
Another llethod. 
Stir a quantity of yeast and work it well with a 
whisk, till it seems liquid and thin ; then get a 
large wooden dish or tub, clean and dry, and with 
a soft brush lay a thin layer of yeast thereon, 
turning the mouth downwards, to prevent its get- 
ting dusty, but so that the air may come to it to 
diy it. When that coat or crust is sufiiciently 
dried, lay on another, which serve in the same 
manner and continue putting on others as they 
dry, till 2 or 3 inches thick, which will be useful 
on many occasions; but be sure the yeast in the 
vessel be dry before more be laid on. When 
wanted for use, cut a piece out, lay it in warm 
water, stir it together, and it will be fit for use. 
If for brewing, take a handful of birch tied to- 
gether, dip it into the yeast, and hang it to dry, 
taking care to keep it free from dust. When the 
bcvr is fit to set to work, throw in one of these 
and it will work as well as fresh yeast. Whip it 
about in the wort and then let it lie. When the 
beer works well take out the broom, dry it again, 
»Di it will do for the next brewing. 



To make Purl Bitters. 
Take of Roman wormwood 2 doz. lbs., gentian 
root 6 lbs., calamus aromaticus (or the sweet-flag 
root) 2 pounds, snake-root 1 lb., horse radish 1 
bunch, orange-peel dried and juniper-berries, each 
2 lbs., seeds or kernels of Seville oranges cleaned 
and dried 2 lbs. Cut these and bruise them, and 
put them into a clean butt, and start some mild 
brown or pale beer upon them, so as to till up the 
vessel, about the beginning of November, which 
let stand till the next season. If a pound or two 
of galanga root is added to it the composition will 
be better. 

Coutiona in the Use of Foreign Ingredients. 

In general, the beer should be racked off first, 
because the sediments and lees will not accord 
with the foreign substances. Salt and alum in too 
large quantities induce staleness. The powder of 
soft stone, unburnt, should be avoided ; too many 
whites of eggs are apt to make the beer ropy. Tha 
introduction of cuevulus indicua confers a perni- 
cious strength or headiness, which gratifies drunk- 
ards, but destroys the nervous system, and pro- 
duces palsies and premature old age. It has been 
well remarked, that the brewer that uses this slow 
but certain poison, as a substitute for a due quan- 
tity of malt, ought to be boiled in his own copper. 

Bitters are in like manner pernicious in many 
states of the stomach. When oyster-shells are used 
the bung should be left out to avoid bursting. 

Use of Sugar in Brewing. 

Families brewing their own malt liquor may use 
32 lbs. of brown sugar with 2 bushels of malt, 
which will produce 50 galls, of ale, as good in 
every respect as if made from 6 bushels of malt. 
The sugar is mixed with the wort as it runs from 
the mash-tub. 

To Close Casks without Bungs. 

Some persons cover the bung-hole simply with 
brown paper, fastened at the sides, and covered 
with clay; others have found a single piece of 
bladder, well fixed at the edges, a complete and 
efficacious substitute for a bung. These methods 
at least prevent the bursting of the cask from 
changes of air. 

To Bottle Porter, Ale, etc. 

In the first place the bottles should be clean, 
sweet and dry, the corks sound and good, and the 
porter or ale fine. When the bottles are filled, if 
for home consumption, they should not be corked 
till the day following, and if for exportation to a 
hot climate, they must stand 3 days or more; if 
the liquor is new, it should be well corked and 
wired, but for a private family they may do with- 
out wiring, only they should be well packed in 
saw-dust, and stand upright. But if some ripe 
are wanted, keep a few packed on their sides, so 
that the liquor may touch the corks, and this will 
soon ripen, and make it fit for drinking. 

To Remove Tartness. 

Put a teaspoonful of carbonate of soda into a 
quart of tart beer, and it will be pleasant and 
wholesome. 

To Bottle Malt Liquor. 

It should be ripe, and not too young. Cork 
loose at first, and afterwards firm. For a day or 
two, keep the bottles in cold water, or in a cold 
place ; or throw some cold water over them. Steep 
the corks in scalding water, to make them more 
elastic. Lay the bottles on their sides. When it 
is desired that the liquor should ripen soon, keep 
the bottles in a warmer place. October beer should 
not be bottled till midsummer; nor March beer 



CIDEB. 



263 



till Christmas. If the ale is flat, or stale, put 3 
horse-beans, or 3 raisins into each bottle, and to 
prevent the bottles' bursting, make a hole in the 
middle of the cork with an awl; or put into each 
bottle 1 or 2 peppercorns. If it is desired to 
ripen it quick, boil some coarse sugar in water, 
and when cold ferment it with yeast. Then jmt in 
3 or 4 spoonsful of it, with 2 cloves, and if kept 
in a warm place it will be ripe the next day. 
When the ale is sour, put into it a little sj'rup of 
capillaire, and ferment it with yeast; when settled 
bottle ii, and put a clove or two with a small lump 
of sugar into each bottle. It is also useful to put 
2 or 3 pieces of chalk, or some powdered chalk 
into the barrel before bottling. 

To Bottle Table Beer. 
As soon as a cask of table beer is received into 
the house, it is drawn off into quart stone bottles, 
with a lump of white sugar in each, and securely 
corked. In three days it becomes brisk, is equal 
in strent(th to table ale, remarkably pleasant, very 
wholesome, and will keep many months. 

To render-Bottled Beer Ripe. 

The following method is employed in Paris by 
some venders of bottled beer, to render it what 
they term ripe. It is merely by adding to each 
bottle 3 or 4 drops of yeast and a lump of sugar 
of the size of a large nutmeg. In the course of 
24 hours, by this addition, stale or flat beer is 
rendered most agreeably brisk. In consequence 
of the fermentative pi-ocess that takes place in it, 
a small deposit follows, and on this account the 
bottles should be kept in an erect position. By 
this means white wine may likewise be rendered 
brisk. 

To Mannge Ale in the Cellar. 

In general nothing is more necessary than to 
keep it well stopped in a cool cellar, looking occa- 
sionally to see that lliere is no leakage, and to 
open the vent holes, if any oozings appear be- 
tween the staves of the stacks: but connoisseurs 
in malt liquor may adopt some of the following 
means: Leave the cook-hole of an upright cask, 
or the vent-hole of an horizontal one, open for 2 
or 3 months ; then rack o3' into another cask with 
1 or 2 lbs. of new hops, and closely bung and stop 
down. 

Or, leave the vent-holes open a month, then 
stop, and about a month before tapping draw ofi' a 
little and mix it with 1 or 2 lbs. of new hops, 
which, having poured into the cask, it is again 
closely stopped. 

Or, salt may be used with the hops, as it always 
gives beer the flavor of age. 

To Keep Hops for Future Use. 
Hops lose all their fine flavor by exposure to 
the air and damp. They should be kept in a dry, 
close place, and lightly packed. 



TO MAKE CIDER. 

After the apples are gathered from the trees 
they are ground into what is called pumiixKje, 
either by means of a common pressing stone, with 
a circular trough, or by a cider mill, which is 
either driven by the hand, or by horse-power. 
When the pulp is thus reduced to a great degree 
of fineness, it is conveyed to the cider press, where 
it is formed by pressure into a kind of cake, which 
is called the cheeie. 

This is eflected by placing clear, sweet straw or 
hair cloths between the layers of pommage till 
there is a pile of 10 or 12 layers. This j)ile is 
♦hen subjected to difi'erent degrees of pressure in 
succession, till all the must or juice is squeezed 



from the pommage. This juice, after being str.ained 
in a coarse hair-sieve, is then put either into open 
vats or close casks, and the pressed pulp is either 
thrown away or made to yield a weak liquor 
culled washings. 

After the liquor has undergone the proper fer- 
mentation in these close vessels, which may bo 
best etfected in a temperature of from 40° to 60°, 
and which may be known by its appearing toler- 
ably clear, and having a vinous sharpness upon 
the tongue, any further fermentation must be 
stopped by racking ofi' the pure part into open ves- 
sels exposed for a day or two in a cool situation. 
After this the liquor must again be put into casks 
and kept in a cool place during winter. The 
proper time for racking may always be known by 
the brightness of the liquor, the discharge of the 
fixed air, and the appearance of a thick crust 
formed of fragments of the reduced pulp. The 
liquor should always be racked off anew, as often 
as a hissing noise is heard, or as it extinguishes 
a candle held to the bung-hole. 

When a favorable vinous fermentation has been 
obtained, nothing more is required than to fill up 
the vessels every 2 or 3 weeks, to supply the waste 
by fermentation. On the beginning of March the 
liquor will be bright and pure and fit for final 
racking, which should be done in fair weather. 
When the bottles are filled they should be set by 
uncorked till morning, when the corks must be 
driven in tightly', secured by wire or twine and 
melted rosin, or any similar substance. 

To make Devonshire Cider. 

Prefer the bitter sweet apples, mixed with mild 
sour, in the proportion of one-third. Gather them 
when ripe, and lay them in heaps in the orchard. 
Then take them to the crushing engine, made of 
iron rollers at top and of stone underneath ; after 
passing through which they are received into 
large tubs or sieves, and are then called pommage. 
They are afterwards laid on the vat in alternate 
layers of the pommage and clean straw, called 
reeds. They are then pressed, the juice running 
through a hair sieve. After the cider is pressed 
out it is put into hogsheads, where it remains for 
2 or 3 days previously to fermenting. To stop 
the fermentation it is drawn ofi" into a clean ves- 
sel, but if the fermentation be very strong, 2 or 3 
cans of cider are put into a clean vessel, and a 
match of brimstone burnt in it ; it is then agi- 
tated, by which the fermentation of that quantity 
is completely stopped. The vessel is then nearly 
filled, the fermentation of the whole is checked, 
and the cider becomes fine ; but if, on the first 
operation, the fermentation is not checked, it is 
repeated till it is so, and continued from time to 
time till the cider is in a quiet state for drinking. 

Some persons, instead of deadening a small 
quantity with a match, as above directed, put 
from 1 to 2 pints of an article called stian (bought 
of the wine coopers) into each hogshead ; but the 
system of racking as often as the fermentation ap- 
pears, is generally preferred by the cider manu- 
facturers of Devonshire, England. 

About 6 sacks, or 24 bus., of apples, are used 
for a hogshead of 63 galls. During the process, 
if the weather is warm, it will be necessary to 
carry it on in the shade, in the open air, and by 
every means keep it as cool as possible. 

In 9 months it will be in condition for bottling 
or drinking; if it continue thick, use some isin- 
glass finings, and if at any time it ferments and 
threatens acidity, the cure is to rack it and leave 
the bead and sediment. 

Scotch Method. 

The apples aore reduced to mucilage, by beating 



264 



BREWING. 



them 'n a stone trough (one of those used at 
pumps for watering horses) with pieces of ash- 
poles, used in the manner that potatoes are mashed. 
The press consists of a strong box, 3 feet square, 
and 20 inches deep, perforated on each side with 
small auger or gimblet holes. It is placed on a 
frame of wood, projecting 3 inches beyond the 
base of the box. A groove is cut in this projection 
li inches wide, and 1 inch deep, to convey the 
juice when pressed out of the box into a receiving 
pail. This operation is performed in the follow- 
ing manner: The box is tilled alternately with 
strata of fresh straw and mashed fruit, in the pro- 
portion of 1 inch of straw to 2 inches of mucilage; 
these are piled up 1 foot higher than the top of 
the box; and care is taken in packing the box 
itself, to keep the fruit and straw about I inch from 
the sides of the box, which allows the juice to 
escape freely. A considerable quantity of the 
liquor will run off without any pressure. This 
must be applied gradually at first, and increased 
regularly towards the conclusion. A box of the 
above dimensions will require about 2 tons weight 
to render the residuum completely free from juice. 

[The residuum is excellent food for pigs, and 
peculiarly acceptable to them.] 

The necessary pressure is obtained very easily, 
and in a powerful manner, by the compound lever 
pressing upon a lid or sink made of wood, about 
2 inches thick, and rendered sufiBciently strong by 
2 cross-bars. It is made to fit the opening of the 
box exactly; and as the levers force the lid down, 
they are occasionally slacked or taken off, and 
blocks of wood are placed on the top of the lid, to 
permit the levers to act, even after the lid has 
entered the box itself. Additional blocks are re- 
peated, until the whole juice is extracted. The 
pressure may be increased more or less, by adding 
or diminishing the weight suspended at the ex- 
tremity of the lever. 

The liquor thus obtained is allowed to stand un- 
disturbed 12 hours, in open vessels, to deposit 
sediment. The pure juice is then put into clean 
casks, and placed in a proper situation to ferment, 
the temperature being from 55° to 60°. The fer- 
mentation will commence sooner or later, depend- 
ing chiefly on the temperature of the apartment 
where the liquor is kept; in most cases, during 
the first 3 or 4 days ; but sometimes it will re- 
quire more than a week to begin this process. If 
the fermentation begins early and proceeds rapidly, 
the liquor must be racked off, and put into fresh 
casks in 2 or 3 days; but if this does not take 
place at an early period, and proceeds slowly, 5 or 
6 days may elapse before it is racked. In general, 
it is necessary to rack the liquor at least twice. 
If, notwithstanding, the fermentation continues 
briskly, the racking must be repeated ; otherwise 
the vinous fermentation, by proceeding too far, 
may terminate in acetous fermentation, when 
vinegar would be the result. 

In racking off the liquor it is necessary to keep 
it free of sediment, and the scum or yeast produced 
by the fermentation. A supply of spare liquor 
must be reserved to fill up the barrels occasionally, 
while the fermentation continues. As soon as this 
ceases, the barrels should be bunged up closely, 
and the bungs covered with rosin, to prevent the 
admission of air. If the cider is weak, it should 
remain in the cask about 9 months; if strong, 12 
or 18 months is necessary before it should be 
bottled. 

To Manage Cider and Perry. 

To fine and improve the flavor of 1 hogshead, 
take 1 gal. of good French brandy, with i oz. of 
cochineal, 1 lb. of alum, and 3 lbs. sugar-candy; 
bruise them all well in a mortar, and infuse them 



in the brandy for a day or two ; then mix the 
whole with the cider, and stop it close for 5 or 6 
months. After which, if fine, bottle it ofi". 

Cider or perry, when bottled in hot weather, 
should be lett a day or two uncorked, that it may 
get flat; but if too flat in the cask, and soon want- 
ed for use, put into each bottle a small lump or 
two of sugar-candy, 4 or 5 raisins, or a small piece 
of raw beef; any of which will much improve the 
liquor, and make it bri.^ker. 

Cider should be well corked and waxed, and 
packed upright in a cool place. A few bottles 
may always be kept in a warmer place to ripen 
and be ready for use. 

To make Cheap Cider from Raisins. 
Take 14 lbs. of raisins with the stalks; wash 
them out in 4 or 5 waters, till the water remains 
clear; then put them into a clean cask with the 
head out, and put 6 galls, of good water upon 
them ; after which cover it well up, and let it 
stand 10 days. Then rack it off into anotlier clean 
cask, which has a brass cock in it, and in 4 or 5 
days' time it will be fit for bottling. When it has 
been in the bottles 7 or 8 days, it will be fit for 
use. A little coloring should be added when put- 
ting into the cask the second time. The raisins 
may afterwards be used for vinegar. 

To make Perry. 
Perry is made after the same manner as cider, 
only from pears, which must be quite dry. The 
best pears for this purpose are such as are least fit 
for eating, and the redder they are the better. 

Observations on Cider. 

From the great diversity of soil and climate in 
the United States, and the almost endless variety 
of its apples, it follows that much diversity of 
taste and flavor will necessarily be found in the 
cider that is made from them. 

To make good cider the following general, but 
important rules should be attended to. They de- 
mand a little more trouble than the ordinary mode 
of collecting and mashing apples of all sorts, rot- 
ten and sound, sweet and sour, dirty and clean, 
from the tree and the soil, and the rest of the slov- 
enly jjrocess usually employed; but in return they 
produce you a wholesome, high-flavored, sound, 
and palatable liquor, that always commands an 
adequate price, instead of a solution of "villain- 
ous compounds," in a poisonous and acid wash, 
that no man in his senses will driuk. 

General Rules for making Cider. 

1. Always choose perfectly ripe and sound fruit. 

2. Pick the apples by hand. An active boy, 
with a bag slung over his shoulders, will soon clear 
a tree. Apples that have lain any time on the soil 
contract an earthy taste, which wUl always be 
found in the cider. 

3. After sweating, and before being ground, wipe 
them dry, and if any are found bruised or rotten, 
put them in a heap by themselves, for an inferior 
cider to make vinegar. 

4. Always use hair-cloths instead of straws, to 
place between the layers of pommage. The straw 
when heated gives a disagreeable taste to the 
cider. 

6. As the cider runs from the press, let it pass 
through a hair sieve into a large open vessel that 
will hold as much juice as can be expressed in one 
day. In a day, or Sdmetimes less, tne pumice will 
rise to the to|), and in a short time grow very 
thick; when little white bubbles break throu^^h it, 
draw off the liquor by a spigot placed about three 
inches from the bottom, so that the lees may be 
left quietly behind. 



WINES. 



265 



6. The cider must be drawn off into very clean 
iweet casks, and closely watched. The moment 
the white bubbles before mentioned are perceived 
rising at the bung-hole, rack it again. When the 
fermentation is completely at an end, fill up the 
cask with cider, in all respects like that already 
coutaiuec' in it, aud bung it up tight; previous to 



which a tumbler of sweet-oil may be poured into 
the bung hole. 

Sound, well made cider, that has been produced 
as described, and without any foreign mixtures, 
excepting always that of good cogniac brandy 
(which added to it in the proporticm of 1 gal. to 
30, greatly improves it), is a pleasant, cooling and 
useful beverage. 



W^INES. 



American Wines. 

The term wine is properly applied only to the 
fermented juice of the grape, but is popularlj' used 
in a more extended .sense. What are termed 
domestic wines made from the currant, gooseberry, 
etc., are often supposed to be more wholesome 
and less intoxicating than the wine of the grape. 
This is an error; they are more acid than true 
wine, and have added to them sugar and spirits, 
neither of which are necessary with good grape 
juice. The culture of the grape and manufacture 
of wine have increased very rapidly in the United 
States of late years, and the time is not very dis- 
tant when we shall be independent of foreign 
sources of supply. 

The Vine. 

The varieties of grape employed in wine-mak- 
ing, in the United States, are the Catawba, Dela- 
ware, Schuylkill (Cape), Isabella, and Scupper- 
nong. In California, now so noted for its wine 
product, the vines are of Spanish origin. Of 
those named, the two first varieties are most 
prized. Vines require a dry, airy situation, pre- 
ferably with a southern or eastern exposure. 

Picking the Fruit. 

The fruit should be allowed to stay on the vines 
until fii/ly ripe. If any error is committed it 
should be that of allowing it to remain too long. 
A slight frost will not injure the grape for wine- 
making, but rather improve it. Remove all un- 
ripe and bad berries. In some cases the berries 
are detached from the stem, in others not; the 
latter method is most usual. All vessels and 
utensils used in wine-making, must be most 
scriipuluHsly clean when used, and should be thor- 
oughly cleansed after using. Without attention 
to this good wine cannot be made. Grapes should 
not be gathered in damp weather nor when the 
dew is on them. 

Extrncting the Juice. 

The grapes are first crushed, the object being 
to break the skin and pulp, but not the seeds. 
This may be done in any of the ordinary cider- 
mills sold at the agricultural warehouses, or on 
the small scale by bruising in a mashing-tub. 
The juice is then expressed as directed in making 
cider. For extracting juice of fruits on the small 
scale the ordinary clothes-wringer will be found 
very useful. The expressed juice is termed timst, 
the remaining seecfs, husks, etc., after being 
pressed, are put on the manure pile or used for 
making inferior brandy. 

I'ervtenting the Must. 
In this country the fermentation is performed 
in barrels ; abroad vats are used. The barrels 
should, if new, be filled with pure water, and left to 



soak for 10 or 15 days; then well scalded out, and 
fumigated by means of a match made by dipping 
paper or rag into melted sulphur. When not in 
use they must be kept bunged, and each year they 
must be thoroughly cleansed or fumigated before 
using. 

The barrels are to be filled within 5 or 6 inches 
of the top. The beginning of the fermentation is 
shown by a slight rise in teuiperature, this soon 
increases, the liquid froths, and carbonic acid gas 
escapes : in 2 or 3 weeks this ceases, the lees settle 
and the wine becomes clear. Fermentntion out of 
contact of air is accomplished by having a bung 
fitted with a tube which dips under the surface of 
a pan of water, The gas escapes through the 
water, but the air cannot enter the cask. This is 
considered a great improvement by many. The 
bung should not be inserted until fermentation 
has begun. As soon as fermentation has ceased, 
fill up the cask and bung tightly. If j'ou have 
not the same wine with which to fill the cask, put 
in enough well-washed flinty pebbles. 

Racking. 

The object of racking is to draw the wine from 
its lees, which contain various impurities, and the 
yeast is the fermentation. Some rack more than 
once, others but once. Rehfuss recommends to 
draw otf the wine into fresh casks in December, 
and again in March or April, and again in the 
fail; after that only in the fall. Buchanan re- 
commends one racking in March or April. It is 
objected to frequent racking that it injures the 
aroma of the wine, and renders it liable to become 
acid. The wine may be drawn off with the sy- 
phon or by the spigot; care being taken not to dis- 
turb the lees. 

Spring Fermentation. 

About the time that the vines begin to shoot 
the wine undergoes a second but moderate fermen- 
tation, after which it fines itself, and if kept well 
bunged will continue to improve by age. During 
the spring fermentation the bungs may be slightly 
loosened; otherwise the casks, if not strong, may 
burst, and the wine be lost. It is better kept in 
bottles. AVine may be bottled in a year after it is 
made, two years will be better. The bottles 
should be sealed and laid on their sides in a cool 
place. 

Sparkling Winea. 

The above directions will give a still wine of fine 
quality ; no sugar, spirits or other addition is re- 
quired. To make a sparkling wine is a matter of 
nicety, and requires considerable experience; and 
cellars, vaults and buildings especially adapted to 
the process. Abroad the wine is bottled during 
the first fermentation ; although air is necessary 
to the beginning of fermentation, yet it will go on 
when once begun if air be excluded. The must 



266 



WINES. 



continuing to ferment in the bottles, the gas gene- 
rated is absorl>ed by the liquid under its own pres- 
sure. A very large percentage of bottles bursts. 
Mr. Lnngwurth' 8 Process. 

In the spring following the pressing of the grapes 
the wine is mixed with a small quantity of sugar, 
and put into strong bottles, the corks of which are 
well fastened with wire and twine. The spring 
fermentation is accelerated by the sugar, and the 
carbonic acid generated produces pressure enough 
to burst a considerable percentage of the bottles. 
At the end of a year the liquid has become clear. 
To get rid of the sediment the bottles are put in a 
rack with the necks inclining downward, and fre- 
quently shaken, the sediment deposits near and 
on the cork, and is blown out when the wires are 
cut. More sugar is added for sweetness; the bot- 
tles recorked, and in a few weeks the wine is ready 
for use. 

Acidity of Wines. 

The acidity of wine made from ripe grapes is 
due to cream of tartar or bitartrate of potassa. 
The grapes always contain a larger proportion 
than the wine, as much of it is deposited during 
fermentation, forming Arr/ols of commerce. Tan- 
nic acid always present, giving, when in quantity, 
astringency or roughness. Citric acid is found in 
■wine made from unripe grapes; malic and oxalic 
acids in those made from currants, rhubarb, etc. 
The cream of tartar gradually deposits as wine 
grows older, forming the crust or bees-wing. 
Hence wine of grape improves with age. Domes- 
tie wines do not deposit their acids, which have 
therefore to be disguised by the addition of 
sugar. Acetic acid is formed by the o.\idation of 
the alcohol of wine. When considerable in quan- 
tity the wine is said to be "pricked." Moselle 
and Rhine wine are among the most acid, and 
Sherry and Port among the least so. 

Sweet Wines, 

Such as Malaga, are made by allowing the 
grapes to remain on the vine until partially dried. 
The must is also evaporated about one-third be- 
fore fermentation. Wines, such as still Catawba, 
Claret, etc., which contain little or no sugar, are 
called dry. 

Proportion of Alcohol in Wines. 

The following gives the average proportion of 
absolute alcohol in 100 parts by measure: Port, 
Madeira, Sherry, 20 ; Claret, Catawba, Hock, 
and Champagne, 11; Domestic wines, 10 to 20; 
alcohol gives the strength or body to wine. It is 
often added to poor wines to make them keep, 
and to increase their intoxicating qualities. 
Bottling and Corking. 

Fine clear weather is best for bottling all sorts 
of wines, and much cleanliness is required. The 
first consideration, in bottling wines, is to exam- 
ine and see if the wines are in a proper state. 
The wines should be fine and brilliant, or they will 
never brighten after. 

The bottles must be all sound, clean and dry, 
with plenty of good sound corks. 

The cork is to be put in with the hand, and 
then driven well in with a flat wooden mallet, the 
■weight of which ought to be IJ lbs., but, however, 
not to exceed 1^ lbs., for if the mallet be too light 
or too heavy it will not drive the cork in properly, 
and may break the bottle. The corks must so 
completely fill up the neck of each bottle as to 
render them air-tight, but leave a space of an 
inch between the wine and the neck. 

When all the wine is bottled, it is to be stored 
in a cool cellar, and on no account on the bottles' 
bottoms, but on their sides and in saw-dust. 



Mr. Carnell's Receipt for Red Gooseherry Wine. 
Take cold soft water, 10 galls.; red gooseber- 
ries, 11 galls., and ferment. Now mix raw sugar, 
16 lbs. ; beet-root, sliced, 2 lbs. ; and red tartar, in 
fine powder, 1 oz. Afterwards put in sassafras 
chips, 1 lb., and brandy, 1 gall., or less. This will 
make 18 galls. 

Another. — When the weather is dry, gather 
gooseberries about the time they are half ripe; 
pick them clean, put the quantity of a j,e:!k into a 
convenient vessel, and bruise tliein with a piece 
of wood, taking as much care as possible to keep 
the seeds whole. Now having put the pulp into a 
canvas hag, press out all the juice; and to every 
gallon of the gooseberries add about 3 lbs. of fine 
loaf sugar; mix the whole together by stirring it 
with a stick, and as soon as the sugar is quite dis- 
solved, pour it into a convenient cask, which will 
hold it exactly. If the quantity be about 8 or 9 
galls., let it stand a fortnight ; if 20 galls.. 40 days, 
and so on in proportion taking care the place you 
set it in be cool. After standing the proper time, 
draw it ofif from the lees, and put it into another 
clean vessel of equal size, or into the same, after 
pouring the lees out, and making it clean : let a 
cask of 10 or 12 galls, stand for about 3 month^ 
and 20 galls, for 5 months, after which it will be 
fit for bottling oflf. 

Red and White Gooseberry Wine. 

Take cold soft water, 3 galls ; red gooseberries, 
1i galls.; white gooseberries, 2 galls. Ferment. 

Now mix raw sugar, 5 lbs. ; honey, H lbs. ; tar- 
tar, in fine powder, 1 oz. Afterwards put in bitter 
almonds, 2 oz. ; sweetbriar, 1 small handful; ani 
brandy, 1 gall., or less. This will make 6 galls. 
White Gooseberry or Champayne Wine. 

Take cold soft water, 4J galls. ; white gooseber- 
ries, 5 galls. Ferment. 

Now mix refined sugar, 6 lbs.; honey, 4 lbs.; 
white tartar, in fine powder, 1 oz. Put in orange 
and lemon-peel, 1 oz. dry, or 2 oz. fresh ; and add 
white brandy, i gall. This will make 9 galls. 

Gooseberry Wine of the Beit Quality, resembling 
Chrinipagne. 
To each pint of full ripe gooseberries, mashed, 
add one pint of water, milk warm, in which 
has been dissolved one pound of single-refined 
sugar; stir the whole well, and cover up the tub 
with a blanket, to preserve the heat generated hj 
the fermentation of the ingredients; let them re- 
main in this vessel 3 days, stirring them twice or 
thrice a day ; strain off the liquor through a sieve, 
afterwards through a coarse linen cloth ; put it 
into the cask ; it will ferment without yeast. Let 
the cask be kept full with some of the li(iuor re- 
served for the purpose. It will ferment for 10 
days, sometimes for 3 weeks; when ceased, and 
only a hissing noise remains, draw ofi" 2 or 3 bot- 
tles, according to the strength you wish it to have, 
from every 20 pint cask, and fill up the cask with 
brandy or whiskey; but brandy is preferable. To 
make it very good, and that it may keep well, add 
as much Sherry, together with I oz. of isinglass 
dissolved in water to make it quite liquid ; stir the 
whole well. Bung the cask up, and surround the 
bung with clay ; the closer it is bunged the better; 
a fortnight after, if it be clear at top, taste it; if 
not sweet enough, add more. sugar; 22 lbs. is the 
just quantity in all for 20 pints of wine; leave the 
wine 6 months in the cask ; but after being quite 
fine, the sooner it is bottled the more it wil 
sparkle and resemble Champagne. The process 
should be carried on in a place where the heat is 
between 48° and 56° Fahr. Currant wine may 
be made in the same manner. 



WINES. 



2G7 



Gooseberry and Currant Whiet, 

The following method of mnking superior goose- 
berry and curriint wines is reconimended in a 
French work : For cu'rant wine, 8 ll)s. of huney 
are dissolved in 15 galls, of boilini; water, to which, 
when clarified, ia added the juice of 8 Ihs. of red 
or white ourrants. It is then ferinenled for 24 
hours, and 2 lbs. of sugar to every 2 galls, of water 
are added. The preparation is afterwards clari- 
fied with the whites of eg;;s and cream of tartar. 
For gooseberry wine, the fruit is gathered dry 
when about half ripe, and then pounded in a uuir- 
tar. The juice, when properly strained through a 
canvas bag, is mixed with sugar, in the proportion 
of 3 lbs. to every 2 galls, of juice. It is then left 
in a quiet state for 15 days, at the exjiiration of 
which it is carefully poured off, and left to ferment 
for 3 months when the quantity is under 15 galls., 
and for 5 months when double that quantity. It 
is then bottled, and soon becon\es fit for drinking. 

Another. — Take cold soft water, 5i galls. ; goose- 
berries and currants, 4 gall.s. Ferment. Then 
add, raw sugar, 12i lbs.; tartar, in fine powder, 
1 oz. ; ginger, in powder, 3 oz. ; sweet marjoram, 
i a handful; whiskey, 1 qt. This will make 9 
galls. 

lied Currant Wine. 

Take cold Soft water, 11 g.alls. ; red currants, 8 
galls. ; ra.spberries, 1 qt. Ferment. Mix, raw 
sugar, 20 lbs. ; beet-root, sliced, 2 lbs. ; and red 
tartar, in fine powder, 3 oz. Put in 1 nutmeg, in 
fine powder ; add brandy, 1 gall. This will make 
18 galls. 

Atiiither. — Put 5 qts. of currants and 1 pint of 
raspberries to every 2 galls, of water; let them 
soak a night; then squeeze and break them well. 
Next day rub them well through a fine sieve till 
the juice is expressed, washing the skins with 
some of the water; then, to every gallon, put 4 
lbs. of the best sugar, put it into your barrel, and 
set the bung lightly in. In 2 or 3 days add a 
bottle of good C'ogniac brandy to every 4 galls. ; 
bung it close, but leave out the spigot for a few 
days. It is very good in 3 years, better in 4. 

Another.— "RmX 4 galls, of spring water, and stir 
into it 8 lbs. of honey ; when thoroughly dissolved, 
take it off the fire; then stir it well in order to 
raise the scum, which take clean off, and cool the 
liquor. 

When thus prepared, press out the same quan- 
tity of the juice of red currants moderately ripe, 
which being well strained, mix well with the 
water and honey, then put them into a cask or a 
large earthen vessel, and let them stand to ferment 
for 24 hours; then to every gallon add 2 lbs. of 
fine sugar, stir them well to raise the scum, and 
when well settled take it off, and add i au oz. of 
cream of tartar, with the whites of 2 or 3 eggs, to 
refine it. AVhen the wine is well settled and ciear 
draw it off into a small vessel, or bottle it up, 
keeping it in a cool place. 

Of white currants a wine after the same manner 
may be made, that will equal in strength and plea- 
santness many sorts of white wine; but as for the 
black or Dutch currants, they are seldom used, 
except for the preparation of medicinal wines. 

Another. — Gather the currants in dry weather, 
put them into a pan and bruise them with a 
wooden pestle; let them stand about 20 hours, 
after which strain through a sieve; add 3 lbs. of 
fine powdered sugar to eaeh 4 quarts of the liquor, 
and after shaking it well fill the vessel, and put a 
quart of good brandy to every 7 gallons. In 4 
weeks, if it does not prove quite clear, draw it off 
into another vessel, and let it stand previous to 
bottling it off about 10 days. 



Red and White Currant Wine. 

T.'ike of cold soft water, 12 galls.; whit« cur- 
rants, 4 galls.; red currants, 3 galls. Fern)ent. 
Mix, raw sugar, 25 lbs.; white tartar, in fine pow- 
der, 3 oz. Put in sweet-briar leaves. 1 handful; 
lavender leaves, 1 handful; then add spirits, 2 
qts. or more. This will make 18 galls. 
Dutch Currant Wine. 

Take of cold soft water, 9 galls.; red currants, 
10 galls. Ferment. Mix, raw sugar, 10 lbs.; 
beet-root, sliced, 2 lbs. ; red tartar, in fine powrler, 
2 oz. Put in bitter almonds, 1 oz.; ginger, in 
powder, 2 oz. ; then add brandy, 1 qt. This will 
make 18 galls. 

Dutch Red Currant Wine. 

Take of cold soft water, 11 galls.; red currants, 

8 galls. Ferment. Mix, raw sugar, 12 lbs.; red 
tartar, in fine powder, 2 oz. Put in coriander 
seed, bruised, 2 oz. ; then add whiskey, 2 qts. 
This will make 18 galls. 

Mixed Berries from a Small Garden. 

Take of cold soft water, 11 galls. ; fruit, 8 galls. 
Ferment. Mix, treacle, 14 or 16 lbs.; tartar, in 
powder, 1 oz. Put in. ginger, in powiler, 4 oz. ; 
sweet herbs, 2 handfuls; then add spirits, 1 or 2 
qts. This will make 18 galls. 

To make Compound Wine. 

An excellent family wine may be made of equal 
parts of red, white and black currants, ripe cher- 
ries, and raspberries, well bruised, and mixed with 
Soft water, in the proportion of 4 lbs. of fruit to 

1 gall, of water. Wfien strained and pressed, 3 
lbs. of moist sugar are to be added to each gall, 
of liquid. After standing open for 3 days, during 
which it is to be stirred frequently, it is to be put 
into a barrel, and left for a fortnight to work, 
when a ninth part of brandy is to be added, and 
the whole bunged down. In a few months it will 
be a most excellent wine. 

Other Mixed Fruits of the Berry kind. 
Take of cold soft water, 2 galls.; fruit, 18 galls. 
Ferment. Honey, 6 lbs. ; tartar, in fine powder, 

2 oz. Put in peach leaves, 6 handfuls; then add 
brandy, 1 gall. This will make 18 galls. 

M^hite Currant Wine. 
Take of cold soft wafer, 9 galls. ; white currants, 

9 galls.; white gooseberries, 1 gall. Ferment. 
Mix, refined sugar, 25 lbs.; white tartar, in pow- 
der, 1 oz. ; clary seed, bruised, 2 oz. ; or clary 
flowers or sorrel flowers, 4 handfuls; then add 
white brandy, 1 gall. This will make 18 galls. 

Another. — Take of cold soft water, 10 galls.; 
white currants, 10 galls. Ferment. Mix, refined 
sugar, 25 lbs. ; white tartar, in fine powder, 1 oz.; 
then add bitter almonds, 2 oz. ; and white brandy, 
1 gall. This will make 18 galls. 

Black Currant Wine. 

Take of cold soft water, 10 galls.; black cur- 
rants, 6 galls. ; strawberries, 3 galls. Ferment. 
Mix, raw sugar, 25 lbs.; red tartar, in fine pow- 
der, 6 oz. ; orange-th3'rae, 2 handfuls; then add 
brandy, 2 or 3 qts. This will make 18 galls. 

Another. — Take of cold soft water, 12 galls.; 
black currants, 5 galls.; white or red currants, or 
both, 3 galls. Ferment. Mix, raw sugar, 30 lbs. 
or less ; red tartar, in fine powder, 5 oz. ; ginger, 
in powder, 6 oz. ; then add brandy, 1 gall, or less. 
This will make 18 galls. 

Another, veryjine. — To every 3 qts. of juice add 
as much of cold water, and to every 3 qts. of the 
mixture add 3 lbs. of good, pure sugar. Put it 
into a cask, reserving some to fill up. Set the 
cask in a warm, dry room, and it will ferment of 
itself. When this is over skim off the refuse, and 
fill up with what you have reserved for this pur- 



268 



WINES. 



pose. When it bas done working, add 3 qts. of 
brandy to 40 qts. of the wine. Bung it up close 
for 10 months, then bottle it. The thick part may 
be separated by straining, and the percolating 
liquor be bottled also. Keep it for 12 months. 
Stratcberrt/ Wine. 

Take of cold soft water, 7 galls. ; cider, 6 galls. ; 
strawberries, 6 galls. Ferment. Mix, raw sugar, 
16 lbs. : red tartar, in fine powder, .3 oz. ; the peel 
and juice of 2 lemons; then add brandy, 2 or 3 
qts. This will make 18 giills. 

Another. — Take of cold soft water, 10 galls.; 
strawberries, 9 galls. Ferment. Mix, raw sugar, 
25 lbs.; red tartar, in fine powder, 3 oz. ; 2 lemons 
and 2 oranges, peel and juice; then add brandy, 
1 gall. This will make 18 galls. 
Rnspbevry Whie. 

Tnke of cold soft water, 6 galls. ; eider, 4 galls. ; 
raspberries, 6 galls. ; any other fruit, 3 galls. 
Ferment. Mix, raw sugar, 18 or 20 lbs.; red 
tartar, in fine powder, 3 oz. ; oninge and lemon- 
peel, 2 oz. dry, or 4 oz. fresh ; then add brandy, 
3 qts. This will make 18 galls. 

Another. — Gather the raspberries when ripe, 
husk them and bruise them; then strain them 
through a bag into jars or other vessels. Boil the 
juice, and to every gull, put li lbs. of lump sugar. 
Now add whites of eggs, and let the whole boil 
for 15 minutes, skimming it as the froth rises. 
When cool and settled, decant the liquor into a 
cask, adding yeast to make it ferment. When 
this has taken place, add 1 pint of white wine, or 
i a pint of proof spirit to each gall, contained in 
the cask, and hang a bag in it containing 1 oz. of 
bruised mace. In 3 months, if kept in a cool 
place, it will be very excellent and delicious wine. 
Jffitlberry Wine. 

Oh a dry day gather mulberries, when they are 
just changed from redness to a shining bhick; 
spread them thinly on a fine cloth, or on a floor 
or table, for 24 hours, and then press them. Boil 
a gall, of water with each gall, of juice; putting 
to every gall, of water 1 oz. of cinnamon bark and 6 
oz. of sugar candy finely powdered. Skim and 
strain the water when it is taken ofi" and settled,^^ 
and put to it the mulberry-juice. Now add to* 
every gall, of the mixture a pint of white or 
Rhenish wine. Let the whole stand in a cask to 
feroient for 5 or 6 days. When settled, draw it 
off into bottles and keep it cool. 
Elderberry Wine. 

Take of cold soft water, 16 galls.; Malaga rai- 
sins, 50 lbs.; elderberries, 4 galls.; red tartar in 
fine powder, 4 oz. Mix ginger in powder, 5 oz.; 
cinnamon, cloves, and mace, of each 2 oz. ; 3 or- 
anges or lemons, peel and juice; then add 1 gall, 
of brandy. This will make 18 galls. 

Another. — In making elder-juice let the berries 
be fully ripe, and all the stalks clean picked from 
them ; then, have a press ready for drawing off' all 
the juice, and 4 hair-cloths, somewhat broader 
than the press. Lay one layer above another, 
having a hair-cloth betwixt every layer, which 
must be laid very thin, and pressed a little at first, 
and then more till the press be drawn as close as 
possible. Now take out the berries, and press all 
the rest in the like manner; then take the pressed 
berries, break out all the lumps, put them into an 
open-headed vessel, and add as uiuch liquor as 
will just cover them. Let them infuse so for 7 or 
8 days ; then put the best juice into a cask proper 
for it to be kept in, and add I gall, of malt spirits, 
not rectified, to every 20 galls, of elder-juice, which 



them into a stone jar, and set them in an oven, or 
in a kettle of boiling water, till the jar is hot 
through ; then take them out, and strain them 
through a coarse sieve. Squeeze the berries and 
put the juice into a clean kettle. To every quart 
of juice put 1 lb. of fine sugar; let it boil and skim 
it well. When clear and fine, pour it into a cask. 
To every 10 galls, of wine add 1 oz. of isinglass 
dissolved in cider, and 6 whole eggs. Close it up, 
let it stand 6 months, and then bottle it. 

To make an Imitation of Cyprus Wine. 

To 10 galls, of water put 10 qts. of the juice of 
white elderberries, pressed gently from the ber- 
ries bj' the hand and passed through a sieve, with- 
out bruising the seeds ; add to every gallon of liquor 
3 lbs. of sugar, and to the whole quantity 2 oz. of 
ginger sliced, and 1 oz. of cloves. Boil this nearly 
an hour, taking off" the scum as it rises, and pour 
the whole to cool, in an open tub, and work it 
with ale yeast, spread upon a toast of bread for 
3 days. Then turn it into a vessel that will just 
hold it, adding about IJ lbs. of bruised raisins, to 
lie in the liquor till drawn off, which should not 
be done till the wine is tine. 
To make Elder-Jlower Wine, or English Frontignac. 

Boil 18 lbs. of white powdered sugar in 6 galls, 
of water and 2 whites of eggs well beaten ; skim 
it, and put in a quarter of a peck of elder-flowers ; 
do not keep them on the fire. When cool stir it, 
and put in 6 spoonfuls of lemon juice, 4 or 5 of 
yeast, and beat well into the liquor; stir it well 
every day; put 6 lbs. of the best raisins, stoned, 
into the cask, anfl tun the wine. Stop it close, 
and bottle in 6 months. When well kept, this 
wine will pass very well for Frontignac. 

Another. — To 6 galls, of spring-water put 6 lbs. 
of sun raisins cut small, and 12 lbs. of fine sugar. 
Boil the whole together for about an hour and a 
half When the liquor is cold put half a peck of 
ripe elder-flowers in, with about a gill of lemon- 
juice, and half the quantity of ale yeast. Cover 
it up and, after standing 3 days, strain it off". 
Now pour it into a cask that is quite clean, and 
that will hold it with ease. When this is done, 
put a quart of Rhenish wine to every gallon; let 
the bung be slightly put in for 12 or 14 days, then 
stop it down fast, and put it in a cool, dry place 
for 4 or 5 months, till it be quite settled and tine; 
then bottle it off. 

Imitation of Port Wine. 

Take 6 galls, of good cider, 1^ galls, of Port 
wine, IJ galls, of the juice of elder- berries, 3 qts. 
of brandy, 1^ oz. of cochineal. This will produce 
9i galls. 

Bruise the cochineal very fine, and put it with 
the brandy into a stone bottle; let it remain at 
least a fortnight, shaking it well once or twice 
every day. At the end of that time procure the 
the cider, and put 6 galls, into a 9 gallon caskj 
add to it the elder-juice and Port wine, then the 
brandy and cochineal. Take the remaining gallon 
of cider to rinse out the bottle that contained the 
brandy; and, lastly, pour it into the cask, and 
bung it down very close, and in 6 weeks it will be 
ready for bottling. 

It is, however, sometimes not quite so fine as 
could be wished : in that case add 2 oz. of isin- 
glass, and let it remain a fortnight or 3 weeks 
longer, when it will be perfectly bright. It would 
not be amiss, perhaps, if the quantity of isinglass 
mentioned was added to the wine before it was 
buniged down ; it will tend very considerably to 
improve the body of the wine. If it should not 



will effectually preserve it from becoming sour for appear sufficiently rough flavored, add 1 oz. or li 
two years at least. oz. of roche-alum, which will, in most lases, ini- 

Another. — Pick the berries when quite ripe, put part a suthcient astringency. 



WINES. 



269 



After it is bottled it must be pncked in as cool 
■ place as possible. It will be fit for using in a 
few months, but if kept longer it will be greatly 
improved. 

Whortleberry or Bilberry Wine. 

Take of cold soft water 6 galls., cider 6 galls., ber- 
ries 8 galls. ; ferment. Mix raw sugar 20 lbs, tartar 
in fine powder 4 oz. ; add ginger in powder 4 oz., 
lavender and rosemary leaves 2 handfujs, rum or 
British spirits 1 gall. This will make 18 galls. 
Birch Wine. 

The season for obtaining the liquor from bircb- 
trees is in the latter end of February, or the be- 
ginning of March, before the leaves shoot out, and 
as the sap begins to rise; if the time is delayed 
the juice will grow too thick to be drawn out. It 
should be as thin and clear as possible. The 
method of procuring the juice is by boring holes 
in the trunk of the tree and fixing faucets of elder; 
but care should be taken not to tap it in too many 
places at once, for fear of injuring the tree. If 
the tree is large it may be bored in 5 or 6 places 
at once, and bottles are to be placed under the 
aperture for the sap to flow into. When 4 or 5 
galls, have been extracted from different trees, 
cork the bottles very close, and wax them till the 
wine is to be made, which should be as soon as 
possible after the sap has been obtained. Boil the 
sap, and put 4 lbs. of loaf sugar to every gallon; 
also the peel of a lemon cut thin ; then boil it 
again for nearly an hour, skimming it all the time. 
Now pour it into a tub and, as sson as it is almost 
cold, work it with a toast spread with yeast, and 
let it stand 5 or 6 days, stirring it twice or 3 times 
each day. Into a cask that will contain it put a 
lighted brimstone match, stop it up till the match 
is burnt out, and then pour the wine into it, put- 
ting the bung lightly in, tiil it has done working. 
Bung it very close for about 3 months, and then 
bottle it. It will be good in a week after it is put 
into the bottles. 

Another. — Birch wine maybe made with raisins 
in the following manner : To a hogshead of birch- 
water, take 400 Malaga raisins; pick them clean 
from the stalks and cut them small. Then boil 
the birch liquor for an hour at least, skim it well, 
and let it stand till it is no warmer than milk. 
Then put in the raisins and let it stand close 
covered, stirring it well 4 or 5 times every day. 
Boil all the stalks in a gallon or two of birch 
liquor, which, added to the other when almost 
cold, will give it an agreeable roughness. Let 
it stand 10 days, then put it in a cool cellar, 
and when it has done hissing in the vessel, stop 
it up close. It must stand at least 9 mouths be- 
fore it is bottled. 

Blackberry Wine. 

Having procured berries that are fully ripe, put 
them into a large vessel of wood or stone with a 
cock in it, and pour upon them as much boiling 
water as will cover them. As soon as the heat 
will permit the hand to be put into the vessel, 
bruise them well till all the berries are broken. 
Then ' • them stand covered till the berries begin 
to rise lo irds the top, which they usually do in 
3 or 4 days. Then draw off the clear into another 
vessel, and add to every 10 quarts of this liquor, 
1 lb. of sugar. Stir it well and let it stand to work 
a week or 10 days in another vessel like the first. 
Then draw it off at the cock through a jelly-bag 
into a large vessel. Take 4 oz. of isinglass and 
lay it to steep 12 hours in a pint of white wine. 
The nest morning boil it upon a slow fire till it is 
all dissolved. Then take 1 gallon of blackberry- 
juice, put it in the dissolved isinglass, give them 
ft boil together, and pour all into the vessel. Let 



it stand a few days to purge and settle, then draw 
it off and keep it in a cool place. 

Juniper-berry Wine. 

Take of cold soft water, 18 galls., Malaga or 
Smyrna raisins, 35 lbs. junii)er-berries, 9 quarts, 
red tartar, 4 oz., wormwood and sffeet marjoram, 
each 2 handfuls, whiskey, 2 quarts or more. 
Ferment for 10 or 12 days. This will make 18 
galls. 

To make Damson Wine. 
Take of c<dd soft water 11 galls., damsons, 8 
galls. Ferment. Mix raw sugar, 30 lbs., red tar- 
tar, in fine powder, 6 oz. Add brandy, 1 gall. This 
will make 18 galls. 

"When the must," says Mr. Carnell, "has fer- 
mented 2 days, (during which time it should be 
stirred up 2 or 3 times) take out of the vat about 
2 or 3 quarts of the stones and break them and 
the kernels, and then return them into the vat 
again." 

Another 3fethod. 

Take a considerable quantity of damsons and 
common plun.s inclining to ripeness; slit them in 
halves so that the stones may be taken out, then 
mash them gently and add a little water and 
honey. Add to every gallon of the pulp 1 gall, 
of spring-water, with a few bay-leaves and cloves; 
boil the mixture, and add as much sugar as will 
sweeten it; skim off the froth and let it cool. 
Now press the fruit, squeezing out the liquid part, 
strain all through a fine strainer, and put the 
water and juice together in a cask. Having al- 
lowed the whole to stand and ferment for 3 or 4 
days, fine it with white sugar, flour, and white of 
eggs ; draw it off into bottles, then cork it well. 
In 12 days it will be ripe, and will taste like weak 
Port, having the flavor of Canary. 

Another. — Gather the damsons on a dry day, 
weigh them and then bruise them. Put them into 
a cask that has a cock in it, and to every 8 lbs. 
of fruit add 1 gall, of water. Boil the water, skim 
it and put it scalding hot to the fruit. Let it stand 
2 days, then draw it off and put it into a vessel, and 
to every gallon of liquor put 2i lbs. of fine sugar. 
]|ni up the vessel and stop it close, and the longer 
it stands the better. Keep it for 12 months in the 
vessel, and then bottle, putting a lump of sugar 
into every bottle. The small damson is the best 
for this purpose. 

Cherry Wine. 

Take of soft cold water, 10 galls., cherries, 10 
galls. Ferment. Mix raw sugar, 30 lbs., red tar- 
tar, in fine powder, 3 oz. Add brandy, 2 or 3 
quarts. This will make 18 galls. 

Two days after the cherries have been in the 
vat, take out about 3 quarts of the cherry-stones, 
break them and the kernels, and return them into 
the vat again. 

Another. — Take cherries nearly ripe, of any red 
sort, clear them of the stalks and stones, then put 
them into a glazed earthen vessel and squeeze 
them to a pulp. Let them remain in this state 
for 12 hours to ferment, then put them into a 
linen cloth not too fine and press out the juice 
with a pressing-board, or any other convenient 
instrument. Now let the liquor stand till the scum 
rises, and with a ladle or skimmer take it clean 
off; then pour the clear part, by inclination, into 
a cask, where to each gallon put 1 lb. of the best 
loaf sugar, and let it ferment for 7 or 8 days. 
Draw it off, when clear, into lesser casks or bot- 
tles ; keep it cool as other wines, and in 10 or 12 
days it will be ripe. 

To make Morella Wine. 

Clejinse from the stalks 60 lbs. of Morella cher- 



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"WINES. 



rics, and bruise them so that the stones shall be 
brdken. Now j. ress out the juice and mix it with 
6 galls, of Sherry wine, and 4 galls, of warm wa- 
ter. Having grossly powdered separate ounces of 
nutmeg, cinnamon and u)ace, hung them sepa- 
rately in small bags in the cask containing the 
mixture. Bung it down and in a few weeks it 
will become a deliciously flavored wine. 

To make Peach Wine. 
Take of cold soft water, 18 galls., refined sugar, 
25 lbs., honey, 6 lbs., white tartar, in fine powder, 

2 oz., peaches, 60 or 80 in number. Ferment. 
Then add 2 galls, of brandy. This will make 
18 galls. 

The first division is to be put into the vat, and 
the day after, be/ore the peaches are put in, take 
the stones from them, break them and the kernels, 
then put them and the pulp into the vat and pro- 
ceed with the general process. 

Peach and Apricot Wine. 

Take peaches, nectarines, etc. ; pare them and 
take the stones out; then slice them thin and pour 
over them from 1 to 2 galls, of water and a quart 
of white wine. Place the whole on a fire to simmer 
gently for a considerable time, till the sliced fruit 
becomes soft; pour off the liquid part into another 
vessel containing more peaches that have been 
sliced but not heated ; let them stand for 12 hours, 
then pour out the liquid part and press what re- 
mains through a fine hair bag. Let the whole be 
now put into a cask to ferment; add of loaf sugar 
li lbs. to each gallon. Boil well 1 oz. of beaten 
cloves in a quart of white wine and add it to the 
above. 

Apricot wine may be made by only bruising the 
fruit and pouring the hot liquor over it. This 
wine does not require so much sweetening. To 
give it a curious flavor, boil 1 oz. of mace and i 
an oz. of nutmegs in 1 qt. of white wine ; and 
when the wine is fermenting pour the liquid in 
hot. In about 20 days, or a month, these wines 
will be fit for bottling. 

Lemon Wine. 
Pare off the rinds of 6 large lemons, cut them, 
and squeeze out the juice. Steep the rinds in the 
juice, and put to it 1 qt. of brandy. Let it stand 

3 days in an earthen pot close stopped; then 
squeeze 6 more, and mix with it 2 qts. of spring- 
water, and as much sugar as will sweeten tbe 
whole. Boil the water, lemons and sugar together, 
and let it stand till it is cool. Then add 1 qt. of 
white wine, and the other lemons and brandy; 
mix them together, and run it through a flannel 
bag into some vessel. Let it stand 3 months and 
then bottle it off. Cork the bottles well ; keep it 
cool, and it will be fit to drink in a month or 6 
weeks. 

Another. — Pare 5 dozen of lemons very thin, 
put tbe peels into 5 qts. of French brandy, and 
let them stand 14 days. Then make the juice 
into a syrup with 3 lbs. of single-refined sugar, 
and when the peels are ready boil 15 galls, of 
water with 40 lbs. of single-refined sugar for i an 
hour. Then put it into a tub, and when cool add 
to it 1 spoonful of yeast, and let it work 2 days. 
Then tun it, and put in the brandy, peels and 
syrup. Stir them all together, and close up the 
cask. Let it stand 3 months, then bottle it, and 
it will be as pale and as fine as any citron-water. 

Apple White Wine. 
Take of cold soft water, 2 galls. ; apples, well 
bruised, 3 bushels; honey, 10 lbs.; white tartar, 
2 oz. ; 1 nutmeg, in powder; rum, 3 qts. This 
will make 18 galls. 



To maJce Apple Wine. 
To every gall, of apple-juice, immediately as it 
comes from the press, add 2 lbs. of common loaf 
sugar; boil it as long as any scum rises, then 
strain it through a sieve, and let it cool ; add some 
good yeast, and stir it well; let it work in the tub 
for 2 or 3 weeks, or till the head begins to flatten, 
then skim off the head, draw it clear ofl', and tun 
it. When made a year rack it off. and fine it with 
isinglass ; then add i a pt. of the best rectified 
spirit of wine, or a pt. of French brandy, to every 
8 galls. 

Apple Bed Wine. 

Take of cold soft water, 2 galls.; apples, well 
bruised, 3 bushels. Ferment. Mix, raw sugar, 
15 lbs. ; beet root, sliced, 4 lbs. ; red tartar, in fine 
powder, 3 oz. ; then add ginger, in powder, 3 oz. ; 
rosemary and lavender leaves, of each 2 hand- 
fuls; whiskey, 2 quarts. This will make 18 



To make Quince Wine. 

Gather the quinces when pretty ripe, on a dry 
day, rub off the down with a linen cloth, then lay 
them in hay or straw for 10 days to ]jer8pire. 
Now cut them in quarters, take out the cores and 
bruise them well in a mashing-tub with a wooden 
pestle. Squeeze out the liquid part by pressing 
them in a hair bag by degrees, in a cider press; 
strain this liquor through a fine sieve, then warm 
it gently over a fire and skim it, but do not suffer 
it to boil. Now sprinkle into it some loaf sugar 
reduced to powder; then in a gall, of water and 
a qt. of white wine boil 12 or 14 large quinces, 
thinly sliced; add 2 lbs. of fine sugar, and then 
strain off the liquid part, and mingle it with the 
natural juice of the quinces; put this into a cask 
(not to fill it) and mix them well together; then 
let it stand to settle ; put in 2 or 3 whites of eggs, 
then draw it off. If it be not sweet enough, add 
more sugar, and a qt. of the best Malmsey. To 
make it still better boil J of a lb. of stoned raisins, 
and i an oz. of cinnamon bark in a qt. of the 
liquor, to the consumption of a third part, and 
straining it, put it into the cask when the wine is 
fermenting. 

Another. — Take 20 large quinces, gathered when 
they are dry and full ripe. Wipe them clean with 
a coarse cloth, and grate them with a large grater 
or rasp as near the cores as possible; but do not 
touch the cores. Boil a gall, of spring-water, 
throw in the quinces, and let them boil softly 
about i of an hour. Then strain them well into 
an earthen pan, on 2 lbs. of double-refined sugar. 
Pare the peel of 2 large lemons, throw them in, 
and squeeze the juice through a sieve. Stir ii 
about till it is very cool, and then toast a thin 
bit of bread very brown, rub a little yeast on it, 
and let the whole stand close-covered 24 hours. 
Take out the toast and lemon, put the wine 
in a cask, keep it 3 months, and then bottle it. 
If a 20-gallon cask is wanted, let it stand 6 
months before bottling it; and remember, when 
straining the quinces, to wring them hard in a 
coarse cloth. 

Orange Wine. 

Put 12 lbs. of powdered sugar, with the whites 
of 8 or 10 eggs well beaten, into 6 galls, of spring- 
water ; boil them | of an hour; when cold, put 
into it 6 spoonfuls of yeast and the juice of 12 
lemons, which being pared, must stand with 2 
lbs. of white sugar in a tankard, and in the morn- 
ing skim off the top, and then put it into the 
water; add the juice and rinds of 60 oranges, but 
not the white or pithy parts of the rinds; let it 
work ail together 2 days and 2 nights ; then add 



WINES. 



271 



2 qts. of Rhenish or white wine, and put it into 
the vessel. 

Aiii'ther. — To 6 galls, of wnter put 15 lbs. of 
soil sugar; before it boils, add the whites of 6 
eggs well beaten, and take off the scum iis it rises ; 
boil it i an hour; when cool add the juice of 60 
oranges, and § of the peels cut very thin, and im- 
merse a toiist covered with yeast. In a month 
after it has been in the cask, add a pt. of brandy 
and 2 qts. of Khenish wine; it will be fit to bottle 
in 3 or 4 months, but it should remain in bottle 
for 12 months before it is drunk. 

To make Parsnip Wine. 
To 12 lbs. of parsnips, cut in slices, add 4 galls. 
of water; boil them till they become quite soft. 
Squeeze the liquor well out of them, run it through 
a sieve, and add to every gall. 3 lbs. of loaf sugar. 
Boil the whole three quarters of an hour, and 
■when it is nearly cold add a little yeast. Let 
it stand for 10 days in a tub, stirring it every 
day from the bottom ; then put it into a cask 
for 12 months ; as It works over fill it up every 
day. 

White Mead Wine. 
Take of cold soft water 17 galls., white currants 
6 qts. Ferment. Mix honey 30 lbs., white tartar 
in powder 3 oz. Add balm and sweetbriar, each 
2 handfuls, white brandy 1 gall. This will make 
18 galls. 

Red Mend, or Metheg/in Wine. 
Take of cold water 17 galls., red currants 6 qts., 
black currants 2 qts. Ferment. Mi.\, honey 25 
lbs. beet root sliced 1 lb., red tartar in fine powder 
4 oz. Add cinnamon in powder 2 oz., brandy 1 
gall. This will make 18 galls. 

Another. — Fermented mead is made in the pro- 
portion of 1 .b. of honey to 3 pints of water; or, 
by boiling c?er a moderate fire, to two-thirds of 
the quantitjT, three parts water and one part honey. 
The liquor is then skimmed and casked, care being 
taken to keep the cask full while fermenting. 
During the fermenting process the cask is left un- 
etopped and exposed to the sun, or in a warm room, 
until the working ceases. The cask is then bunged, 
and a few months in the cellar renders it plea.>^a:it, 
by the addition of cut raisins, or other fruits, 
boiled after the rate of i lb. of raisins to 6 ibs. of 
honey, with a toasted crust of bread ; 1 oz. of salt 
of tartar in a glass of brandy being added to the 
liquor when casked, to which some add 5 or 6 drops 
of the essence of cinnamon ; others, pieces of 
lemon-peel with various syrups. 

Walnut Mead Wine. 
To every gallon of water put 3^ lbs. of honey, 
and boil them together three-quarters of an hour. 
Then to every gallon of liquor put about 2 dozen 
of walnut leaves, pour the boiling liquor upon 
them and let them stand all night. Then take out 
the leaves, put in a spoonful of yeast, and let it 
Work for 2 or 3 days. Then make it up, and after 
it has stood for 3 months bottle it. 

To make American Honey Wine. 
Put a quantity of the comb from which honey 
has been drained in a tub, and add a barrel of 
cider immediately from the press; this mixture 
stir and leave for one night. It is then strained 
before fermentation, and honey added until the 
specific gravity of the liquor is sufficient to bear 
an egg. It is then put into a barrel, and after the 
fermentation is commenced the cask is filled every 
day for 3 or 4 days, that the froth may work 
out of the bung-hole. When the fermentation 
moderates put the bung in loosely, lest stopping 
it tight might cause the cask to burst. At the end 
•f 5 or 6 V eeks the liquor is to be drawn off into 



a tub, and the whites of 8 eggs, well beaten up 
with a pint of clean sand, are to be put into it; 
then add 1 gall, of cider spirits, and after mixing 
the whole together, return it into the cask, which 
is to be well cleaned, bunged tight, and placed in 
a proper situation for racking off when fine. In 
the month of April following draw it off into kegs 
for use, and it will be equal to almost any foreign 
wine. 

Cowslip Red Wine. 

Take of cold soft water 18 galls. ; Smyrna raisins 
40 lbs. Ferment. Mixed beet-root, sliced, 3 lbs. ; 
red tartar, in fine powder, 2 oz. Add cowslip- 
flowers, 14 lbs. ; cloves and mace, in powder 1 oz. • 
brandy, 1 gall. This will make IS galls. 
Cowslip While Wine. 

Take of cold soft water, 18 galls. ; Malaga rai- 
sins, 35 lbs. : white tartar, in fine powder, 2 oz. 
Ferment. Mix cowslip-flowers, 16 lbs. Add white 
brandy, 1 gall. This will make 18 galls. 

Cowslip Mead. 
Is made in this manner: To 15 galls, of water put 
30 lbs. of honey, and boil it till I gall, be wasted. 
Skim it, take it off the fire, and have ready 16 
lemons cut in halves. Take 1 gall, of the liquor and 
put it to the leuions. Put the rest of the liquor into 
a tub with 7 pecks of cowslips, and let them stand 
all night. Then put in the liquor with the lemons 
8 spoonfuls of new yeast and a handful of sweet- 
briar. Stir them all well together, and let it work 
3 or 4 days. Then strain it, put into the cask, 
and after it has stood 6 months bottle it off. 

Cider White Wine. 
Take of cold soft water, 2 qts. ; cider, 9 galls.; 
honey, 8 lbs. ; white tartar, in fine powder, 2 oz. 
Ferment. Mix cinnamon, cloves, and mace, 2 oz. 
Add rum, i gall. This will make 9 galls. 

Cider Red Wine. 
Take of cold soft water, 3 galls. ; cider, 16 galls. > 
honey, 10 lbs. Ferment. Add raw sugar, 4 lbs. ; 
beet-root, sliced, 4 lbs. ; red tartar, in fine powder, 6 
oz. Mix sweet marjoram and sweetbriar, 3 hand- 
fuls; rum. 1 gall. This will make 18 galls. 

Cider Wine, 

Take of cold soft water, 4 galls. ; cider, 15 galls. ; 
honey, 12 lbs.; tartar, in fine powder, 2 oz. Fer- 
ment. Mix ginger, in powder, 6 oz.; sage and 
mint, 2 handfuls. Add whiskey, 1 gall. This 
will make 18 galls. 

To make Raisin Wine equal (o Sherry. 

Let the raisins be well washed and picked from 
the stalks; to every pound thus prepared and 
chopped, add 1 qt. of water which has been boiled 
and has stood till it is cold. Let the whole stand 
in the vessel for a month, being frequently stirred. 
Now let the raisins be taken from the cask, and 
let the liquor be closely stopped in the vessel. In 
the course of a month let it be racked into another 
vessel, leaving all the sediment behind, which 
must be repeated till it becomes fine, when add to 
every 10 galls. 6 lbs. of fine sugar, and 1 doz. of 
Seville oranges the rinds being pared very thin, 
and infused in 2 qts of brandy, which should bo 
added to the li(|uor at its last racking. Let the 
whole stand 3 months in the cask, when it will be 
fit for bottling ; it should remain in the bottle for 
a twelve-month. 

To give it the flavor of Madeira, when it is in 
the cask, put in a couple of green citrons, and let 
them remain till the wine is bottled. 
Another Raisin Wine. 

Put 200 weight of raisins, with the stalks, into 
a hogshead, and fill it almost with spring-water; 



272 



WINES. 



let tbem steep for about 12 days, frequently stir- 
ring, iind after pouring off the juice dress the 
raisins and mash them. The whole should then 
be put together into a very clean vessel that will 
exactly contain it. It will hiss for some time, 
during which it should not be stirred; but when 
the noise ceases it must be stopped close and 
stand for about 6 or 7 months, and then, if it 
prove fine and clear, rack it off into another ves- 
sel of the same size. Stop it up, and let it remain 
for 12 or 14 weeks longer, then bottle it off. If it 
should not prove clear fine it down with 3 oz. of 
isinglass, and i lb. of sugar-candy dissolved in 
some of the wine. 

Ginger Wine, excellent. 

Put into a very nice boiler 10 galls, of water, 
15 lbs. of lump sugar, with the whites of 6 or 8 
eggs, well beaten and strained ; mix all well while 
cold; when the liquor boils skim it, put in ^ a 
lb. of common white ginger, bruised, and boil it 
20 minutes. Have ready the rinds (cut very thin) 
of 7 lemons, and pour the hot liquor on them; 
when cool put it into your cask, with 2 spoonfuls 
of yeast; put a quart of the warm liquor to 2 oz. 
isinglass shavingx, lohisk it well 3 or 4 times, and 
put all into the barrel. Next day stop it up, in 3 
weeks bottle it, and in 3 months it will be a deli- 
cious and safe liquor. 

Another. — Take of cold soft water, 19 galls.; 
Malaga raisins, 50 lbs. ; white tartar, in powder, 
4 oz. Ferment. Mix ginger, in powder or bruised 
20 oz.; 18 lemons, peel and juice; add brandy, 2 
qts. or more. This will make 18 galls. 

Another. — Take 20 qts. of water ; 5 lbs. of sugar ; 
3 oz. of white ginger; 1 oz. of stick liquorice. 
Boil them well together; when it is cold put a little 
new yeast upon it, but not too much ; then put 
it into the barrel for 10 days, and after that bottle 
it putting a lump of white sugar into every bottle. 

Another. — To 7 galls, of water put 19 lbs. of 
slayed sugar, and boil it for ^ an hour, taking off 
the scum as it rises; then take a small quantity 
of the liquor and add to it 9 oz. of the best ginger 
bruised. Now put it all together, and when nearly 
cold, chop 9 lbs. of raisins very small, and put 
them into an 8 gall, cask (beer measure), with 1 
oz. of isinglass. Slice 4 lemons into the cask, 
taking out all the seeds, and yeast. Leave it un- 
stopped for 3 weeks, and in about 3 months it will 
be fit for bottling. 

There will be 1 gall, of the sugar and water 
more than the cask will hold at first ; this must be 
kept to fill up as the liquor works off, as it is neces- 
sary that the cask should be kept full till it has 
done working. The raisins should be § Malaga, 
and J Muscadel. Spring and autumn are the best 
seasons for making this wine. 

To make Koumiss, a Tartar Wine. 

Take of fresh mare's milk any quantity ; add to 
it J part of water, and pour the mixture into a 
wooden vessel. Use as a ferment J part of 
skimmed milk; but at any future preparation a 
small portion of old koumiss will answer better. 
Cover the vessel with a thick cloth, and set it in 
a place of moderate warmth ; leaving it at rest for 
24 hours; at the end of which time the milk will 
become sour, and a thick substance will be 
gathered on its top. Now, with a churn staff, 
beat it till the thick substance above-mentioned 
be blended intimately with the subjacent fluid. 
In this situation leave it at rest for 24 hours 
more; after which pour it into a higher and nar- 
rower vessel, resembling a churn, where the agita- 
tion must be repeated as before, till the liquor 
appears to be perfectly homogeneous. In this 
state it is called koumiss ; of which the taste ought 



to be a pleasant mixture of sweet and sour. 
Agitation must be employed every time before it 
is used. Sometimes aromatic herbs, as Angelica, 
are infused in the liquor during fermentation. 

To make Rhubarb Wine. 

Take of sliced rhubarb, 2J oz. ; lesser cardamom 
seeds, bruised and husked, i oz. ; saffron, 2 drs. ; 
Spanish white wine, 2 pints; proof spirit, J pint. 
Digest for 10 days and strain. This is a warm, 
cordial, laxative medicine. It is used chiefly in 
weakness of the stomach and bowels, and some 
kinds of looseness. It may he given in doses of 
from i spoonful to 3 or 4 spoonfuls or more, ac- 
cording to the circumstances of the disorder and 
the strength of the patient. 

To viake Sage Wine. 

Boil 26 quarts of spring- water J of an hour, and 
when it is blood warm put 25 lbs. of Malaga 
raisins picked, rubbed and shred, into it, with 
almost i bushel of red sage shred, and a small 
pitcher of ale yeast; stir all well together and 
let it stand in a tub covered warm 6 or 7 days, 
stirring it once a day; then strain it off and put 
it in a runlet. Let it work 3 or 4 days, and then 
stop it up; when it has stood 6 or 7 days, put in 
a quart or two of Malaga Sherry, and when it is 
fine bottle it. 

To make Turnip Wine. 

Pare and slice a number of turnips, put them 
into a cider press and press out all the juice. To 
every gallon of the juice add 3 lbs. of lump sugar; 
have a vessel ready large enough to hold the juice, 
and put i pint of brandy to every gallon. Pour 
in the juice and lay something over the bung for 
a week, to see if it works ; if it does, do not bung 
it down till it has done working; then stop it 
close for 3 months, and draw it off into another 
vessel. When it is fine bottle it off. 

This is an excellent wine for gouty habits, and 
is much recommended in such cases in lieu of any 
other wine. 

Jioae Wine. 

Take a well-glazed earthen vessel and put into 
it 3 galls, of rose-water drawn with a cold still. 
Put into that a sufficient quantity of rose-leaves, 
cover it close and set it for an hour in a kettle or 
copper of hot water, to take out the whole strength 
and tincture of the roses; and when it is cold 
press the rose-leaves hard into the liquor, and 
steep fresh ones in it, repeating it till the liquor 
has got the full strength of the roses. To every 
gallon of liquor put 3 lbs. of loaf sugar, and stir 
it well, that it may melt and disperse in every 
part. Then put it into a cask or other convenient 
vessel, to ferment, and put into it a piece of bread 
toasted hard and covered with yeast. Let it stand 
about 30 days, when it will be ripe and have a 
fine flavor, having the whole strength and scent 
of the roses in it; and it may be greatly improved 
by adding to it wine and spices. By this method 
of infusion, wine of carnations, clove gilliflowers, 
violets, primroses, or any other flower having a 
curious scent, may be made. 

English Fig Wine. 

Take the large blue figs when pretty ripe, anJ 
steep them in white wine, having made some slits 
in them, that they may swell and gather in the 
substance of the wine. Then slice some other 
figs and let them simmer over a fire in water until 
they are reduced to a kind of pulp. Then strain 
out the water, pressing the pulp hard, and pour it 
as hot as possible on the figs that are imbrued in 
the wine. Let the quantities be nearly equal, but 
the water somewhat more than the wine and figs. 
Let them stand 24 hours, mash them well together, 



DOMESTIC WINES. 



273 



and draw off what will run without squeezing. 
Then press the rest, nnd if not sweet enough add 
a sufficient quantity of sugar to make it so. Let 
it ferment, and add to it a little honey and sugar- 
eandy ; then fine it with the whites of eggs and a 
little isinglass, and draw it off for use. 
Balm Wine. 

Take 40 Ihs. of sugar and 9 galls, of water, boil 
it gently for 2 hours, .«kim it well, and put it into 
a tub to cool. Take 2J lbs. of the tops of balm, 
bruise them and put them into a barrel with a 
little new yeast, and when the liquor is cold pour 
it on the balm. Stir it well together and let it 
stand 24 hours, stirring it often. Then close it 
up, and let it stand 6 weeks. Then rack it off and 
put a lump of sugar into every bottle. Cork it 
well, and it will be better the second year than 
the first. 

To make Scurvy -Grass Wine. 

Take the best large scurvy-grass tops and 
leaves, in May, June, or July ; bruise them well 
in a stone mortar, put them in a well-glazed 
earthen vessel and sprinkle them over with some 
powder of crystal of tartar ; then smear them with 
virgin honey, and being covered close, let it stand 
24 hours. Set water over a gentle fire, putting 
to every gallon 3 pints of honey, and when the 
scum rises take it off and let it cool ; then put the 
stamped scurvy grass into a barrel, and pour the 
liquor to it, setting the vessel conveniently end- 
ways, with a tap at the bottom. When it has been 
infused 24 hours, draw off the liquor, strongly 
press the juic« and moisture out of the herb into 
the barrel or vessel, and put the liquor up again ; 
then put a little new yeast to it, and suffer it to 
ferment 3 days, covering the place of the bung or 
vent with a piece of bread spread over with mus- 
tard seed, downward, in a cool place, and let it 
continue till it is fine and drinks brisk. Draw 
off the finest part, leaving only the dregs behind ; 
afterwards add more herbs, and ferment it with 
whites of eggs, flour, and fixed nitre, verjuice, or 
the juice of green grapes, if they are to be had; 
to which add 6 lbs. of the syrup of mustard, all 
mixed and well beaten together, to refine it down, 
and it will drink brisk, but is not very pleasant; 
being here inserted among artificial wines rather 
for the sake of health, than for the delightfulness 
of its taste. 

To make Cheap and Wholesome Claret. 

Take a quart of fine draft Devonshire cider, 
and an equal quantity of good Port. Mix them, 
and shake them. Bottle them, and let them stand 
for a month. 

To viake Dry Wine. 

Those who like a dry wine, should put into the 
Tat, at the commencement of the vinous fermenta- 
tion, an ounce or two of calcined gypsum, in fine 
powder. 

MANAGEMENT OP DOMESTIC "WINES. 
To Guard ayainst Unripe Fruit. 

If the season proves bad so that some fruits are 
not sufficiently ripe, immediately after the vinous 
fermentation, and the must of such fruit is put into 
the cask, it is to be rolled 2 or 3 times a day for a 
week or two. A spirituous fermentation will soon 
commence, the bung of the cask must then be 
taken out, and the hole covered with a bit of light 
Wood or canvas, and as any scum arises, it should 
be taken away. When the scum disappears, fill 
up the cask, and bung it up. But a vent hole 
must be left open for a week. 

To Keep and Manage Wines. 

Wines will diminish, therefore the cask must be 
18 



kept filled up with some of the same wine, or some 
other that is as good or better. 

They must at all times be kept in a cool cellar, 
if not, they will ferment. If wines are kept in a 
warm cellar, an acetous fermentation will soon 
commence, and the result consequently will bo 
vinegar. The more a wine frets and ferments, the 
more it parts with its strength and goodness; when 
wines are found to work improperly in the cellar, 
the vent-peg must be taken out for a week or two. 

If any wine ferments, after being perfected, 
draw off a quart and boil it, and pour it hot into 
the cask, add a pint or a quart of brandy, and 
bung up a day or two after. 

Or, draw off the wine, and fumigate the cask, 
with 1 oz. of flower of brimstone, and i oz. of cin- 
namon, in powder. Mix the two together, and 
tie them up in a rag. Turn the bung-hole of the 
cask downwards, place the rag under the bung- 
hole, and set fire to it, so that the gas ascends into 
the cask. As soon as it is burnt out, fill up the 
cask with wine, and bung it up tight. ' 

To Sweeten a Fold Cask. 

Set fire to 1 lb. or more of broken charcoal, put 
it into the cask, and immediately fill up the cask 
with boiling water. After this roll the cask once 
or twice a day for a week ; then pour out the 
charcoal and water, wash out the cask with clean 
cold water, and expose it to the external air for 
some days. 

To Improve Poor Wines. 

Poor wines may be improved by being racked > 
off, and returned to the cask again ; and then put- f 
ling into the wine about 1 lb. of jar or box raisins, 
bruised, and 1 quart of brandy. 

Or, put into the wine 2 lbs. of honey, and a pint 
or two of brandy. The honey and brandy to be 
first mixed together. 

Or, draw off 3 or 4 quarts of such wine and fill 
the cask up with strong wine. 

To Improve Wine tchen Lowering or Decaying, . 

Take 1 oz. of alum, make it into powder; then 
draw out 4 galls, of wine, mix the powder with it, 
and beat it well for J an hour ; then fill up the 
cask, and when fine (which will be in a week's 
tin)e or little more), bottle it off. This will make 
it drink fine and brisk. 

To Restore Flat Wines. 
Flat wines may be restored by 1 lb. of jar rai- 
sins, 1 lb. of honey, and ^ a pint of spirits of wine, 
beaten up in a mortar with some of the wine, and 
then the contents put into the cask. 

To Remove a Musty or Disagreeable Taste in Wine, 

Put into the cask 3 or 4 sticks of charcoal, and 
bung up the cask tight. In a month after take 
them out. 

Or, cut two ripe medlars, put them in a gauze 
bag, and suspend them from the bung-hole into 
wine, and bung up the cask air-tight. A month 
after take them out, and bung up the cask again. 

Or, mix i lb. of bruised mustard-seed, with 1 
pint or more of brandy, and stir it up in the wine; 
and 2 days after bung up the cask. 

Another Mode. 
At the finish of the process, when the brandy 
or spirit is put to the wine, it is particularly recom- 
mended that i oz. of camphor, in the lump, be 
dropped into the bung-hole of each 18 galls, of 
wine. 

Another Mode. 
Oil poured upon wine, or any other liquor, will 
prevent it from growing musty, or turning corrupt. 



274 



DOMESTIC WINES. 



To Take Atoay the Til Scent of Wines. 
Bake a long roller of dough, stuck well with 
cloves, and hang it in the cask. 

To nmke Wine Sparkle like Champagne. 

Take great care to rack off the wine well, and in 
March bottle it as quickly as possible. The bottles 
must be very clean and dry, and the corks of the 
best sort, made of velvet or white cork. In 2 
months' after, the wine will be in a fine condition 
to drink. 

To Clear Foul or Ropy Wines. 

Take i oz. of chalk in powder, i oz. of burnt 
alum, the white of an egg, and 1 pint of spring- 
water. 

Beat the whole up in a mortar, and pour it into 
the wine; after which, roll the cask 10 minutes; 
and then place it on the stand, leaving the bung 
out for a few days. As soon as the wine is fine, 
rack it off". 

Or, take 1 oz. of ground rice, \ oz. of burnt 
alum, and i oz. of bay-salt 

Beat the whole up in a mortar, with 1 pint or 
more of the wine, pour it into the cask, and roll it 
10 minutes. The cask must be bunged up for a 
few days. As soon as such wine becomes fine, 
rack it ofiF. 

Or, bring the cask of wine out of the cellar and 
place it in a shady situation to receive the circu- 
lation of the air, and take out the bung. In 3 
weeks or a month rack it off into a sweet cask, 
which fill up, ;ind put into the wine 1 oz. of cin- 
namon, in the stick ; and bung it up tight. 

Another 3Iethod. 
Tap the cask, and put a piece of coarse Hnen 
cloth upon that end of the cock which goes to the 
inside of the cask ; then rack it into a dry cask 
to 30 galls, of wine, and put in 5 oz. of powdered 
alum. Roll and shake them well together, and it 
will fine down, and prove a very clear and plea- 
sant wine. 

To Correct Green or Harsh Wines. 
Take 1 oz. of salt, i oz. calcined gypsum, in 
powder, and 1 pi. of skimmed milk. Mix these 
up with a little of the wine, and then pour the 
mixture into the cask ; put in a few lavender 
leaves, stir the wine with a stick, so as not to dis- 
turb the lees, and bung it up. 

To Correct Sharp, Tart, Acid Wines. 

Mix 1 oz. of calcined gypsum in powder and 2 
lbs. of honey in 1 qt. of brandy; pour the mix- 
ture into the wine, and stir it so as not to disturb 
the lees; fill up the cask, and the following day 
bung it up. Rack this wine as soon as fine. 

Or, mix i oz. of the salt of tartar i oz. of cal- 
cined gypsum, in powder, with a pint of the wine; 
pour it into the cask, and put an ounce of cinna- 
mon in the stick ; stir the wine without disturbing 
the lees, fill up the cask, and the day following 
bung it up. 

Or, boil 3 oz. of rice ; when cold put it into a 
gauze bag, and immerge it into the wine; put into 
the wine also a few sticks of cinnamon, and bung 
up the cask. In about a month after, take the 
rice out. 

To Restore Sour Wines. 

Take calcined gypsum in powder 1 oz., cream 
of tartar in powder 2 oz. Mix them in a pint or 
more of brandy; pour it into the cask; put in, 
also, a few sticks of cinnamon, and then stir the 
wine without disturbing the lees. Bung up the 
cask the next day. 

Another Method. 

Boil a gallon of wine with some beaten oyster- 



shells and crab's claws, burnt into powder, 1 oi. 
of each to every 10 galls, of wine; then strain out 
the liquor through a sieve, and when cold put it 
into wine of the same sort, and it will give it a 
pleasant lively taste. A lump of unslalied lime 
put into the cask will also keep wine from turuing 
sour. 

Fining. 

Many wines require fining before they are 
racked, and the operation of fining is not always 
necessary. Most wines, well made, do not want 
fining; this may be ascertained by drawing a 
little into a glass from a peg-hole. 

One of the best finings is as follows : Take 1 lb. 
of fresh marsh-mallow roots, washed clean, and 
cut into small pieces; macerate them in 2 qts. of 
soft water for 24 hours, then gently boil the liquor 
down to 3 half pints, strain it, and when cold mix 
with it i oz. of pipe-clay or chalk in powder; then 
pour the mucilage into the cask, and stir up the 
wine so as not to disturb the lees, and leave the 
vent-peg out for some days after. 

Or, take boiled rice 2 tablespoonfuls, the white 
of 1 new egg, and J oz. of burnt alum, in powder. 
Mix with a pint or more of the wine, then pour 
the mucilage into the cask, and stir the wine with 
a stout stick, but not to agitate the lees. 

Or, dissolve in a gentle heat ^ oz. of isinglass 
in a pint or more of the wine, then mix with it i 
oz. of chalk, in powder; when the two are well 
incorporated pour it into the cask, and stir the 
wine, so as not to disturb the lees. 

Or, beat up the white of eggs, 1 egg to 6 galls.; 
draw the wine into the beaten egg, and keep stir- 
ring all the while, then return the wine and froth 
to the cask, and bung up. 

To Check Fermentation, 

It is in the first place necessary to consider 
whether the existing state of fermentation be the 
original or secondary stage of that process which 
comes on after the former has ceased for several 
days, and is indeed the commencement of acetoui 
fermentation. That of the former kind rarely 
proceeds beyond what is necessary for the perfect 
decomposition of the saccharine and other parta 
of the vegetable substance necessary for the pro- 
duction of spirit, unless the liquor be kept too 
warm or is too weak, and left exposed to the air 
after the vinous fermentation is completed. The 
means to correct these circumstances are suffi- 
ciently obvious. The heat for spirituous fermen- 
tation should not be above 60°; when it is much 
above that point the liquor passes rapidly through 
the stage of vinous fermentation, and the acetous 
immediately commences. When too long contin- 
ued fermentation arises from the liquor having 
been kept in a warm situation, it will be soon 
checked by bunging, after being removed into a 
cold place; the addition of a sm;ill proportion of 
spirits of wine or brandy, previously to closing it 
up, is also proper. A degree of cold, approaching 
to the freezing point, will check fermentation of 
whatever kind. Fermentation of this kind can- 
not be stopped by using a chemical agent, except 
such as would destroy the qualities of the liquor 
intended to be produced. 

The secondary stage of fermentation, or the 
commencement of the acetous, may be stopped by 
removing the liquor to a cool situation; correct- 
ing the acid already formed; and if the liquor 
contain but little spirit, the addition of a proper 
proportion of brandy is requisite. 

The operation of racking is also necessary to 
preserve liciuor in a vinous state, and to render it 
clear. This process should be performed in a cool 
place. 



FOREIGN WINES. 



275 



To Restore Pricked Britinh Wines. 

Rnck the wines down to the lees into another 
cask, where the lees of good wines lire fresh ; then 
put a pint of strong aqua vita», and i-'enipe i lb. of 
yellow beeswax into it, which, by heating the spirit 
over a ;rentle fire, will melt; after which dip a 
piec" of cl.ith into it, and when a little dry set it on 
fire wi'h a brimstone match, put it into the bung- 
hole, and stop it up close. 

Another Method. 

First prepare a fresh empty cask that has hnd 
the siime kind of wine in which it is iibout to be 
racked ; then match it, and rack off the wine, put- 
ting to every 10 galls. 2 oz. of oyster powder and 
i oz. of bity-salt; then get the staff and stir it 
well about, letting it stand till it is fine, which will 
bo in a few days; after which rack it off into an- 
other cask previously matched, and if the lees of 
some wine of the same kind can be got, it will im- 
prove it much. Put likewise a quart of brandy to 
every 10 galls., and, if the cask has been emptied 
a long time, it will matrh better on that account; 
but, even if a new cask, the matching must not be 
omitted. A fresh empty cask is to be preferred. 

This method will answer for all made wines. 



TO MANAGE FOREIGN WINE-VAULTS. 

The principal object to be attended to in the 
management of foreign wine-vaults is to keep 
them of a temperate heat. Care must be taken, 
therefore, to close up every aperture or opening, 
that there may be no admission given to the ex- 
ternal air. The floor of the vault should likewise 
be well covered with saw-dust, which must not be 
suffered to get too dry and dusty, but must receive 
now and then an addition of new, lest, when bot- 
tling or racking wine, some of the old dust should 
fly into it. At most vaults, in the winter, it is 
necessary to have a stove or chafing-dish, to keep 
up a proper degree of warmth. In the summer 
time it will be best to keep them as cool as {pos- 
sible. 

To Fit Up a Cellar of Wiuea and Spirits. 

Provide a good rope and tackling to let down 
the casks into the vaults or cellar, and a slide, 
ladder or pully for the casks to slide or roll on ; a 
pair of strong slings; a pair of can hooks and a 
pair of crate hooks ; a block of wood to put under 
the pipes when topping them over in a narrow 
passage, or in casing them ; a small valinch to 
taste wines; a crane, and a small copper pump to 
rack off; 2 or 3 gallon cans made of wood; a 
large wooden funnel ; 2 or 3 copper funnels, from 
a quart to a gallon each ; 2 racking cocks ; 2 wine 
bottlingcocks; a brace and various bits; 2 small 
tubs ; a square basket to hold the corks ; 2 small 
tin funnels; a small strainer; 2 cork-screws; 2 
or 3 baskets; a whisk to beat the finings; 3 flan- 
nel or linen bags; a strong iron screw to raise the 
bungs; a pair of pliers; bungs, corks, and vent- 
pegs; 2 frets or middle-sized gimblets; some 
sheet-lead and tacks to put on broken staves; 
brown paper to put round cocks and under the 
lead, when stopping leaks; a staff with a chain 
at one end to rumage the wines, etc. ; shots and 
lead canister or bristle brush, and 2 cloths to 
wash bottles; 2 large tubs; some small racks that 
will hold 6 dozen each; a cooper's adze; an iron 
and a wooden driver to tighten hoops; 2 dozen 
of wooden bungs of diflerent sizes; a thermom- 
eter, which is to be kept in the vault; a stove or 
chafingdish, to keep the heat of the vault at a 
known temperature; a few dozen of delph labels; 
a cu})board to hold all the tools; a spade; 2 good 
EtiS' birch brooms, and a rake to level the saw- 
dust. 



To mnJce Port Wine. 

The dark red port is made from grapes gathered 
indiscriminately and thrown into a cistern ; they 
are then trodden, and their skins and stalks left in 
the mass, which separate during fermentation and 
form a dry head over the liquid. AVhen the fer- 
mentation is completed, the liquor underneath is 
drawn out and casked. Before being exported it 
is mixed with one-third of brandy, to enable it to 
keep during the voyage; otherwise the carria'ge 
brings on the acetous fermentation, and the wine 
is converted into vinegar. 

Fre7ich Method of Mnlcing Wines. 

In the southern parts of France their way is 
with red wines to tread or squeeze the grapes 
between the hands, and let the whole stand, juice 
and husks, till the tincture is to their liking; after 
which they press it. For white wines they press 
the grapes immediately, and when pressed they 
tun the must and stop up the vessel, leaving only 
the depth of a foot or more to give room for it to 
work. At the end of 10 days they fill this space 
with some other good wine that will not work it 
again. 

To Rack Foreign Wines. 

The vault or cellar should be of a temperate 
heat, and the casks sweet and clean. Should they 
have an acid or musty smell, it may be remedied 
by burning brimstone matches in them; and if 
not clean rinse them veell out with cold water, and 
after draining, rinse with a quart of brandy, put- 
ting the brandy afterwards into the ullage cask. 
Then strain the lees or bottoms through a flannel 
or linen bag. But put the bottoms of Port into the 
ullage cask without going through the filtering- 
bag. In racking wine that is not on the stillage, 
a wine-pump is desirable. 

To Manage and Improve Poor Red Port. 

If wanting in body, color and flavor, draw out 30 
or 40 galls, and return the same quantity of young 
and rich wines. To a can of which put 3 gills of 
coloring, with a bottle of wine or brandy. Then 
whisk it well together and put it into the cask, 
stirring it well. If not bright in about a week or 
ten days, fine it for use; previous to which put in 
at different times a gallon of good brandy. If the 
wine is short of body put a gallon or two of brandy 
in each pipe, by a quart or two at a time, as it feeds 
the wine better than putting it in all at once. But 
if the wines are in a bonded cellar, procure a fun- 
nel that will go to the bottom of the cask, that 
the brandy may be completely incorporated with 
the wine. 

To Manage Claret. 

Claret is not a wine of a strong body, though it 
requires to be of a good age before it is used, and 
therefore it should be well managed ; the best 
method is to feed it every 2 or 3 weeks with a 
pint or two of French brandy. Taste it frequently, 
to know what state it is in, and use the brandy 
accordingly ; but never put much in at a time, 
while a little incorporates with the wine and feeds 
and mellows it. 

If the claret is faint, rack it into a fresh emptied 
hogshead, upon the lees of good claret, and bung 
it up, putting the bottom downwards for two or 
three days, that the lees may run through it. 
To Color Claret. 

If the color be not yet perfect, rack it off again 
into a hogshead that has been newly drawn off, 
with the lees ; then take 1 lb. of turnsole and put 
it into a gallon or two of wine; let it lie a day or 
two, and then put it into the vessel; after which 
lay the bung downwards for a night, and the next, 
day roll it about. 



276 



FOREIGN WINES. 



Or, take any quantity of damsons or black sloes, 
and strew them with some of* the deepest colored 
wine and as much sugar as will make it into a 
syrup. A pint of this will cover a hogshead of 
claret. It is also good for red Port wines, and 
may be kept ready for use in glass bottles. 

To Restore Claret that Drinks Font. 

Rack it off from the dregs on some fresh lees 
of its own kind, and then take a dozen of new 
pippins, pare them and take away the cores or 
hearts; then put them in the hogshead, and if 
that is not sufficient, take a handful of the oak 
of Jerusalem and bruise it; then put it into the 
wine and stir it well. 

To make Claret and Port Rough. 

Put into 1 qt. of Claret or Port 2 qts. of sloes; 
bake them in a gentle oven, or over a slow fire, 
till a good part of their moisture is stewed out, 
then pour off the liquor, and squeeze out the rest. 
A pint of this will be sufficient for 30 or 40 galls. 

To Manage Hermitage and Burgundy. 

Red Hermitage must be managed in the same 
way as Claret, and the White likewise, except the 
coloring, which it does not require. Burgundy 
should be managed in the same manner as Red 
Hermitage. 

To Manage Lisbon Wine. 

If the Lisbon is dry, take out of the pipe 35 or 
40 galls., and put in the same quantity of calca- 
vella, stir it well about, and this will make a pipe 
of good mild Lisbon ; or, if it be desired to con- 
vert mild into dry, take the same quantity out as 
above mentioned before, and fill the pipe with 
Malaga Sherry, stirring it about as the other. 
The same kind of fining used for Vidonia will an- 
swer for Lisbon wine ; or it may be fined with the 
whites and shells of 16 eggs, and a small handful 
of salt ; beat it together to a froth, and mix it with 
a little of the wine; then pour it into the pipe, 
stir it about, and let it have vent for 3 days ; after 
which bung it up, and in a few days it will be 
fine. Lisbon, when bottled, should be packed 
either in saw-dust or leaths in a temperate place. 

To Improve Sherry, 
If the Sherry be new and hot, rack it off into a 
sweet cask, add 5 galls, of mellow Lisbon, which 
will take off the hot taste, then give it a head, 
take 1 qt. of honey, mix it with a can of wine, 
and put it into the cask when racking. By this 
method Sherry for present use will be greatly im- 
proved, having much the same effect upon it as 
age. 

To Improve White Wine. 

If the wine have an unpleasant taste, rack off 
one-half, and to the remainder add 1 gall, of new 
milk, a handful of bay-salt, and as much rice; 
after which take a staff, beat them well together 
for half an hour, and fill up the cask, and when 
rolled well about, stillage it, and in a few days it 
will be much improved. 

If the white wine is foul and has lost its color, 
for a butt or pipe take 1 gall, of new milk, put it 
into the cask, and stir it well about with a staff; 
and when it has settled, put in 3 oz. of isinglass 
made into a jelly, with J lb. of loaf sugar scraped 
fine, and stir it well about. On the day following, 
bung it up, and in a few days it will be fine, and 
have a good color. 

To Improve Wine with Chalk. 

Add a little chalk to the must, when it is some- 
what sour; for the acidity arising from citric and 
tartaric acids, there is thus formed a precipitate of 
citrate and tartrate of lime, while the must becomes 



sweeter, and yields a much finer wine. Too much 
chalk may render the wine insipid, since it is pro- 
per to leave a little excess of acid in the must. 
Concentrate the mvit by boiling, and add the pro. 
per quantity of chalk to the liquor, while it is still 
hot. Even acid wine may be benefited by the ad- 
dition of chalk. Oyster shells may be used with 
this view ; and when calcined are a cleaner carbo- 
nate of lime than common chalk. 

To Renoi^ate Sick Wine. 

Wines on the fret should he racked ; if their own 
lee indicates decay they should be racked on the 
sound lee of another wine of similar but stronger 
quality, to protract their decline ; if this be done 
at an early period, it may renovate the sick wine ; 
on these occasions giving the sick wine a cooler 
place, will retard its progress to acidity; if conve- 
nient, such wines should be forced and bottled. 
Previous to bottling, or rather at the forcing, give 
it 1,2, or 3 tablespoonfiils of calcined gypsum 
finely pulverized. This will check its tendency to 
acidity, without exciting-much intumescence, with- 
out injuring the color of the red wine, and with- 
out retarding its coating to the bottle, which it 
rather promotes. The proper forcing for red wines 
are, the whites of 10 or 12 eggs, beat up with 1 or 
2 teaspoonfuls of salt, per hogshead, and well 
worked into the wine with a forcing-rod ; the gyp- 
sum should be first boiled in a little water. 
To Mellow Wine. 

Cover the orifices of the vessels containing it 
with bladder closely fastened instead of the usual 
materials, and an aqueous exhalation will pass 
through the bladder, leaving some fine cryst.alli- 
zations on the surface of the wine, which, when 
skimmed off, leaves the wine in a highly improved 
state of flavor. Remnants of wine covered in this 
manner, whether in bottles or casks, will not turn 
mouldy as when stopped in the usual way, but 
will be improved instead of being deteriorated. 

German Method of restoring Sour Wines. 

Put a small quantity of powdered charcoal in 
the wine, shake it. and after it has remained still 
for 48 hours decant steadily. 

To Concentrate Wine by Cold. 

If any kind of wine be exposed to a sufficient 
degree of cold in frosty weather, or be put into 
any place where ice continues all the year, as in 
ice-houses, and there suffered to freeze, the super- 
fluous water contained in the wine will be frozen 
into ice, and will leave the proper and truly essen- 
tial part of the wine unbroken, unless the degree 
of cold should be very intense, or the wine but 
weak and poor. When the frost is moderate, the 
experiment has no difficulty, because not above a 
third or a fourth part of the superfluous water will 
be frozen in a whole night; but if the cold be very 
intense, the best way is, at the end of a few hours, 
when a tolerable quantity of ice is formed, to pour 
out the remaining fluid liquor, and set it in another 
vessel to freeze again by itself. 

The frozen part, or ice, consists only of the 
watery p.art of the wine, and m.ay be thrown away, 
and the liquid part retains all the strength, and is 
to be preserved. This will never grow sour, 
musty, or mouldy, and may at any time be re- 
duced to wine of the common strength, by adding 
to it as much water as will make it up the former 
quantity. 

To Convert White Wine into Red. 

Put 4 oz. of turnsole rags into an earthen vessel, 
and pour upon them a pint of boiling water ; cover 
the vessel close, and leave it to cool ; strain off the 
liquor, which will be of a fine deep red, inclining 



DISTILLATION. 



277 



to purple. A small portion of this colors a large 
quantity of wine. This tincture niny either be 
maiie in br;iiidy, or mixed with it, or else made 
into a syrup, with sugar, for Iveeping. 

In tho.se countries whicli do not produce the 
tingeing grape which affords a blood-red juice, 
wherewith the wines of France are often stained, 
in detect of tliis the juice of elderberries is used, 
and sometimes logwood is used at Oporto. 

To Force down the Fiiiiiu/s of nil White Wines, 
Arracks, wid Small Spirits. 

Put a few qts. of skimmed milk into the cask. 
To render lied Wine White. 

If a few quarts of well-skimmed milk be put to 
a hogshead of red wine, it will soon precipitate 
the greater part of the color, and leave the whole 
nearly white; and this is of known use in 
turning red wines, when pricked, into white; in 
which a small degree of acidity is not so much 
perceived. 

Milk is, from this quality of discharging color 
from wines, of use also to the wine-coopers, for 
the whitening of wines that have acquired a brown 
color from the cask, or from having been hastily 
boiled before fermenting; for the addition of a 
little skitnmed milk, in these cases, precipitates 
the brown color, and leaves the wines almost 
limpid, or of what they call a water whiteness, 
which is much coveted abroad in wines as well as 
in brandies. 

To make Wine Settle Well. 

Take a pint of wheat and boil it in a quart of 
water till it bursts and becomes soft; then squeeze 
through a linen cloth, and put a pint of the liquor 
into a hogshead of unsettled white wine; stir it 
well about, and it will become fine. 

To make a Match for Sweetening Casks. 
Melt some brimstone, and dip into it a piece of 
coarse linen cloth; of which, when cold, take a 
piece of aliout 1 inch broad and 5 inches long, and 
set fire to it, putting it into the bung-hole, with 
one end fastened under the bung, which must be 
driven in very tight. Let it remain a few hours 
before removing it out. 

To make Oyster Powder. 
Gr€t some fresh oyster-shells, wash them, and 



scrape off the yellow part from the outside; lay 
them on a clear fire till they become red-hot; then 
lay them to cool, and take off the softest part, 
powder it, and sift it through a fine sieve; after 
which use it immediately, or keep it in bottles well 
corked up and laid in a dry place. 

To make a Filtering Bag. 
This bag is made of a yard of either linen or 
flannel, not too fine or close, and sloping, so as to 
have the bottom of it run to a point, and the top 
as broad as the cloth will allow. It must be well 
sewed up the side, and the upper part of it folded 
round a wooden hoop, and well fastened to it; 
then tie the hoop in three or four places with a 
cord to support it; and when used, put a can or 
pail under it to receive the liquor, filling the bag 
with the sediments; after it has ceased to run, 
wash out the bag in three or four clear waters, 
then hang it up to dry in an airy place, that it 
msiy not get musty. A wine-dealer should always 
have two bags by him, one for red and the other 
for white wines. 

To Detect Ahini in Wine. 

Wine merchants add alum to red wine to com- 
municate to it a rough taste and deeper color. For 
the discovery of the fraud in question adopt the 
following means:- — The wine is to be discolored 
by means of a concentrated solution of chlorine; 
the mixture is to be evaporated until reduced to 
nearly the fourth of its original volume; the 
liquor is to be filtered : it then possesses the fol- 
lowing properties when it contains alum : — 1st, it 
has a sweetish, astringent taste; 2d, it furnishes 
a white precipitate (sulphate of barj'ta) with ni- 
trate of baryta, insoluble in water and in nitric 
acid; 3d, caustic potnsh gives rise to a yellowish 
white precipitate of alumina, soluble in an excess 
of potash. 

To Detect Metal in Wine. 

Add a few drops of sulphydrate of ammonia. 
If a precipitate is formed the wine is impure. 
Lead is used by many wine merchants to give an 
astringency to port wine, that, like old port, it 
may appear rough to the tongue. Sometimes they 
hang a sheet of lead in the cask; at others they 
pour in a solution of acetate (sugar) of lead, for 
the purpose of sweetening, as they term it. 



DISTILL^TIOlSr. 



The object of distillation is the preparation of 
alcoh(d or pure spirits, which is obtjiined from 
brandy, rum, arrack and whiskey, prepared from 
wine, sugar, rice and malt. It also includes com- 
pound spirits, or those which, in addition to al- 
cohol, contain some volatile or pungent oil or es- 
sence, as gin, hoUands, caraway and peppermint; 
the essential oils, as oil of cinnamon, oil of cloves, 
oil of peppermint, and otto of roses, and the sim- 
ple distilled waters which retain the fragrant flavor 
of the particular herbs with which they have been 
distilled. 

To manage Distillation. 

Previous to distilling, the process of brewing 
and fermentation are necessary. The distiller, 
however, need not take the precautions of the 
brewer or wine-maker in moderating his fermenta- 
tions so as to secure the good flavor and keeping 
qualities of the product. His object is to get as 



thorough a fermentation, and therefore as much 
alcohol, as possible. Hence large quantities of 
yeast are used, which is not skimmed off, but 
worked into the wort. He also mixes a quantity 
of raw grain with his malt in the mash, the dias- 
tase of the malt sufficing to convert all the starch 
of the raw grain into sugar. The quantity of raw 
grain may be twenty times that of the malt. All 
the saccharine matter cannot be converted into al- 
cohol, the large quantity of alcohol formed towards 
the last of the process checking the fermentation. 
About one-fifth of all the saccharine matter re- 
mains in the grains. These are fed to cattle. 
Utensils. 
In a distillery are required a variety of utensils, 
such as still, worm-tub, pump, a water-cask, a 
strong press, hair-cloths, 3 or 4 iron-bnund tubs 
capable of containing from a hogshead to a pipe 
of any liquor, 3 or 4 cans capable of holding from 



278 



DISTILLATION. 



2 to 6 galls, by measure, an iron-bound wooden 
funnel having a strong iron nosel or pipe, a pew- 
ter syphon about 6 feet long and 4 inches in cir- 
cumferenee, flannel bags for refining the thick and 
feculent matter at the bottoms of the casks and 
other vessels. 

Operation of the Still. 

When the still is charged let the fire under it be 
lighted, and whilst it burns up the joints should 
be carefully luted. 

By laying the hand on the still and capital, as 
the fire gains strength, the process of the opera-, 
tion will be ascertained ; for whenever the head 
or capital feels hot, it is a proof that the volatile 
particles have arisen, and are about to enter the 
worm. When the still head is about to become 
hot, prepare a damp, made of the ashes under the 
grate, mixed with as much water as will properly 
wet them. This mixture is to be thrown upon the 
fire, to moderate its action, at the instant when 
distillation has commenced. Continue the heat 
as long as the distilled liquid is spirituous to the 
taste. When the distilled liquor carries with it any 
particular flavor, it should be re-distilled with es- 
sential oils, in order to convert it into a compound 
spirit, as gin, peppermint, and other cordials. 

When all the spirituous fluid is drawn off, the 
still should be emptied by a cock in the side. The 
head, etc., should then be removed, and the sev- 
eral lutes taken clean ofiF. The still may now be 
charged a second time, and luted. If the spirit 
or compound to be made is of a different nature 
or flavor from that procured by the last distilla- 
tion, the still, capital and worm should be thor- 
oughly cleaned by hot water, sand and a scrub- 
bing brush, to remove the oily particles that ad- 
here to their internal surfaces. The worm is best 
cleansed by passing hot water through it repeat- 
edly, until the water flows out quite flavorless. 

Great care should be taken that no grease, tal- 
low, soap, or any other unctuous matter, fall into 
the tubs, pieces, rundlets, or cans. Above all 
things, lighted candles, torches, or papers should 
not be brought near any vessel containing spirits. 
The flue or chimney should be kept constantly 
clean. 

To Use a Portable Furnace. 

In the laboratories of experimental chemists, 
portable furnaces are employed. Charcoal is the 
only fuel that can be used in them, except the oc- 
casional use of the finer kinds of stone coal that 
yield a bright flame, and burn to a white ash 
without forming clinkers. AVhen the fire is regu- 
lated by the admission of only the necessary 
quantity of air through the charcoal, and the 
whole heat of the fuel is directed upon the sub- 
ject exposed to it, the expense is not so great as 
might be supposed, for no other fuel gives out so 
much heat. One lb. of charcoal will boil away 13 
lbs. of water, whereas the same weight of New- 
castle coal will boil away only 8 or 9 lbs. A pound 
of coke will only boil away 4 lbs. of water, and a 
pound of peat seldom more than 5 lbs., or, by a 
skilful mode of using it, at the utmost 10 lbs. 
To Build Fixed Furnaceg. 

Fire bricks are generally used, as they may 
be cut as easily as chalk, and yet bear a violent 
teat without alteration: they must be set in clay 
Of the same kind. The parts distant from the fire 
may be of common bricks set in niortar, but this 
mortar must be carefully removed before the other 
pait is begun, as an accidental admixture of it 
With the clay would cause the latter to run into 
glass, and thus spoil the furnace. These furnaces 
are generally built as thin as possible, that they 
may take up the less room, and to save fuel in 



heating them, as they have seldom fire constantly 
in them ; in this case they should be surrounded 
with iron braces, to prevent the alternate contrac- 
tion and expansion destroying them as soon as 
they otherwise would. 

To iiial-e a Portable Sand-pot. 

For a portable one the ash pit may be an iron 
cylinder 17 inches in diameter and 8 deep, closed 
at bottom. In the front is cut a hole 3 inches high 
and 4 wide, with sliders to shut close. Three pins 
are riveted on the inside about an inch below the' 
upper edge; these are to support the fire-place. 
The bottom of this ash pit is lined with clay, beat 
up with charcoal dust and formed into a kind of 
saucer. The fire- place is a small cylinder of nearly 
the same width, so as to fit easily into the top of 
the ash-pit, and rest on the three pins ; its height 
is 15 inches, and it has a flat border at each end, 
leaving a circular opening of 10 inches in diame- 
ter. Around the lower border are riveted 3 screws, 
to which are fixed by nuts a f^rate. In the upper 
border, towards the circumference, and at equal 
distances from each other, are made 4 circular 
holes an inch over. The inside of the fire-])lace is 
lined with clay and charcoal, whose surface is ad- 
justed to a core, made by drawing on a board an 
ellipsis, having its foci 15 inches asunder, and its 
semiordinates at the foci 5 inches, sawing off' the 
board at each focus, and also down the greatest 
diameter, so that the internal cavit}' may represent 
an ellipsoid of those dimensions, cut off' at the foci. 
A fire hole about 6 inches wide and 4i high, with 
the lower limit about 3 inches above the grate, is 
left in the front to be closed with a lined stopper, 
both the fire-hole and stopper having a border to 
retain the lining. AVhen the lining is dry, 4 
openings are cut sloping through it, corresponding 
to the openings in the upper border, to serve as 
vents for the burnt air, and to regulate the fire by 
sliding pieces of tile more or less over them. In 
the central opening at the top of the fire- place is 
bung a cast-iron pot, either hemispherical, or, 
which is most usual, cylindrical, about 6 inches 
deep at the edge, with a rounded bottom, so that 
the axis is about an inch deeper. The common 
pots have only a reflected border, by which they 
hang, but the best kind have also an upright edge 
that rises an inch higher, to which a stone-ware 
head is fitted, and thus the pot serves for many 
distillations that require a strong fire. It is usual 
to cut a notch on one side of the top of the fire- 
place, sloping upwards to the edge of the pot, 
about 3 inches wide and 2 deep, to admit a low re- 
tort to be sunk deeper into the pot, by allowing a 
passage to its neck. 

To make a Sand-heat Furnace. 

A furnace of this kind may be stationary, and 
built of bricks that will stand the fire, and in this 
case the ash-pit is built about 12 inches high, and 
has an ash-door opening into it about 6 inches 
square; a grate is then laid, and a fire-door 6 
inches by 8 opens immediately into the fire-place, 
even with the grate. The fire-place is made cyl- 
indrical, 2 inches wider than the sand pot, and 
about 8 inches deeper, the grate being a square 
whose side is about two-thirds the intel-nal diam- 
eter of the sand-pot. This pot hangs by its bor- 
der in an iron ring placed at the top of the fur- 
nace; we have not yet adopted Teichmeyer's me- 
thod of slojiing the pot. As stone coal is gener- 
ally used in fixing furnaces, instead of the 4 re- 
gister holes used as vents in the portable furnaces, 
only one opening, about as wide as the grate and 
3 inches high, either in the back or on one siile, is 
made to vent the burned air into the chimney. 
This, however, has the inconvenience of heating 



DISTILLATION". 



279 



the pot unequally, the side next the vent becom- 
ing imiuli I he hottest, in spite of the endeavor to 
equalize the heat by bringinj; the fire from under 
the centre of the pot as forward as possible, by 
raising the wall opposite to the vent perpendicu- 
larly, and enlarging it only on the other three 
Bidesj siimeliuies with the same view several small 
vents are made round the pot, leading into the 
chimney. A notch for the neck irf the retort is 
generally made on one side. As much heat pas.<es 
through the vent, it is usual to cause the heated 
air to pass under a large cast-iron plate, placed 
on a border of bricks surrounding a platform of 
the same materials, and leaving a cavit}' of about 
2i inches deep, at the farther end of which an- 
other opening leads into the chimney. On this 
iron plate sand is laid to form a sand heat, and 
thus several operations are carried on at the same 
time. If that in the sand-pot is finished, and it 
is desired to keep on those in the sand heat with- 
out interruption, the vessel may be drawn out of 
the sand, some warm sand thrown on that remain- 
ing in the pot, ami a fresh vessel with materials 
introduced. But if this new operation should re- 
quire the heat to be more gradually exhibited, a 
pot of thin plate-iron, filled with cold sand, con- 
taining the vessel, may be partly slid into the 
heated sand-pot, and, IJeing supported by pieces 
of brick placed under the edge or otherwise, kept 
there until it be necessiry to increase the heat, 
wiien it may be slid down lower until at length it 
is permitted to reach the bottom of the sand-pot. 

To mnke a Hot Still. ' 

Portable hot stills should have an ash-pit and 
fire-place exactly similar in dimensions to those 
used with the sand-pot, or the same furnace may 
be used with a hot still, if economy and not con- 
venience is the principal object. The copper or 
tin-plate cucurbite will, of course, be 10 inches 
wide and about 12 deep, and hang 7 inches within 
the fire-place. The mouth should be wide, that 
the water-bath to be occasionally hung within it 
BO as to reach within 3 inches of the bottom, may 
be the larger. Between this wide neck and the 
circumference there should be a short pipe, through 
■which the liquor left after distillation may be 
drawn off by a crane without unluting the vessels; 
fresh liquor added; or, in distilling with the wa- 
ter-bath, the steam may escape. This pipe has a 
ring round it, that the cork with which it is stop- 
ped may be firmly tied down, and like the other 
joinings be luted, for which purpose slips of pa- 
per smeared with flour and water, or common 
paste, are usually esteemed sufficient ; but the best 
material is bladders rotted in water until they 
smell extremely oflFensive and adhere to the fin- 
gers when touched, and then worked between the 
hands into rolls, which are to be applied to the 
joinings. These small stills have usually a Moor's 
head that fits both the cucurbite and the water- 
bath, their necks being of equal diameter, and is 
furnished with a groove round the lower part on 
the inside to direct the condensed va,por to the 
nose of the alembic, and this head is surrounded 
by a refrigerator containing cold water, which 
is not so cumbersome as and less expensive than 
a worm and tub. But the most advantageous way 
of eooling the vapors is to use a Moor's head 
without a surrounding refrigerator, or only a plain 
bent tube, which should be at least 18 inches 
long, that the small globules of the boiling liquor 
which are thrown up near a foot high should not 
pass over and render the distilled liquor unfit for 
keeping. To this is to be adapted a pewter pipe 
about 8 feet long, if spirits of wine is to be dis- 
tilled, or shorter for watery liquors, and in both 



cases } of an inch in diameter on the inside, in- 
closed in a tinned plate tube with a funnel. With 
an adopter of this kind, and the consumption of 
H pints of water in a minute, or about 9 galls, in 
an hour, spirits of wine may be distilled at the 
rate of a gallon by the hour from one of these 
portable stills. Another convenience of these 
straight pipes is, that they may be cleansed in 
the same manner as a fowling piece. 

To mnke a Large Still. 
If this furnace is fi.xed, and made of bricks, it 
may be constructed with a sand heat, like that 
annexed to the sand-pot; but this is seldom prac- 
ti>ed, although it would be advantageous for 
digestions and evaporations with a gentle heat, 
because the fire is generally kept up at an even 
height. If the cucurbite is not wanted for distill- 
ing, it may be used iis a boiler to keep water ready 
heated for use, and to be drawn off when wanted 
by a syphon or crane. But these fixed stills are 
usually furnished with a pipe and cock on a level 
with the bottom, by which they can be emptied, 
and have almost always a worm and tub to cool 
the vapors. The head is usually of that kind 
which is called a swan's neck. 

Astier's Improved Still. 

It has been proved that as soon as a common 
still is in operation, the steam from the capital in 
the first turn of the worm is at a temperature of 
about 212° Fahr. Here water only condenses, and 
the alcohol in vapor passes into the second turn, 
where it condenses by the lowered temperature. 
If the condensed liquid is drawn off from the 
upper turn, it is mere phlegm, or water, while that 
from the second turn is alcohol or spirit. The 
mode of doing this is very simple, and can be ap- 
plied to any old still ; so that every advantage re- 
sulting from the most complicated and expensive 
stills can be obtained ; that is to say, plain brandy, 
Dutch-proof, and even thirty-five and thirty-sixth 
proof. The alterations are effected as follows: 
Each turn of the worm is to be furnished with a 
very slender lateral pipe, ending in a faucet and 
tap. A crescent-shaped valve, placed just before 
the opening of the pipe into the worm, obliges the 
condensed liquid to trickle into the pipe, and a 
slight elbow above and below the pipe prevents 
any of the steam from running in the same direc- 
tion. Each of these pipes follows the main worm 
in all its convolutions, comes out of the condenser 
at the same opening, and is led thence to its own 
receiver. The pipe of the first turn has also a 
second branch with a faucet, which lets out the 
phlegm (which is worthless) as fast as it is con- 
densed. A prover indicates the moment when the 
feints should be separated, as simple brandy or 
proof-spirit is wanted. These feints are either de- 
tained in the boiler, or set aside for rectification, 
in all cases necessary, for the last spirit that comes 
over, without which it is worthless. 

Besides producing more spirit, and saving three- 
fourths out of the feints, the worm prepared as 
above shortens the term of distillation by one- 
half, and consequently reduces the expense of 
fuel. In addition to this, and what is of more 
consequence, a sour wine may be distilled as well 
as any other, and without the least taint being 
perceptible in the brandy. The spirit is, of course, 
less in quantity, but whatever is obtained is good, 
and all the acid separates and flows out by the 
first _pipe, which gives an opportunity of profiting 
by the acetous portion. 

Column or Continuotts Distillation. 

A copper boiler is set in masonry, with a fire 
beneath : the mouth of the boiler is fitted with a 



280 



DISTILLATION. 



tall copper cylinder, standing perpendicularly 
over the boiler and fitting closely. About half 
way up the height of this cylinder, and in its axis, 
a slender tube enters it and discharges a continual 
but small stream of the wine or wash to be dis- 
tilled. The wine is prevented from falling down 
directly into the boiler beneath by means of a 
number of diaphragms, through which the wine 
percolates in streams like rain, whereby it pre- 
sents a large extent of surface to the vapor which 
passes it in a different direction. In some cases 
the ascending viipors have to force their way at 
each diaphragm through a thin stratum of liquid, 
and they thus undergo a certain amount of pres- 
sure. The wine, when it enters the cylinder, is al- 
most boiling, and, while it falls in small showers 
through the pierced shelves, a copious issue of 
watery vapor ascends from the boiling copper 
below. The watery vapor, at the temperature of 
boiling, comes in contact with the wine almost 
boiling: the latter, therefore, receives heat from 
the former, and by so doing there is a change of 
state ; the watery vapor, losing heat, falls back as 
water; and the wine, acquiring heat, boils, and 
its alcohol, in a state of vapor, rises higher up in 
the cylinder, where, meeting with wine, it is ab- 
sorbed, and a wine richer in alcohol is produced. 
This more alcoholic wine readily parts with its 
alcohol, in the form of vapor, by the action of heat 
continually carried up the cylinder. This vapor 
of alcohol, ascending higher, meets with more 
wine, is absorbed, and again set free in larger 
quantity. At length the portions of wine high up 
in the cylinder become highly charged with alco- 
hol, and the alcoholic vapors, meeting with no 
more wine, pass on to a worm, where they are con- 
densed into very strong spirit. The worm-tub is 
filled with wine, which in cooling the worm be- 
comes heated itself, and this heated wine flows 
through the slender tube into the cylinder, where 
it is distilled as already explained. As this worm 
is never perfectly cold, the alcoholic vapor which 
escapes condensation is passed through a second 
worm, also surrounded by wine, which condenses 
it completely. 

Should the watery vapor which ascends from the 
boiler into the cylinder, and becoming condensed, 
falls back into the boiler, carry any alcohol with 
it, the latter is again volatilized; so that the boiler 
contains nothing but water, derived from the wine ; 
for, although the boiler had been filled with wine, 
it soon becomes water by parting with its alcohol. 
As fast as the boiler fills with water, it is emptied 
by a cock placed in the bottom. Two boilers are 
more efficient than one; and when arranged so 
that a tube proceeding from the hea<l of one 
plunges to the bottom of the other, they act like 
two of the eggs in Adams's still. 

The discharge of wine from the great reservoir 
is regulated by a ball-cock, and there is a con- 
stant supply of cold wine, first, to the two worms, 
for the purpose of cooling them (by which method 
of heating the wine fuel is economized) ; secondly, 
to the distillatory column. Having parted with 
its alcohol, the watery portion falls into the boilers, 
whence it is let off entirely deprived of alcohol. 
The flow of wine being thus perpetual, no time is 
lost by an interval of discharging and charging. 
It must also be noticed, that when the alcoholic 
vapors enter the first worm they are condensed;' 
but as the weakest or most watery alcohol con- 
denses in the first rounds of the worm, it is so 
eontrived that this watery portion shall run back 
by small tubes into the cylinder, where it is re- 
distilled. The worm at all its rounils is provided 
with cocks and tubes, by which the portions con- 
densed in any part may be let back to be redis- 



tilled; or they may be all shut, or some may b« 
left open, so as to return the whole or any part 
into the cylinder. In this way, by means of these 
cocks, alcohol of any required degree of conden- 
sation, within certain limits, can be obtained. 

To Extivguish Fires in Dintllleries. 

A woollen blanket or rug, hung over a roller iu 
a water-butt, is the readiest and best extinguisher. 
7'o Dulcify Spirits. 

In dulcifying, or sweetening the spirits, weigh 
the sugar, and dissolve it in one or more cans of 
the water with which the compound is to be made 
up : bruise the sugar, and stir it well till all is 
dissolved. Then empty it into the cask containing 
the spirits, mixing all together by drawing ofif 
several cans by the cock, and emptying them into 
the casks by the. bung-holes. Now rummage all 
well together till they are perfectly compounded. 

Spirits or compounds that are strong require no 
assistance in setting and becoming clear; but 
those that are weak must be refined by the addi- 
tion of some other substance. To every hogshead 
of Geneva, or other spirituous compound, put 6 
oz. of powdered alum, previously dissolved in 3 
or 4 galls, of the compound : stir all well together. 
In the course of 24 hours the whole will be ren- 
dered completely clear. 

It is a good practice to leave the bung-holes of 
casks (containing spirits or compounds newly 
made) open for several days. This improves 
their flavor, and renders them clear sooner than 
they would otherwise be. 

Table-salt thrown into the still, in the propor- 
tion of 6 oz. to 10 galls, of any liquid to be dis- 
tilled, will greatly improve the flavor, taste, and 
strength of the spirit. The viscid matter will be 
fixed by the salt, whilst the volatile matter ascends 
in a state of great purity. 

The flavor of malt .spirits is highly improved by 
putting 3i oz. of finely-powdered charcoal, and 
4^ oz. of ground rice into a quart of spirits, and 
letting it stand during 15 days, frequently stirring 
it; then let the liquor be strained, and it will be 
found of nearly the same flavor as brandy. 
To make Charcoal. 

This is usually manufactured from coppice wood, 
cut every 16 years; the fagots are made into a 
large conical pile, covered up with clods of earth, 
leaving circular rows of holes from top to bottom. 
The wood is then kindled, and as it becomes red 
the holes are regularly closed to stop the further 
coraljustion, and when the whole has been closed 
up, the pile is left to cool ; when the black skeleton 
of the wood is left, which difi'ers from the raw 
wood in burning without any smoke, and with 
little or no flame, yielding at the same time no 
soot, although some of the finer particles of the 
ashes are volatilized and adhere to the chimney. 
The air which jiasses through the burning char- 
coal has its oxygen converted into carbonic acid 
gas. 

The air being thus rendered unfit for respira- 
tion, kills whatever animals or plants are confined 
in it. Numerous accidents have happened of per- 
sons being suffocated by sleeping in close rooms 
with a charcoal fire. 

The charcoal for medical purposes should, like 
that for gunpowder, be made of soft woods, as 
willow, heated in iron retorts until no volatile 
matter is given out. Small quantities may be 
made by burying wood under siind in a covered 
crucible, and exposing the whole to fire. 
To make Spirit of Wine. 

Spirit of wine, as it is called, was fcrmerly, and 
is still, iu southern countries, obtained by distill- 



DISTILLATION. 



281 



\ng wire for its yield of brnndy, and then slowly 
abstracting the more volatile part of the brandy, 
by a small fire and the use of tall vessels. In 
England, spirit of wine is, in general, obtained 
from ground meal, either of wheat, rye or barley, 
with from one-tenth to one-third of the same, or 
another grain, malted and ground, and then called 
malt S|)irit; or from treacle, and then called mo- 
lasses spirit; some is also made from apples or 
cider-wjsh. In the United States, Indian corn is 
largely employed. The fermentation is curried 
on quicker and farther than in brewing or making 
cider, in order that all the sugar in the wash may 
be converted into spirit and water. The infusion 
of the malt and meal is made so strong that its 
specific gravity is from 1.083 to 1.14 (whereas that 
for strong ale is generally 1.06, and for smnll beer 
1.015 to 1.04), and is mi.xed with a large quantity 
of yeast, added by successive portions, until, in 
about 10 days, the specific gravity is reduced to 
1.002, when it is fit for the still. In general, a 
third part is drawn off at the first stilling, under 
the name of low wines, the specific gravity being 
about 0.975. On re-distilling the low wines, a 
fiery spirit, of a milky cast, comes over first, and 
is returned into the still; then follows the clean 
spirit; when it begins to grow too watery, the re- 
maining spirit that comes over, as long as it will 
take fire, is kept apart, under the name of feints, 
and mixed with the next parcel of low wines. 
Instead of these trials the head of the still may 
have the bulb of a thermometer inserted into it, 
and by observing the temperature of the steam, 
an accurate judgment may be formed of the 
strength of the spirit that distills over. It is 
computed that 100 galls, of malt or corn wash will 
produce about 20 of spirit, containing about half 
its weight of water; molasses wash, 22 galls.; 
cider wash, 16 galls. The best French wines yield 
from 20 to 25 galls. The spirit thus obtained is 
for chemical a^d pharmaceutical purposes mixed 
with water, to separate the oil it contains, and re- 
distilled several times in tall vessels, with a very 
gentle heat, until its specific gravity is reduced to 
0.82 ; though that usually sold is only 0.837, at 
60° Fahrenheit. By distilling spirit of wine with 
purified pearl ashes, salt of tartar, chloride of 
calcium, lime, or common salt, all previously 
heated to redness and cooled, its specific gravity 
may be reduced still lower, even as low as 0.792, 
at 68° Fahrenheit. 

To make Ether. 
The old chemists, after mixing spirit of wine 
with an equal weight of oil of vitriol, digested it 
for a long time, and then distilled the most vola- 
tile part, which was called the sweet oil of vitriol. 
At present the mixture, whose temperature is con- 
siderably increased, is placed in a he:ited sand- 
bath and distilled, without being sufi'ered to cool 
until one-half the quantity of the spirit is come 
over; meanwhile, an infiiimmable gas also passes 
over. If the distillation is continued, sulphurous 
acid passes over, and a light yellow sweet oil of 
wine; the black residuary sulphuric acid contains 
chai-coal diffused through it, which may be sepa- 
rated by admixture with water and filtration. If 
fresh alcohol is poured on the residuum, more 
ether may be obtained by distillation. The un- 
reetified ether, as the first product is called, con- 
tains both water and alcohol : dry salt of tartar 
separates the first, and then pouring o9' the upper 
liquid, and adding dry chloride of calcium in 
powder, this salt unites with the alcohol, and the 
ether swims on the solution. 

^he Continuous Ether Process. 
- This process is now generally followed. A 



vessel of alcohol is provided with a tube furnished 
with a stopcock, which tube dips to the bottom of 
a second vessel which contiiins sulphuric acid, and 
is provided with a thermometer. From the top 
of the second vessel a tube passes through a worm 
or condenser to the receiver. The alcohol is 
allowed to mix with the sulphuric acid until the 
boiling point of the mixture is 300° Fahr. : more al- 
cohol will lower it, less raise it. The mixture is now 
kept boiling at 300°, fresh alcohol being steadily 
supplied. Ether and water distill, ever forming 
two layers, the ether on top. The sulphuric acid 
is unchanged, and the same quantity will convert 
an indefinite amount of alcohol into ether. If the 
alcohol contains oils, however, they will be charred 
and render the acid black. 

To Purify Ether. 
Agitate it well in a closed vessel with double its 
bulk of water to remove any alcohol. Decant the 
ether from the water on which it floats. Add 
quicklime to remove any water that may be left, 
and after it has slaked distill. The first third 
will be pure ether. 

To Imitate Foreign Spirits. 

A great desideratum among distillers, in this 
country, is to imitate foreign spirits, such as 
brandy, rum, Geneva, etc., to a tolerable degree 
of perfection; but, notwithstanding the many 
attempts that are daily made for this purpose, the 
success, in general, has been indifferent. The 
general method of distilling brandies in France 
difl'ers in nothing from that practised here, with 
malt-wash or molasses; nor are the French dis- 
tillers in the least more cleanly in their operations. 
Still, though brandy is distilled from wine, expe- 
rience tells us that there is a great difference in 
the grapes from which the wine is made. Every 
soil, every climate, every kind of grape, varies 
with regard to the quantity and quality of the 
spirit distilled from them. A large quantity of 
brandy is distilled in France during the time of 
the vintage; for the poor grapes that prove unfit 
for wine, are usually first gathered, pressed, their 
juice fermented, and instantly distilled. It is a 
general rule with them, not to distill wine that 
will fetch any price as wine; for, in this state, the 
profits obtained are much greater than when the 
wine is reduced to brandies. 

For a long time, this liquor was distilled only 
from spoiled wine, and afterwards from the dregs 
of beer and wine; and when, instead of these, the 
distillers employed rye, wheat and barley, it was 
considered as a wicked and unpardonable misuse 
of grain. 

To Imi)rove British Brandy. 

Take 30 galls, of fine English brandy, 3 oz. of 
tincture Japoniea, and 9 oz. of sweet spirit of 
nitre. Incorporate these with some of the spirit, 
and then put it into the rest of the liquor, and 
stir it well about. This will make 30 galls, of 
brandy, and if it be a good clean spirit, it will 
much resemble French brandy. 

To prepare Tincture Japoniea. 

Take of the best English saffron, mace bruised, 
of each 1 oz. ; infuse them in a pint of brandy 
till the whole tincture of the saffron is extracted, 
which will be in 7 or 8 days ; then strain it through 
a linen cloth, and to the strained tincture add 2 
oz. of terra Japoniea powdered fine; let it infuse 
till the tincture is wholly impregnated. 
To make Jamaica Bum. 

This is obtained from the refuse of the raw 
sugar manufactories, by taking equal quantities 
of the skimmings of the sugar pans, of lees or re- 
turns as they are commonly called, and of water; 



282 



DISTILLATION. 



and to 100 galls, of ihis wash are added 10 galls, 
of molasses. This nffirds tmrn 10 to 17 galls, of 
proof ruin, and twice as much low wines; it is 
sometimes rectified to a strength apjiroaching to 
spirit of wine, and is then called double distilled 
rum. 

To Ohtnin Rum from Molasses. 
Mix 2 or 3 galls, of wnter with 1 giill. of mo- 
lasses, and to every 200 galls, of this nii.xture add 
a gallon of yeast. Once or twice a day the head 
as it rises is stirred in, nnd in 3 or 4 days 2 galls, 
more of water is added to each gallon of molasses 
originally used, and the same quiintity of yeast as 
at first. Four, 6 or 6 days after this, a portion of 
yeast is added as before, and about J oz. of jalap 
root powdered (or in winter IJ oz.), on which the 
fermentation proceeds with great violence, and in 
3 or 4 days the wash is fit for the still; 100 galls. 
of this wash is computed to yield 22 galls, of spirit 
from 1 to 10 over-jiroof. If the molasses spirit, 
brought to the common proof strength, is found 
not to have sufficient vinosity, it will be proper to 
add some sweet spirits of nitre; and if the spirit 
has been properly distilled by a gentle heat, it 
may, by this addition only, be made to pass with 
ordinary judges as French brandy. Great quan- 
tities of this s|)irit are used in adulterating foreign 
brandy, rum, and arrack. Much of it is also used 
alone in making cherry brandy and other cordials 
by infusion ; in all whiih many prefer it to foreign 
brandies. Molasses, like all other spirits, is en- 
tirely colorless when first extracted; but distillers 
give it, as nearly as possible, the color of foreign 
spirits. 

To Prepare Gin as in Holland. 

The grist is composed of 10 qrs. of malt, ground 
considerably finer than malt distillers' barley grist, 
and 3 qrs. of rye-meal; or, more frequently, of 10 
qrs. of rye and 3 qrs. of malt-meal. The 10 qrs. 
are first mashed with the least quantity of cold 
water it is possible to blend it with, and when 
uniformily incorporated, as much boiling water is 
added as forms it into a thin batter ; it is then put 
into 1, 2, or more casks, or gyle-tuns, with a much 
less quantity of yeast than is usually employed by 
our distillers. Generally, on the third day, the 
Dutch distillers add the malt or rye-meal, pre- 
pared in a similar manner, but not before it comes 
to the temperature of the fermenting wash; at the 
same time adding as much yeast as at first. 

The principal secret is the management of the 
mashing part of the business, in first thoroughly 
mi.xing the malt with the cold water, and in sub- 
sequently adding the due proportion of boiling 
water, that it may still remain sufficiently diluted 
after the addition of the fine meal; also in well 
rousing all together in the back, that the wash 
may be diluted enough for distilling without en- 
dangering its burning to the bottom. 

liectijication into Holland Gin. 

To every 20 galls, of spirit of the second extrac- 
tion, about the strength of proof, take of juniper- 
berries, 3 lbs. ; oil of juniper, 2 oz. ; and distil with 
a slow fire until the feints begin to rise, then change 
the receiving can; this produces the best Rotter- 
dam gin. 

An inferior kind is made with a still less pro- 
portion of berries, sweet fennel seed, and Stras- 
burg turpentine, with a drop of oil of juniper; 
and a better sort, but inferior to the Rotterdam, 
is made at Weesoppe. The distiller's wash at 
Schiedam 6nd Rotterdam is lighter than at Wee- 
soppe. Strasburg turpentine is of a yellowish- 
brown color, a very fragrant agreeable smell, yet 
the least acrid of the turpentine. The juniper- 
berries are so cheap in Holland, that they must 



have other reasons than mere cheapness for being 
so much more sparing of their consumption than 
our distillers. 

To maJre Malt Spirit. 

Mix 60 quarters of barley grist, ground low, and 
20 quarters of coarse ground pale malt, with 250 
barrels of water, at about 170°. Take out 30 bar- 
rels of the wort, and add to this 10 stone of fresh 
porter yeast, and when the remaining wort is 
cooled down to 55°, add 10 quarters more malt, 
previously mixed with 30 barrels of warm water; 
stir the whole well together, and put it to ferment 
along with the reserved yeasted wort ; this wash 
will be found to weigh, by the saccharometer, 
from 28 to 32 lbs. per barrel, more than water. 
In the course of 12 or 14 days, the yeast head will 
fall quite flat, and the wa>h will have a vinous 
smell and taste, and not weigh more than from 2 
to 4 lbs. per barrel more than water. Some now 
put 20 lbs. of common salt, and 30 lbs. of flour, 
and in 3 or 4 days put it into the still, previously 
stirring it well together. Every 6 galls, of this 
wash will produce 1 gall, of spirit, at from 1 to 10 
over-proof; or 18 galls, of spirit from each quar- 
ter of grain, 

English Geneva. 

The best English Geneva is made as follows: 
Take of juniper-berries, 3 lbs.; proof spirit, 10 
galls. ; water, 4 galls. Draw oif by a gentle fire, 
till the feint begins to rise, and make up the goods 
to the required strength with clear water. 
To Distill Spirits from Carrots. 

Take 1 ton and 8 stone of carrots, which, after 
being exposed a few days to dry, will weigh about 
160 stone. The whole oeing cut, put one-third of 
the quantity into a copper, with 24 galls, of water, 
and after covering them up close, reduce the wliolo 
into a pulp. The other two-thirds are to he treated 
in the sauie manner, and as the pulp is taken from 
the copper, it is carried to the press, where the 
juice is extracted with great facility. The liquor 
obtained will amount to 200 galls., and will be of 
a rich sweet taste, resembling wort. It is then 
put into the copper with 1 lb. of hops, and suffered 
to boil about 5 hours, when it is put into the 
cooler, to remain till the heat comes down to 66°. 
From the cooler it is discharged from the vat, 
where 6 qts. of yeast are put to it, in the usual 
manner. Let it work 48 hours, or to 58°, when 
the yeast begins to fall. Then heat 12 galls, of 
unfermented juice, and put it to the liquor, and 
the heat will he raised to 60°. Work afresh for 
24 hours longer, the liquor gradujilly lowering, as 
before from 66° to 58°. Tun the whole into half- 
hogsheads, to work from the bung. After stand- 
ing 3 days in the cask, 60 galls, may be drawn 
oif, which is rectified the next day without any 
additional substance. Twelve galls, of spirit will 
be obtained. 

To maJee Arrack. 

Arrack is no other than a spirit produced by 
distillation from a vegetable juice called toddy, 
which flows out of the cocoanut tree. The oi)era- 
t<ir provides himself with a parcel of earthen pots, 
climbs up the trunk of a cocoa-tree; nnd when he 
comes to the boughs, he cuts off one of the small 
knot or buttons, and ajiplies the mouth of a bottle 
to the wound, fastening it to the bough with a 
bandage; in the same manner he cuts ott' others, 
and proceeds till the whole number is employed; 
this done, he leaves them until the next morning, 
when he takes off the bottles, which are mostly 
filled, and empties the juice into the proper recep- 
tacle. When a suflRcient quantity is produced, the 
whole put together, is left to ferment. "When the 
fern entation is over, and the liquor is a little tart. 



DISTILLATION". 



283 



it is put into the still, and fire being made, the 
Btill is suflered to work as long iis that which 
couies off has any considcriihle tn.^tc of spirit. The 
liquor thus procured is the low wine of nrrack ; and 
is distilled again to separate smue of its wjitery 
parts, and rectify it to that very weak kind of 
proof spirit in which state we find it. 

Tungusian arrack is a spirituous liquor made by 
the Tartars of Tungusia, of mare's milk, left to 
sour, and afterwards distilled twice or thrice be- 
tween two earthen pots closely stopped, whence 
the liquor runs through a small wooden pipe. 

To Fine Spirits, 
Mix a small quantity of wheat flour in water as 
if for making i)aste, and pour the «auie into the 
vessel. The whole is then to lie well roused, and 
in a short time the contents will become bright. 

To E.i-tnict Alcohol from Potatoes. 

Take 100 lbs. of potatoes well washed, dress 
them by steam, and let them be bruised to pow- 
der with a roller, etc. In the itieantime take 4 
lbs. of ground malt, steep it in lukewarm water, 
and then pour into the fermenting back, and pour 
on it 12 qts. of boiling water; this water is stirred 
about, and the bruised potatoes thrown in, and 
well stirred about with wooden rakes, till every 
part of the potatoes is well saturated with the 
liquor. 

Immediately 6 or 8 oz. of yeast is to be mixed 
with 28 galls, of water of a proper warmth to 
make the whole mass of the temperature of from 
69° to 66° ; there is to be added ^ a pt. to 1 pt. 
of good brandy. 

The feru)cnting back must be placed in a room, 
to be kefit by means of a stove at a temperature 
from 66° to 72°. The mixture must be left to re- 
main at rest. 

The back must be large enough to suffer the 
mass to rise 7 or 8 inches without running over. 
If, notwithstanding this precaution, it does so, 
Bnme must be taken out. and returned when it 
falls a little; the back is then covered again, and 
the fermentation is suffered to finish without 
touching it — which takes yilace generally in 5 or 
6 days. This is known by its being perceived that 
the liquor is quite clear, and the potatoes fallen to 
the bottom of the back. The fluid is decanted, 
and the potatoe:! pressed dry. 

When the fermentation has been favorable, from 
every 100 lbs. of potatoes. 6 qts. and upwards of 
brandy, of 20° of the areometer are obtained. It 
contains much fusel oil, and is colored and sold as 
Marc hrandy. 

One thousand lbs. of potatoes at twice, gives 60 
to 70 qts. of brandy. The residue of the distilla- 
tion is used as food for stock. 

Alcohol from Wood. 
The wood is reduced to coarse saw-dust; in this 
state it is dried up to a temperature of 212°, so as 
to drive off the water which it contains, often 
amounting to one-half of its weight. The wood 
is then suffered to cool, and concentrated sulphu- 
ric acid is poured over it with great care, and very 
small quantities at a time, so as to prevent the 
materials from heating. The acid is mi.xed with 
the wood as it is poured, then for 12 hours the 
mixture is let alone; after that it is rubbed up 
with great care, until the mass, which is at first 
d-i, becomes sufficiently liquid to run. This 
li(iuid, diluted with water, is brought to the boil- 
ing point: the acid is saturated with lime, «1nd 
the liquid, alter filtration, is fermented, and the 
alcohol distilled in the ordinary way. In this ex- 
periment, the sulphuric acid must bo at least 110 
per cent, of the weight of the dry wood. 



Kirsch Wasier. 

Spirits of cherry. Ripe cherries are crushed by 
hand in an inclined wooden trough ; the juice is 
collected, the .stones added, the liquid left to fer- 
ment, anil is then distilled. It is not necessary to 
crack the stones. 

Apple Brandy 
Is distilled from cider. Generally the apples are 
crushed and allowed to ferment thoroughly, which 
takes from 6 to 10 days, and distilled. A better 
plan is to collect only the juice and ferment it. 
The former gives a larger yield, but the quality is 
not so good. 

Peach Brandy. 

The peaches are mashed with pestles in a trough, 
the juice jiressed out, collected, fermented, and 
distilled. The jiomace still contains considerable 
juice, it is therefore covered with water, and after 
fermentation, distilled. 

Raisin Spirit, 
Much used to give a vinous flavor to inferior 
spirits, is made by infusing the raisins in water, 
fermenting, and distilling with a quick fire. The 
quick fire is necessary in order to g«t all the 
flavor from the raisins. 

Proof Spirit. 
Contains half its weight of alcohol. Its specific 
gravity at 60° is .920. The strength, however, 
varies in different localities, and the idea is at best 
clumsy and antiquated. 

To make Brandt/ from Beet- Root. 
For the preparation of brandy, the water used 
in the first boiling of the roots, is boiled again, and 
poured out on the residuum from the first expres- 
sion of the pounded roots; this must stand for a 
day or two, after which it is expressed, iind the 
remaining dry pulp serves as a good food for cattle. 
The juice obtained in this way is mixed with the 
waste parts of the syrup and the mucilage which 
remains after the exjiression of the saccharine 
crystals, and all boiled together till half of it is 
evaporated. The liquor is then poured into a 
coop exposed to a temperature of 45°, and cooled 
to 65°. Having added a proportionate quantity 
of yeast, it is left to ferment, and in .3 or 4 days 
after the distillation may be undertaken. 

To Obtain Sugar from Beet-Root. 
The beet-roots best calculated for the extraction 
of sugar, are those which have a soft flesh, whitish 
towards the edges and notgrowing above ground. 
After being cleaned, they are boiled, cut into pieces 
and pounded in a wooden trough with wooden 
stampers, and afterwards pressed. The juice thus 
obtained is immediately put into a polished copper 
kettle and simmered, during which time the scum 
must continually be taken off. To 100 quarts of 
this juice add 2 oz. or less of slackened lime, 
diluted so as to have the appearance of milk, and 
continue the boiling till the juice is thickened to 
the half of it. Having strained it through a 
woollen cloth, thicken it to the consistency of a 
syrup, which afterwards is put into glass, stone, or 
wooden vessels. These being placed near a mo- 
derate fire, saccharine crystals appear, which being 
freed by expression from the mucilaginous juice, a 
very good raw sugar is obtained. 

Fusel Oil 
Is found in new whiskey, more especially from 
rye, corn, and potatoes. It is a nearly colorless 
liquid, of a powerful odor of new whiskey, causing 
irritation of the nostrils and fauces. It boils at 296° 
Fahr., and has a density of 0.818. In its solvent 
forms and chemical relation it resembles alcohol. 



284 



riSTILLATION. 



Swallowed, it acts a^ an instant poison. When 
liquors containing it are long kept, it changes in- 
to ethers, and becomes innoxious. There are 
probably several bodies compounded together 
under the general name of fusel oil. It may be 
detected by adding to the suspected liquor in a 
glass some fused chloride of calcium. The oil, if 
present, will be liberated, and may be recognized 
by its smell. 

To Remove Fusel Oil. ■ 
It may be separated by careful distillation, 
especially if some soft wood charcoal be introduced 
into the still. 2d. By filtering the whiskey through 
b:ne-black ; this is termed by the dealers "recti- 
fying," which is incorrect. 3d. Oils are added to 
the whiskey and the whole shaken up, the oil 
unites with the fusel oil and rises to the surface, 
and may be skimmed off. 



LIQUEURS. 

To make Ratajia d' Angelique. 

Take of angelica seeds, 1 dr. ; stalks of angelica, 

bitter almonds, blanched, each 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 

12 pts. ; white sugar, 2 lbs. Digest, strain, and 

filter. 

Anisette de Bonrdeaux. 
Take of sugar, 9 oz. ; oil of aniseed, 6 drops. 
Rub them together, and add by degrees, spirit of 
wine, 2 pts. ; water, 4 pts. Filter. 

To make Real Creme des Barhades. 
Take 2 doz. middling-sized lemons; 6 large 
citrons; loaf sugar, 28 lbs,; fresh balm leaves, ^ 
lb. ; spirit of wine, 2i galls. ; water, .3i galls. This 
will produce about 7 galls., full measure. Cut the 
lemons and citrons in *hin slices, and put them 
into a cask ; pour upon them the spirit of wine, 
bung down close, and let it stand 10 days or a 
fortnight, then break the sugar, and boil it for i 
an hour in the 3i galls, of water, skimming it fre- 
quently ; then chop the balm-leaves, put them 
into a large pan, and pour upon theui the boiling 
liquor, and let it stand till quite cold; then strain 
it through a lawn sieve, and put it to the spirits, 
etc., in the cask ; bung down close, and in a fort- 
night draw it off; strain it through a jelly bag, and 
let it remain to fine; then bottle it. 

Eaxi, de Barhades, 
Take of fresh orange-peel, 1 oz. ; fresh lemon- 
peel, 4 oz. ; cloves, \ dr. ; coriander, 1 dr.; proof 
spirit, 4 pts. Distill in a bath heat and add white 
sugar in powder. 

To make Ratajia de Cafe, 
Take of roasted coffee, ground, 1 lb. ; proof 
spirit, 1 gall.; sugar, 20 oz. Digest for a week. 

Ratajia de Cassis. 
Take of ripe black currants, 6 lbs. ; cloves, ^ 
dr. ; cinnamon, 1 dr. ; proof spirit, 18 pts. ; sugar, 
Zi lbs. Digest for a fortnight. 

Ratajia des Cerises. 
Take of morello cherries, with their kernels, 
bruised, 8 lbs. ; proof spirit, 8 pts. Digest for a 
month, strain with expression, and then add IJ 
lbs. of sugar. 

Ratajia de Chocolat. 
Take of Caracoa cocoanuts, roasted, 1 lb. ; West 
India cocoanuts, roasted, i lb. ; proof spirit, 1 
gall. Digest for a fortnight, strain, and then add 
sugar, li lbs. ; tincture of vanilla, 30 drops. 
Eau Divine. 
Take of spirit of wine, 1 gall. ; essence of lemons, 
and essence of bergamot, each 1 dr. Distill in a 
bath heat ; add sugar, 4 lbs. dissolved in 2 galls. 



of pure water; and, lastly, arange-fl.wer wateii 
5 oz. 

Elephant's Milk. 

Take of gum benzoin, 2 oz. ; spirit of wine, 1 
pt. ; boiling water, 2^ pts. When cold, strain; 
and add sugar, li lbs. 

Ratajia de Grenoble. 

Take of small wild black cherries, with their 
kernels, bruised, 12 lbs. ; proof spirit, 6 galls. 
Digest for a month, strain, and then add 12 lbs. 
of sugar. A little citron peel may also be added 
at pleasure. 

Jl/arasqvin de Groseilles. 

Take of gooseberries, quite ripe, 102 lbs.; black 
cherry leaves, 12 lbs. Bruise and ferment; distill 
and rectify the spirits. To each pint of this spirit 
add as much distilled water, and sugar, 1 lb. 
Hiii/e de Venns. 

Take of flowers of the wild carrot, picked, 6 oz. ; 
spirit of wine, 10 pts. Distill in a bath heat. To 
the spirit add as much syrup of capillaire ; it may 
be colored with cochineal. 

Liquodilla. 

Take the thin peel of 6 oranges and 6 lemons, 
steep them in a gallon of brandy or rum, close 
stopped for 2 or 3 days; then take 6 qts. of water, 
and 3 lbs. of loaf sugar clarified with the whites 
of 3 eggs. Let it boil i of an hour, then strain 
it through a fine sieve, and let it stand till cold; 
strain the brandy from the peels, and add the 
juice of 6 oranges and 7 lemons to each gallon. 
Keep it close stojiped up 6 weeks, then bottle it. 
Ratajia de Bron de Nuix. 

Take of young walnuts, whose shells are not yet 
hardened, in number 60; brandy, 4 pts.; sugar, 
12 oz.; mace, cinnamon, and cloves, each. 15 gr. 
Digest for 2 or 3 months, press out the liquor, 
filter, and keep it for 2 or 3 years. 

Ratajia de Noyeau. 

Take of peach or apricot kernels, with their 
shells bruised, in number 120: proof spirit, 4 pts. ; 
sugar, 10 oz. Some reduce the spirit of wine to 
proof with the juice of apricots or peaches, to make 
this liqueur. 

Creme de Noyeati de Martinique. 

Take 20 lbs. of loaf sugar; 3 galls, of spirit of 
wine; 3 pts. of orange-flower water; 1^ lbs. of 
bitter almonds ; 2 drs. of essence of lemon ; and 4^ 
galls, of water. The produce will exceed 8 galls. 

Put 2 lbs. of the loaf sugar into a jug or can, 
pour upon it the essence of lemon, and 1 qt. of the 
spirit of wine: stir it till the sugar is dissolved, 
and the essence completely incorporated. Bruise 
the almonds, and put them into a 4 gall, stone 
bottle or cask, add the remainder of the spirit of 
wine, and the mixture from the jug or can; let it 
stand a week or 10 days, shaking it frequently. 
Then add the remainder of the sugar, and boil it 
in the 4i galls, of water for J of an hour, taking 
off' the scum as it rises. When cold, put it in a 
cask ; add the spirit, almonds, etc., from the stono 
bottle; and lastlj-, the orange flower water. Buog 
it down close, and let it stand 3 weeks or a month', 
then strain it through a jelly bag, and when fine 
bottle it off. When the pink is wanted add cochi- 
neal, in powder, at the rate of i a dr., or 2 scr. to 
a qt. 

Ratajia d'Ecorces d' Oranges. 

Take of fresh peel of Seville oranges, 4 oz.; 
proof spirit, 1 gall. ; sugar, 1 lb. Digest for 6 
hours. 

Ratajia de Fleurs d' Oranges. 

Take of fresh flowers of orange-tree, 2 lbs. 



COEDIALS. 



285 



proof spirit, 1 gall. ; sugar, 1 J lbs. Digest for 6 
hours. 

Creme d'Ornnge of Superior Flavor, 

Take 3 Joz. middling sized oranges; orange- 
flower wnter, 2 qts. ; loaf sugar, 18 lbs. ; spirit of 
wine, 2 galls. ; tincture of saffron, lA oz. ; water, 
4i galls. Thi.s will produce 7+ galls. 

Cut, the oranges in slices, put them into a cask, 
add the spirit and orange-flower water, let it stand 
R fortnight, then boil the sugar in the water for 
J an hour, pour it out, and let it stand till cold, 
then add it to the mixture in the cask, and put in 
the tincture of saffron. Let it remain a firtnight 
longer; then strain, and proceed as directed in the 
receipt for Cremes de Barbades, and a very fine 
cordial will be produced. 

Fine Brandy Shrub. 

Take 8 oz. of citric acid ; 1 gall, of porter ; 3 
galls, of raisin wine ; 2 qts. of orange-flower water; 
7 galls, of good brandy; 5 galls, of water. This 
will produce 16 galls. First, dissolve the citric 
acid in the water, then add to it the brandy ; ne,\t, 
mix the raisin wine, porter, and orange-flower 
water together; and lastly, mix the whole; and in 
a week or 10 daj's it will be ready for drinking, 
and of a very mellow flavor. 
Rnm Shrub, 

Leave out the brandy and porter, and add 1 
gall, more raisin wine; 6 lbs. of honey; and 10 
galls, of good flavored rum. 

Currant Shrub. 

Take white currants, when quite ripe, pick them 
ofi' the stalks, and bruise them; strain out the 
juice through a cloth, and to 2 qts. of the juice 
put 2 lbs. of loaf sugar; when it is dissolved add 
to it 1 gall, of rum, then strain it through a flan- 
nel bag that will keep in the jelly, and it will run 
off clear; then bottle it for use : 
Usquebaugh. 

Usquebaugh is a strong compound liquor, chiefly 
taken by way of dram ; it is made in the highest 
perfection at Drogheda, in Irehind. The follow- 
ing are the ingredients, and the proportions in 
which they are to be used : 

Take of best brandy, 1 gall. ; raisins, stoned, 1 
lb.; cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, and carxlamoms, 
each 1 oz. crushed in a mortar; safi"ron, ^ oz.; 
rind of 1 Seville orange; and brown sugar candy, 
1 lb. Shake these well every day, for at least 14 
days, and it will at the expiration of that time be 
ready to be fined for use. , 

Another Method. 

Take of nutmegs, cloves, and cinnamon, each 2 
oz. ; of the seeds of anise, caraway, and coriander, 
each 4 oz. ; liquorice-root, sliced, i lb. ; bruise the 
seeds and spices, and put them together with the 
liquorice, into the still with 11 galls, of proof 
spirit, and 2 galls, of water; distill with a pretty 
brisk fire. As soon as the still begins to work, 
fasten to the nozzle of the worm 2 oz. of English 
safi"ron, tied up in a cloth, that the liquor may run 
through it, and extract all its tincture. When the 
operation is finished, sweeten with fine sugar. 
This liqueur may be much improved by the fol- 
lowing additions: Digest 4 lbs. of stoned raisins; 
3 lbs. of dates; and 2 lbs. of sliced liquorice-root, 
in 2 galls, of water for 12 hours. When the liquor 
is strained ofi', and has deposited all sediment, 
decant it gently into the vessel containing the 
nsquebaugh. 

Ratafia a la Violette. 

Take Florentine orris root 2 drachms, archel 1 
in., spirit of wine 4 pts. Digest, strain, and add 
sugar 4 lbs. Liqueurs are also made by adding 



Hungary-water, honey-water, eau de Cologne, and 
several other spirits to an equal quantity of simple 
syrup, or common capillaire. 



COMPOUND SPIRITS, OR CORDIALS. 
General Rules. 

The perfection of this grand branch of distillery 
depends upon the observation of the following 
general rules, which are easy to be observed and 
practised : 1. The artist must always be careful to 
use a well-cleansed spirit, or one freed from its 
own essential oil ; for as a compound cordial is 
nothing more than a spirit impregnated with the 
essential oil of the ingredients, it is necessary that 
the spirit should have deposited its own. 2. Let 
the time of previous digestion be proportioned to 
the tenacity of the ingredients, or the ponderosity 
of their oil. 3. Let the strength of the fire be pro- 
portioned to the ponderosity of the oil intended to 
be raised with the spirit. 4. Let a due proportion 
of the finest parts of the essential oil be united 
with the spirit; the grosser and less fragrant parts 
of the oil not giving the spirit so agreeable a 
flavor, and at the same time rendering it thick 
and unsightly. This may in a great measure be 
effected by leaving out the feints, and making up 
to jjroof with fine soft water in their stead. 

A careful observation of these four rules will 
render this extensive part of distillation far more 
perfect than it is at present. Nor will there be 
any occasion for the use of burnt alum, white of 
eggs, isinglass, etc. to fine down the cordial waters, 
for they will presently be fine, sweet, and pleasant. 

To make Aniseed Cordial. 
Take aniseed, bruised, 2 lbs ; proof spirit, 12^ 
galls.; water, 1 gall. Draw off 10 galls., with a 
moderate fire. This water should never be re- 
duced below proof; because the. large quantity of 
oil with which it is impregnated will render the 
goods milky and foul, when brought down below 
proof But if there is a necessity for doing this, 
their transparency may be restored by filtration. 

Strong Cinnamon Cordial. 

Take 8 lbs. of fine cinnamon, bruised; 17 galls 
of clear rectified spirit, and 2 galls, of water. Put 
them into the still, and digest them 24 hours with 
a gentle heat ; after which draw off 16 galls, by a 
pretty strong heat. 

Caraway Cordial. 

For 20 galls. Take IJ oz. of oil of caraway, 20 
drops of cassia-lignea oil, 5 drops of essence of 
orange peel, .') drops of the essence of lemons, 13 
galls, of spirits, 1 in 5, and 8 lbs. of loaf sugar. 
Make it up and fine it down. 

Cedrat Cordial. 

The cedrat is a species of citron, and very highly 
esteemed in Italy, where it grows naturally. The 
fruit is difficult to be procured in this country; but, 
as the essential oil is often imported from Italy, it 
may be made with it as follows : Take of the 
finest loaf-sugar, powdered, ^ lb. Put it into a 
gl.iss mortar, with 120 drops of the essence of ce- 
drat; rub them together with a glass pestle, and 
put them into a glass alembic, with a gallon of fine 
proof spirit and a quart of water. Place the alem- 
bic in a bath heat, and draw off 1 gall., or till the 
feints begin to rise; then dulcify with fine sugar 
This is considered the finest cordial yet known; 
it will therefore be necessary to be particularly 
careful that the spirit is perfectly clean, and, as 
much as possible, free from any flavor of its own. 
Citron Cordial. 

Take of dry yellow rinds of citrons, 3 lbs. ; or- 
ange-peel, 2 lbs. ; nutmegs, bruised, J lb. ; proof 



286 



DISTILLATION. 



spirit, lOJ g,".\ls. ; water, 1 gall. Digest with a 
gentle heat, then draw off 10 galls, in a bath heat, 
and dulcify with fine sugar. 

Clove Cordial. 

Take of cloves, bruised, 4 lbs.; pimento, or all- 
spice, i lb. ; proof spirit, 16 galls. Digest the mi.\- 
ture 12 hours in a gentle heat, and then draw off 
16 galls, with a pretty brisk fire. The water may 
be colored red, either by a strong tincture of coeh- 
ineiil, alkanet, or corn poppy-flowers. It may be 
dulcified at pleasure with refined sugar. 
Coriand-er Cordial. 

For 3 galls. Take 7 qts. of spirits, 2 lbs. of co- 
riander seed, 1 oz. of caraway seed, 6 drops of the 
oil of orange, and 2 lbs. of sugar. Fill up with 
water. The coriander seed must be bruised and 
steeped in the spirits for 10 or 12 days, and well 
Stirred 2 or 3 times a day. Fine it the same as gin. 
Eau de BIgarade. 

Take the outer or yellow part of the peels of 14 
bigariides (a kind of orange), ^ oz. of nutmegs, J 
oz. of mace, 1 gall, of fine proof spirit, and 2 qts. 
of water. Digest all these together 2 days in a 
close vessel ; after which draw ofi" a gallon with a 
gentle fire, and dulcify with fine sugar. 
Gold Cordial. 

Take of the roots of angelica, sliced, 4 lbs.; rai- 
sins, stoned, 2 lbs.; coriander seeds, ^ lb.; cara- 
way seeds and cinnamon, each J lb. ; cloves, 2 oz. ; 
figs and liquorice root, sliced, each 1 lb.; proof 
spirit, 11 galls.; water, 2 galls. Digest 2 days, 
and draw oflF by a gentle heat, till the feints begin 
to rise; hanging in a piece of linen, fastened to 
the mouth of the worm, 1 oz. of English saffron. 
Then dissolve 8 lbs. of sugar in 3 qts. of rose- 
water, and add to it the distilled liquor. 

The above cordial derives its name from a quan- 
tity of leaf gold being formerly added to it; but 
this is now generally disused. 

Lavage Cordial. 

For 20 galls. Take of the fresh roots of lovage, 
valerian, celery, and sweet fennel, each 4 oz. ; es- 
sential oil of caraway and savin, ejich 1 oz.; spirit 
of wine, 1 pt. ; proof spirit, 12 galls.; loaf sugar, 
12 lbs. Steep the roots and seeds in the spirits 
for 14 days; then dissolve the oils in the spirit of 
wine, and add them to the undulcified cordial 
drawn ofi" from the other ingredients; dissolve the 
sugar in the water for making up, and fine, if 
necessary, with alum. 

Lemon Cordial, 

Take of dried lemon-peel 4 lbs., proof spirit, lOJ 
galls., water 1 gall. Draw off" 10 galls, by a gentle 
fire, and dulcify with fine sugar. 
N^ectar. 

For 20 galls. Take 15 galls, of red ratafia, i oz. 
of cassia-oil, and an equal quantity of the oil of 
caraway seeds. Dissolve in half a pint of spirit 
of wine, and make up with orange wine, so as to 
fill up the cask. Sweeten, if wanted, by adding a 
small lump of sugar in the glass. 
Noyeati. 

Take IJ galls, of French brandy, 1 in 5, 6 oz. 
of the best French prunes, 2 oz. of celery, 3 oz. 
of the kernels of apricots, nectarines, and peaches, 
and 1 oz. of bitter almonds, all gently bruised, 
essence of orange-peel and essence of lemon-peel, 
of each 2 dwts., i lb. of loaf-sugar. Let the whole 
stand ten days or a fortnight; then draw ofi", and 
add to the clear noyeau as much rose-water as 
will make it up to 2 galls. 

Orange Cordial. 

Take of the yellow part of fresh orange-peel, 5 



lbs., proof spirit, lOJ galls., water, 2 galls. Draw 
oflF 10 galls, with a gentle fire. 

Peppermint Cordial. 

For 20 galls. Take 13 galls, of rectified spirits, 
1 in 5 under hydrometer proof, 12 lbs. of loaf- 
sugar, 1 pint of spirit of wine that will fire gun- 
powder, 15 dwts. (troy) of oil of peppermint, water, 
as much as will fill up the cask, which should be 
setup on end after the whole has been well roused, 
and a cock for drawing ofi" placed in it. 
liatajia. 

This a liquor prepared from different kinds of 
fruits, and is of different colors, according!; to the 
fruits made use of These fruits should be gath- 
ered when in their greatest perfection, and the f ' 
largest and most beautiful of them chosen for the 
purpose. The following is the method of making 
red ratafia, fine and soft : Take of the black-heart 
cherries, 24 lbs., black cherries, 4 lbs., raspberries 
and strawberries, each, 3 lbs. Pick the fruit from 
their stalks and bruise them, in which state let 
them ciintinue 12 hours; then press out the juice, 
and to every pint of it add i lb. of sugar. When 
the sugar is dissolved, run the whole through the 
filtering-bag and add to it 3 quarts of proof spirit. 
Then take of cinnamon, 4 oz., mace, 4 oz., and 
cloves, 2 drs. Bruise these spices, put them into 
an alembic with a gallon of proof spirit and 2 
quarts of water, and draw off a gallon with a brisk 
fire. Add as much of this spicy spirit to the ratafia 
as will render it agreeable; about J is the usual 
proportion. 

Dry or Sharp Rntafin. 

Take of cherries and gooseberries, each 30 lbs., 
mulberries, 7 lbs., raspberries, 10 lbs. Pick all 
these fruits clean from their stnlks, etc., bruise 
them and let them stand 12 hours, but do not 
sufi'er them to ferment. Press out the juice, and 
to every pint add 3 oz. of sugar. When the sugar 
is dissolved, run it through the filtering-bag, and 
to every 5 pints of liquor add 4 pints of proof 
spirit, together with the same proportion of spirit 
drawn from spices. 

Common Ratafia. 

Take of nutmegs, 8 oz., bitter almonds, 10 lbs., 
Lisbon sugar, 8 lbs., ambergris, 10 grs. Infuse 
these ingredients three days in 10 galls, of proof 
spirit and filter it through a flannel bag for use. 
The nutmegs and bitter almonds must be bruised, 
and the ambergris rubbed with the Lisbon sugar 
in a marble mortar, before they are infused in the 
spirit. 

• Cherry-Brandy. 

One of the best and most common ways of 
making cherry-brandy, is lo put the cherries (be- 
ing first clean-picked from the stalks) into a vessel 
till it be about half full ; then fill up with rectified 
molasses-brandy, which is generally used for thia 
compound; and when they have been infused 16 
or 18 days draw ofi" the liquor by degrees, as 
wanted ; when drawn ofi", fill the vet^sel a second 
time nearly to the top, let it stand about a month, 
and then draw it off as there is occasion. Tha 
same cherries may be used a third time by cover- 
ing them with over-proof brandy and letting it 
infuse for 6 or 7 weeks ; when drawn off for use, 
as much water must be added as the brandy was 
over-proof, atid the cherries must be afterwards 
pressed as long as any liquor remains in them, 
before being cast away. 

When drawn oS" the second time the liquor will 
be somewhat inferior to the first, when more sugar, 
with i oz. of cinnamon and cloves beaten, may be 
added to 20 galls, of it ; but there should only be 
half the quantity of cinnamon and cloves in each 
20 galls, of the first infusion. 



FACTITIOUS LIQUORS. 



287 



Another Method. 

Take 72 lbs of cherries, half red and half black, 
ma$:h or squeeze them to pieces with the hiinds, 
and add to them 3 galls, of brandy, letting them 
Fteep for 24 hours; then put the mashed cherries 
and liiiuor into a canvas bag, a little at a time, 
and |)ress it, as loni; as it will run. Sweeten it 
■with loaf sugar :ind let it stand a month; then 
bottle it off, putting a lump of sugar into every 
bottle. 

A wither. — To every 4 qts. of brandy, put 4 lbs. 
of red cherries, 2 lbs. of black, 1 qt. of raspber- 
ries, with a few cloves, a stick of cinnamon, and 
a little orange peel ; let these stand a month close 
stopped ; then bottle it oflF, putting a lump of sugar 
tnto every bottle. 

Block-Cherry Brandy. 

Stone 8 lbs. of black cherries and put on them 
a gallon of brandy. Bruise the stones in a mortar, 
and then add them to the brandy. Cover them 
close, and let them stand a month or 6 weeks. 
Then pour it clear from the sediment and bottle 
it. Morello cherries, managed in this manner, 
make a fine rich cordial. 

Ca ra way-Bran dy. 

Steep 1 oz. of caraway-seed and 6 oz. of loaf 
sugar, in 1 qt. of brandy ; let it stand 9 days and 
then draw it off. 

Lemon-Brandy. 

Put 5 qts. of water to 1 gall, of brandy; take 
2 doz. of lemons, 2 lbs. of the best sugar, and 3 
pints of milk. Pare the lemons very thin and lay 
the peel to steep in the brandy 12 hours. Squeeze 
the lemons upon the sugar, then put the water to 
it, and mi.v all the ingredients together. Boil the 
milk and pour it in boiling. Let it stand 24 hours 
and then strain it. 

Oraii'je Brandy. 

Put the chips of 18 Seville oranges in 3 qts. of 
brandy, and let them steep a fortnight in a stone 
bottle close stopped. Boil 2 qts. of spring-water 
with IJ lbs. of the finest sugar, nearly an hour very 
gently. Clarity the water and sugar with the 
white of an egg, then strain it through a jelly-bag 
and boil it nearly half away. When it is cold, 
Etrain the brandy into the syrup. 
Knspherry Brandy. 

Take a pint of water and 2 qts. of brandy, and 
fut them into a pitcher large enough to hold them 
iind 4 pints of raspberries. Put in i lb. of loaf- 
sugar and let it remain for a week close covered. 
Then take a piece of flannel with a piece of hol- 
land over it, and let it run through by degrees. 
It may be racked into other bottles a week after, 
and then it will be perfectly fine. 
Another Ifethod. 

Raspberry brandy is infused nearly after the 
same manner as cherry brandy, and drawn off 
with about the same addition of brandy to what 
is drawn off from the first, second and third infu- 
sion, and dulcified accordingly; first making it of 
a bright deep color, omitting cinnamon and cloves 
in the first, but not in the second and third infu- 
sion. The second infusion will be somewhat paler 
than the first, and must be heightened in color by 
adding cherry brandy, about 1 qt., with 10 or more 
galls, of raspberry brandy ; and the third infusion 
will require more cherry brandy to color it. It 
may be flavored with the juice of the elderberry. 
Whiskey Cordial. 

Take of cinnamon, ginger, and coriander-aeed, 
each 3 oz., mace, cloves, and cubebs, each IJ oz. 
Add 11 galls, of proof spirit and 2 galls, of water, 



and distill; now tie up 5 oz. of English saffron; 
raisins (stoned), 4i lbs.; dates, 3 lbs.; liquorice, 
root. 2 lbs. Let these stand 12 hours in 2 galls, 
of water ; strain, and add it to the above. Dulcify 
the whole with fine sugar. 



FACTITIOUS LIQUORS. 

Much of the wine and spirits sold is factitious. 
In some cases the ingredients added are not in- 
ferior in their character; in others alcohol is re- 
placed by poisonous bodies, some imitations 
containing absolutely no alcohol. The receipts 
given below are among the least injurious, al- 
though none are recommended. 

Neutral Spirit, 
Or sweet liquor, is made by filtering ordinary 
whiskey through bone-black, and afterwards 
through wood charcoal, to deprive it of all fusel 
oil, and other odorous matter. 

Flavoring Materials. 

These are acetic, butyric ethers, acetate of the 
oxyde of amyl (see Confectionary for Flavoring 
Extracts), sweet spirit of nitre, oil of bitter al- 
monds, oil of cognac, light oil of wine, the various 
essential oils, tincture of benzoin, citric, tartaric, 
and sulphuric acid. 

Nut kernels, mucilage of various kinds, slippery 
elm, almond oil, green tea, and sugar are used to 
give the appearance of age. 

Coculus indicus, Guinea pepper, mustard, horse« 
radish, pellitory, are used to give pungency and 
intoxicating qualities. 

Catechu, green tea, logwood, oak bark, etc., t* 
give astringency and color. 

Caramel and burned sugar tc give color. 

To Detect Adulterations. 

The quantity of alcohol is determined by the 
hydrometer (see Specific Gravity). Should the 
liquor be much below proof, and still possess de- 
cidedly intoxicating qualities, coculus indicus is 
to be suspected, but no good test for this substance 
is known. If, when the liquor be swallowed, it 
produces a burning sensation at the back of the 
throat, it is adulterated with pepper, etc. 

The flavoring ethers may be separated by distil- 
lation, but as some of them exist in true wines 
and spirits, this cannot decide that the liquor is 
factitious. 

If the liquor be cautiously evaporated to dry- 
ness, in a porcelain capsule, the extract will con- 
tain most of the adulterations, which can often 
be detected by the taste and smell. 

If nitrate of baryta gives a precipitate with any 
spirit, the presence of acid artificially added may 
be suspected. This is not true of wines. 

To detect fiinei oil, put some fused chloride of 
calcium, broken into small pieces, into a glass; 
pour over it the suspected liquor, cover it with a 
glass plate, and let it stand aside for a short time. 
If fusel oil be present it will at once manifest it- 
self by its smell. The smaller the quantity of 
fusel oil the longer must it stand before exam- 
ination. 

To Determine the Quantity of Alcohol in Wine, 
Beer, etc. 
Distill carefully a small quantity of the liquid, 
until from i to f have passed over, then add water 
enough to the distillate to make it up to its origi- 
nal bulk, put the mixture in a well stopped bottle 
and shake well; let it stand aside for a day or 
two ; its specific gravity may be then taken with 
the hydrometer, or specific gravity bottle. 
To Determine the Stren(/th of Spirits. 
The simplest method and that generally adopt* 



288 



DISTILLATION. 



ed, is by the hyrlrotneter. It consists of a cylinder, 
■with a weighted bulb below to make it float up- 
right, and a graduated stem. If it float with the 
bottom of the stem at the surface of pure water at 
60° Fnhr., it will sink deejier in a lighter liquid. 
The instrument of Tralles is so graduated as to 
indicate the percentage by vulnnie of absolute alco- 
hol in any mixture of alcohol and water. If the 
spirit be not at the temperature of 60°, it should 
be broujiht to that degree, or the temperature 
tested and allowance made by a table which is 
found in the chemical works. In introducing the 
instrument, care should be taken to avoid wetting 
the stem, as this would give a higher percentage 
than the truth. To convert volume percentage 
into that by weight, multiply the number of de- 
grees on Tralles' scale by 0.794, and divide by the 
specific gravity of the liquid under trial. In case 
the Tralles' instrument is not at hand, take the 
specific gravity of the liquid by any of the methods 
given under that head. By means of tables to be 
found in the chemical works, the percentage of 
alcnhol may be determined. 

To Procure the Oil of Wine, 

This oil should be distilled from the thick lees 
of French wines, because of the flavor, and when 
procured must be kept ready for use. it must be 
mixed with the purest spirits of wir.d, such as alco- 
hol ; by which means it may be preserved a long 
time. The bottle should be shaken before the oil 
is used. 

When the flavor of tha brandy is well imitated 
by a proper portion of the essential oil, and the 
whole reduced into one nature, yet other difficul- 
ties still exist; which are, the color, the softness, 
and the proof. The proof may be effected by using 
a spirit above proof, which after being mi.xed with 
the oil may be let down to any strength with water. 
The softness will be attained by getting a spirit 
that has been distilled by a slow fire; and the 
color may be regulated by the use of brandy 
coloring. 

Preparation of Rum Ether. 

Take black oxide of manganese, and sulphuric 
acid, each 12 lbs. ; alcohol, 26 lbs. ; strong acetic 
acid, 10 lbs. 

The ether above prepared is the body to which 
rum owes its peculiar flavor; it is also used in 
making cheap brandy. 

Artificial Fruit Essences, 

The pine-apple flavor is butyrate of ethyloxide, 
or butyric ether ; apple, valerianate of amyloxide ; 
quince, pelargonate of ethyloxide; jargonelle 
pear, acetate of amyloxide ; ordinary pear, acetate 
of amyloxide, with acetate of ethyloxide ; melon 
flavor, cocinate of ethyloxide. Other flavors are 
made by using these in various proportions and 
diflFerent degrees of dilution with alcohol. 
To make Butyric Acid, 

Dissolve 6 lbs. of sugar and i oz. of tartaric acid 
in 26 lbs. of water. Let the solution stand for 
several days, add 8 oz. of putrid cheese, 3 lbs. 
skimmed and curdled sour milk, and 3 lbs. of 
levigated chalk. The mixture should be kept in 
a warm place, say 92° Fahr., and stirred from time 
to time. In about 6 weeks the sugar will have 
given rise to butyric acid, which unites with the 
lime of the chalk. 

To separate the butyric acid, add hydrochloric 
(muriatic) acid and distill. It is well to neutralize 
the distillate with carbonate of soda and re-distill. 
Then saturate the distillate with fused chloride of 
ealcium and re-distill. 

To make Butyric Ether. 

Take 3 oz. of butyric acid, 6 oz. alcohol, and 2 



oz. of sulphuric acid. Distill in a glass retort. 
The distillate may be re-distilled over chloiide of 
calcium. 

This is the pine-apple oil. It is used to flavor 
syrup, creams, fruit-drops, and cheap brandy. It 
requires to be diluted with deodorized alcohol, in 
order to develop the true flavor. 

To make Oil of Quince. 

Pelargonic ether is made from oil of rue by 
treating with double its volume of dilute nitric 
acid, heating the mixture until it begins to boil. 
After some time two layers are seen. The lower 
one is separated with a pipette, and freed from 
nitric acid by evaporation iu a chloride of zinc 
bath, it is then filtered mixed with deodorized al- 
cohol, and digested at a gentle heat until the 
fruity odor is noticed. 

This ether seems identical with the ethereal 
oil of wine, which gives the bouquet. It is some- 
times sold as oil of Cognac. 

Jargonelle Pear Oil 
Is made from heavy fusel oil, that which comes 
over last in distillation. To purify the fusel oil 
wash with soda and water, and distill between 254° 
and 284° Fahr. Of this take 1 lb. ; glacial acetic 
acid, 1 lb. ; sulphuric acid, i lb. Digest for some 
hours at 254° Fahr. The ether separates upon the 
addition of water, and is purified by washing with 
soda and water. Mixed with l-30th of acetic 
ether, and 7 parts of deodorized alcohol, it gives 
the essence of pears. 

Ajijile Oil. 
Mix cautiously 1 part of fusel oil, 3 parts of sul- 
phuric acid, and 2 parts of water. Dissolve 2i 
parts of bichromate of potash in 4^ parts of water, 
introduce this into a large tubulated retort, and 
gradually add the former liquid, so that the boil- 
ing continues very slowly. The distillate, which 
is principally valerianic acid, is saturated with 
carbonate of soda, and evaporated to dryness. 
Take of the valerianate of soda, thus formed, IJ 
parts; fusel oil, 1 part; sulphuric acid, 1 part; 
mi.x cautiously, heat by a water bath, and mix 
with water; the impure valerianate of amyloxide 
will separate. It is washed several times with 
water, then with a solution of carbonate of soda, 
and finally with water. This is dissolved in from 
6 to 8 parts of water. 

To Improve the Flavor of Fruit Essenceg. 
Add to the essence made by dissolving the oil 
in 6 or 8 parts of deodorized alcohol a small quan- 
tity of tartaric or citric acid. This will develop 
the flavor, and, when used in confectionary, imi- 
tate more closely the taste of the fruit. 
Bead for Liquors. 
Ether, 1 lb. ; strong alcohol, 2 qts. Keep in a 
well-stopped bottle. 

Jamaica Rum 
Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; Jamaica rum, 1 gall. ; 
sulphuric acid, ^ oz. ; acetic ether, 4 oz. ; burnt 
sugar coloring, 8 oz. 

Pineapple Rum. 
Neutral spirits, 4 galls.; honey, 5 pts. ; water, 
to dissolve, 3 qts.; Jamaica rum, 1 gall.; sulphu- 
ric acid, 1 oz. ; butyric ether, 2 oz.; tincture of 
cochineal, 3 oz..; burnt sugar, 2 oz. 

Gin. 
Aromatic Schiedam, Schnapps, 
Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; water, 4 pts., to dis- 
solve honey, 4 pts. ; oil of juniper, 15 drops, dis- 
solved in nitric ether, 1 oz, 



BRANDIES AND WHISKEYS, FACTITIOUS. 



289 



duracoa. 
Common •whiskey, 5 galls ; fresh orange-peel, 

4 'bs.; oil of bitter almonds, oil of cassia, of each, 
1 dr.; oil of lemon, 2 drs. ; oil of cinnamon, 50 
drops; water, 5 qts., to dissolve refined sugar, 16 
lbs. ; tincture of cochineal, i a pt. ; burnt sugar, 

5 oz. ; nWvM the above to digest for 5 days; the 
■«»V-''e cf the oils should be dissolved iu i a glass 
•I alcohol, and mix well. 



BRANDIES. 
Cognac Brandy. 

Neutral spirits, 4 galls.; J a gall, of honey dis- 
solved in water, 2 pts. ; Jamaica rum, 1 gall. ; 
catechu, i oz.; butyric ether, 1 oz. Mix. 
Sarzerac Brandy. 

Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; 3 pts. of water to dis- 
solve honey, 4 pts. ; rum, 3 qts. ; porter, 3 pts. ; 
infusion of almonds, ^ a pt. ; oil of wine, 1 oz. ; 
sugar coloring, 4 oz.; cochineal tincture, '1 oz.-; 
then add the alcoholic solution of starch, 3 pts., 
and mix. This starch solution is made by infusing 
1 qt. of wheat or rice flour in IJ galls, of equal 
parts of clean spirit and water for 24 hours. 
Cherry Brandy. 

Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; refined sugar, 5 lbs. ; 
water, to dissolve, 1 gall.; catechu, 1 oz. ; infusion 
of bitter almonds, ^ a pt. ; cloves, cassia, of each, 
i oz. ; these are to be well bruised before adding 
tartaric acid, 4 oz., dissolved in 1 pt. of water ; 
honey, 1 qt., dissolved in 1 pt. of water; 4 drops 
of oil of wintergreen, dissolved in 1 oz. of acetic 
ether, then color with 1 pt. of the tincture of co- 
chineal ; burnt sugar, 1 oz. 

Peach Brandy. 

Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; 3 pts. of honey, dis- 
solved in 2 pts. of water; mix infusion of bitter 
almonds, 1 pt. ; sulphuric acid, 80 drops; porter, 
1 pt. ; tincture of saffron, J a pt. : and flavor with 
oil of pears, 1 oz., dissolved in 2 oz. of alcohol, and 
acetic ether, i oz. 

Old Apple Brandy. 

Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; decoction of tea, 1 pt.; 
alcoholic solution of starch, 3 qts., sulphuric acid, 
i oz.; this is flavored with the oil of apples, 1 oz., 
dissolved in alcohol, 2 oz.; color with 4 oz. of sugar 
coloring; valerianate of amylic oxide is the chemi- 
cal name for apple oil. 



WHISKEYS. 
Irish Whiskey. 
Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; refined sugar, 3 lbs., in 
water, 4 qts. ; creasote, 4 drops ; color with 4 oz. 
o£ burnt sugar. 

Scotch Whisl-ey. 
Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; alcoholic solution of 
Btarch, 1 gall. ; creasote, 5 drops ; cochineal tinc- 
ture, 4 wineglassfuls ; burnt sugar coloring, J pt. 
Old Bourbon Whiskey. 
Neutral spirits, 4 galls; refined sugar, 3 lbs.; 
dissolved in water, 3 qts. ; decoction of tea, 1 pt. ; 
3 drops of oil of wintergreen, dissolved in 1 oz. of 
alcohol; color with tincture of cochineal, 2 oz. ; 
burnt sugar, 3 oz. 

Monongahela Whiskey. 
Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; honey, 3 pts., dissolved 
in water, 1 gall. ; alcoholic solution of starch, 1 
gall. ; rum, i a gall. ; nitric ether, i an ounce; this 
ja to be colored to suit fancy. 

Anisette de Bordeaux. 
Whiskey, 2 galls. ; 5 lbs. of refined sugar; water, 
to dissolve, li galls.; 1 dr. oil of aniseed, dis- 
solved in 1 oz. of alcohol, or well rubbed up in dry 
19 



sugar, and added ; if this is for white anisette, fine 
with i oz. of powdered alum; if it is for rose or 
pink anisette, color to suit taste. 

Common rectified whiskey will answer in the 
above formula, or in any other in which a power- 
ful aromatic is found necessary. 
Maraschino. 

Proof whiskey, 3 galls.; 6 qts. of water, to dis- 
solve; sugar, 12 lbs.; oil of bergamot, and oil of 
cloves, of each, 1 dr.; oil of cinnamon, 5 drops; 
2 oz. of nutmegs, bruised, 1 lb. of orange-peel, 3 
oz. of bitter almonds, bruised; oil of lemon, 1 dr.; 
dissolve the oil in alcohol; color with cochineal 
and burnt sugar. 

Sherry. 

Cider, 10 galls.; bitter almonds, 4 oz. ; honey, 
1 gall. ; mustard, 4 oz. Boil for 30 minutes, and 
strain, then add spirits of orris-root, ^ a pt. ; es- 
sence of cassia, 2 oz. ; and rum, 3 qts. 
Port Wine. 

Claret, 100 galls.; honey, strained, 12 galls.; 
red tartar, 1 lb. ; powdered catechu, 12 oz. ; wheat 
flour, made into a paste, 1 pt. ; neutral spirits, 12 
galls. : 2 oz. each of bruised ginger and cassia, 1 
pt. of tincture of orris-root, and color with alka- 
net-root, or dissolve 16 oz. bruised cochineal in 1 
gall, of the above spirit, and 1 pt. of burnt sugar; 
this will produce the desired shade of purple. 
For giving artificial strength, use tincture-grains 
of paradise, and the decoction of strong tea, in 
quantities to suit the palate. 

If this is not perfectly transparent, fine with 
milk or isinglass. 

Madeira Wine. 

Water, 12 galls.; honey, 1 gall.; clean spirits, 
5 qts. ; hops, 5 oz. ; hitter almonds, 3 oz. Boil 
for 25 minutes and allow it to ferment by the ad- 
dition of 1 qt. of yeast; allow the fermentation tc 
continue until the liquor tastes pleasantlj' acid, then 
fine with milk, and add 3 qts. of rum and 4 oz. of 
mustard. Allow it to stand for a few days ; the 
mustard should be inclosed in a thin piece of mus- 
lin and be suspended in the wine. 
Imitation Claret. 

Boiled cider, 6 galls. ; spirits, 2 galls. ; clear 
water, 5 galls. ; catechu, powdered, 2 oz. Color 
with red beets and tincture logwood to suit taste. 
When this is not suiBciently acid, add from 1 to 2 
drops of sulphuric acid to the gallon, to suit taste. 
Cheap Champagne. 

Water, 50 galls. ; honey, 2 galls. ; bruised gin- 
ger, 5 oz. ; ground mustard, 5 oz. Boil the mass 
for 30 minutes, and when quite cool add a quart 
of yeast. Ferment for 10 or 14 days; first add 6 
oz. of bitter almonds, bruised; spirits, and grains 
of Paradise tincture, to suit convenience. The 
more spirit the Champagne possesses the greater 
will bo its body. For coloring, use cochineal i 
oz. to 50 galls. The cheapest coloring is red beets, 
sliced, and added to the mass during fermentation. 
Five or 6 common-sized beets will color 50 galls. 
The best of this coloring will not compare with 
cochineal. A fine aroma is given to the cham- 
pagne by adding 5 drops of spirits of orris, or 3 
drops of essence of wintergreen, or essence of va- 
nilla 4 drops; or dissolve 5 grs. of ambergris in 
i glass of pure alcohol ; the alcohol should be 
kept hot for i an hour ; this, when dissolved, 
should be added to 50 galls, of Champagne. 



ESSENTIAL OILS. 

General Directions. 

The quantity of volatile oil yielded by a plant 

will depend upon the part employed, the season, 

and the period of growth. The drier the season 



290 



DISTILLATION. 



and the warmer the climate, the richer are the 
plants in oils. They should be gathered, as a 
general rule, immediately after blossoming, and 
distilled, if possible, while fresh. 

It is better to macerate the plants for one day 
before distilling. Roots, barks, etc., should be 
coarsely powdered. Parts which yield no oil, as 
the stems of mint, sage, etc., should be detached. 
The larger the quantity operated on the better j 
the quantity of water should be sufficient to thor- 
oughly cover the plant; too much water causes 
loss by dissolving a portion of the oil. When the 
plants are abundant the distillate should be re- 
turned to a fresh portion of the plant in a retort. 
It is a good plan to use the water of a previous 
distillation for the same plant, as it is already 
■aturated with the oil. 

If the oil is heavier than water, use a saturated 
solution of salt. If lighter, the Florentine re- 
ceiver. 

Solutions for the Water-bath. 
Various salts dissolved in water materially raise 
the boiling point, and thus afford the means of 
obtaining a steady temperature at different degrees 
above 212°. The following are some of the most 
useful: A saturated solution of nitrate of soda 
boils at 246°; Rochelle salts at 240°; nitre at 
238° ; muriate of soda at 224° ; sulphate of mag- 
nesia at 222°. 

Oil of Aniseed. 
One lb. of the seeds will yield 2 drs. It is con- 
gealed, except in warm weather ; this oil is car- 
minative, and poisonous to pigeons, if rubbed on 
their bills or head. 

Oil of Ben, or Behen, 
Is obtained by expression from the seeds of MoTir- 
inga aptera. It is insipid, inodorous, and does 
not become rancid. It is used in perfumery. Ha- 
zel-nut oil is sometimes substituted for it. 
Birch Oil. 
Obtained by distilling 20 parts of birch bark 
and 1 of ledum palnstre, crammed in layers into 
an earthen pot, with a handful of tripoli between 
each layer; the mouth of the pot is closed with a 
perforated oak plug, and being inverted, it is lu- 
ted to the mouth of another pot sunk in the 
ground; the pot being then surrounded with fire, 
a brown empyreumatic oil distills per descensum 
into the lower jar; an 8 gall, pot, properly filled, 
yields about 2 lbs. or 2i lbs. of oil. In Siberia it 
is prepared without the ledum. This oil is liquid 
when fresh, but grows thick in time. It is used 
in Russia for currying leather, to which it gives a 
very peculiar smell, much disliked by insects. 
Oil of Gum-benzoin. 
Obtained by distilling the residuum left after 
making flowers of benjamin, by a strong fire. It 
is used instead of birch oil in making an imita- 
tion of Russia leather. 

Cajeput Oil. 
This is obtained from the leaves, which are 
imported from the East Indies, generally in large 
copper flasks; it is cooler than that of pepper- 
mint, but smells of turpentine. It is used exter- 
nally in rheumatism. 

Oil of Caraway. 
This is obtained from the seeds ; it is carmina- 
tive; 2 lbs. will yield more than 1 oz., and 4 cwt. 
S3 oz. 

Oil of Cloves. 
This is obtained from a spice of that name ; it 
UP very heavy, acrimonious, and supposed to con- 
tain some part of the resin of the clove. One lb. 
>f claves will yield from li to 2i oz. j 7i lbs. will 



yield 1 lb. of oil. It is also expressed from the 
cloves when ripe. MuUer, by digesting i oz. of 
cloves in ether, and then mixing it with water, ob- 
tained 7 scruples of oil, greenish yellow, swim- 
ming upon water. Oil of cloves is imported from 
the spice islands ; it is stimulant, and added to 
purgative pills to prevent griping ; it is externally 
applied to aching teeth. 

Oil of Cassia. 
This is a common oil of cinnamon, and is ob- 
tained from the bark of inferior cinnnmon, im- 
ported under the name of cassia. One lb. will 
yield from 1 to IJ drs. It is stimulant and stonu 
achic. Another oil is obtained from cassia buda. 

Oil of Chamomile. 
This is obtained from the flowers, and is stonw 
achic. One lb. will yield a dr.; 82 lbs. will yield 
from 13 to 18 drs. It is of a fine blue, even if 
distilled in glass vessels. 

Oil of Cinnamon. 
This is obtained from the fresh bark, which is 
imported from Ceylon. De Guignes says the cin- 
namon from Cochin China is so full of essential 
oil that it may be pressed out by the fingers. 

Essence of Cedrat. 
This is obtained from the flowers of the citron 
tree ; it is amber-colored and slightly fragrant ; 60 
lbs. yield 1 oz. It is also obtained from the yel- 
low part of citron-peel ; it is colorless, very thin, 
and fragrant. The second oil is obtained by the 
distillation of the yellow part of citron-peel, and 
is greenish; 100 citrons will yield 1 oz. of the 
white essence, and ^ oz. of this. It is likewise 
obtained from the yellow part of citron-peel by 
expression between two glass plates ; also, from 
the cake left on squeezing citron-peel, by distilla- 
tion with water. It is thick. 

Common Essence of Cedrat. 

This is obtained from the faeces left in the casks 
of oitron-juice; clear, flagrant, greenish; 50 lbs. 
of faeces will yield, by distillation, 3 lbs. of es- 
sence. 

Oil of Calamus. 

The rhizoma of the acorns calamus, or swell 
flag, yields about 1 per cent, of oil. It is carmina- 
tive, but little used. It is also employed in per- 
fumery. 

Oil of Cedar. 

Obtained by distillation; is sometimes used in 
perfumery. 

Camphor. 

This is obtained from the roots and shoots of 
the laurus camphora and laurna cinnamomum, aS 
also the capura ciirundii, by distillation with wa- 
ter. This crude camphor is refined by sublima- 
tion with one-sixteenth of its weight of lime in a 
very gentle heat. 

Camphor from Essential Oils. 
Obtained from the oils of the labiate plants by 
a careful distillation, without addition of i of the 
oil ; the residuum will be found to contain crystali 
of camphor, on separating which and re-distilling 
the remaining oil 2 or 3 times, the whole of the 
camphor may be obtained. Oil of rosemary or of 
sweet marjoram yields about 1 oz. of camphor from 
10 of oil; of the sage 1 oz. from 8, and of laven- 
der 1 oz. from 4, or even less of oil; that from 
oil of marjoram is not volatile, and although it 
takes fire, it soon goes out. This resin, like the 
others from essential oils, may be obtained in a 
larger proportion if the oil is kept in slightly stop- 
ped bottles in a cool place. 



ESSENTIAL OILS. 



291 



Dippel's Oil. 
Obtained from hartshorn, distilled without ad- 
dition, rectifying the oil, either Iiy a slow distilla- 
tion in a retort, etc., no bigger than is necessary, 
and saving only the first portion that comes over, 
or with water in a common still; it is very fine 
and thin, and must be kept in an opaque vessel, 
or in a drawer, or dark place, aa it is quickly dis- 
colored by light. It is anti-spasmodic, anodyne, 
and diaphoretic, taken in doses of from 10 to 30 
drops, in water. 

Oil of Bitter Almcnda 
Is obtained by the distillation of the crushed ker- 
nels ; at the same time hydrocyanic acid is formed 
and p.TSses over with the oil. The crude oil is 
therefore poisonous. It issomeiimes used in medi- 
cine for the hydrocyanic acid which it contains, 
but is uncertain. It is used in perfumery and con- 
fectionery. When cakes are flavored with it. the 
hydrocyanic acid can do little or no mischief, as 
it is driven off by the heat employed. 

Artificial Oil of Bitter Almonds 
Is made by action on true benzole (not that dis- 
tilled from petroleum) of fuming nitric acid or a 
mixture of equal parts of ordinary nitric and sul- 
phuric acids. It is of a yellowish color; is poi- 
sonous ; is used for making aniline (see Coal Tar 
Colors), and in perfumery. Its chemical name is 
nitro-benzole ; it is sold as " Essence of Mirban." 
By heating benzoate of ammonia, an oily liquid 
having exactly the bitter almond smell, is ob- 
tained. It is not used. It is known in chemistry 
as benzonitrile. 

Oil of Geranium^ 
From the leaves of the Pelargonium odoratissimnm, 
is used in perfumery. It is adulterated with 
ginger-grass oil. It is used to adulterate attar of 
roses. 

Artificial Oil of Geranium 
May be obtained by distillihg benzoate of copper. 
It has not come into practical use. Its chemical 
name is benzcxyl. 

Krumholz' Oil. 
Obtained by distillation from Hungarian balsam. 
It is distinguished from oil of turpentine, which 
is commonly sold for it, by its golden color, agree- 
able odor, and 'acid oiliness of taste. 

Foreign Oil of Lavender. 
This is the true oil of spike, and is obtained 
from the flowers and seeds of broad-leaved laven- 
der, and more commonly those of French lavender, 
Stcechas, with a quick fire. It is sweet-scented, 
but the oil of the narrow-leaved lavender, or Eng- 
lish oil, is by far the finest. 

Essence of Lavender. 
The oil of the flowers of lavender is rendered 
more delicate in its odor by age ; but to prevent 
its becoming glutinous by keeping, which it is 
very apt to do, draw it over in a water-bath, with 
a small quantity of alcohol, which is termed the 
essence, and which, after being kept closely corked 
for about 7 years, possesses a peculiarly fine deli- 
cate odor of lavender, entirely free from empy- 
reuma. 

Oil of Lemon 
Is obtained by expression and distillation. It is 
used in confectionary and perfumery. When old 
it acquires the taste and smell of turpentine. 

Oil of Lemon-grass. 
Antropogon nargus, is a grass which grows in 
India, Ceylon, and the Moluccas. The oil is ex- 
tensively used in perfumery. 



Oil of Marjoram, 
Origeat rrtajorann, is used in perfumery, Th« 
dried herb yields about 10 per cent, of oil. 
Oil of Sfeadoio Sweet. 
The Spiriea ulmarin is sometimes used as ft 
stimulant and in perfumery. 

Artificial Oil of Meadoio Sweet 
Is made by distilling salicin, a crystalline, V-ittar 
principle, obtained from the leaves and roung 
bark of the willow, with bichromate of poiassa. 
Oil of Mint. 
Obtained from the dried plant. Six lbs. of fresh 
leaves will yield 3i drs. ; and 4 lbs. dried will 
yield IJ oz. It is stimulant, carminative, and 
antispasmodic. 

Essence of Nernli. 
Obtained from the flowers of the orange tree. 
Six cwt. of flowers will yield only 1 oz. of oil. 
Petits grains is an inferior oil of neroli obtained 
in the same manner, but less care being taken in 
the selection of the flowers. Another essence is 
obtained from orange-peel, and is very fragrant. 
A third essence is obtained from unripe oranges, 
and is of a gold color. 

Oil of Nutmegs. 
Obtained from that spice; it is liquid, and of a 
pale yellow ; a sebaceous insipid matter swims 
upon the water in the still. 

Oil of Patchoidy. 
Obtained by distillation from the Pogasfemon 
patchouli, a plant grown extensively in India and 
China. One cwt. of the herb yields about 28 oz. 
of essential oil. It is used in perfumery. 
Oil of Peppermint. 
Obtained from the dried plant. Four lbs. of the 
fresh herb will yield 3 drs. In general it requires 
rectification to render it bright and fine. It is 
stimulant and carminative. 

Oil of Pennyroyal. 
Obtained from the herb when in flower. Three 
lbs. will yield 6 drs. Emmenagogue. 
Oil of Pimento. 
Obtained from allspice. One oz. will yield 30 
drops. It is stimulant. 

Oil of Rhodium. 
Obtained from the true lignum rhodium. Eighty 
lbs. will yield 9 drs., and in very resinous old 
wood 80 lbs. will yield 2 oz. It is light yellowish, 
but grows red by keeping. Another oil is ob- 
tained from the root of rose-wort, rhodiola rosea ; 
it is yellowish, and has the sraell and taste of that 
from the true lignum rhodium. One lb. will yield 
a drachm. 

The True Riga Balsam. 
Obtained from the shoots of the Aphernousti 
pine, pinus cemhra, previously bruised and ma- 
cerated for a month in water. It is pellucid, very 
liquid, whitish, and has the smell and taste of oil 
of juniper. 

Butter of Roses. 
Obtained from the flowers of damask rosei^ 
white, solid, separating slowly from the rose- 
water. It has little scent of its own, and ij used 
to dilute the scent of musk, civet and ambergris. 
One cwt. of roses will yield from i an oz. to an oz. 
Oil of Rosemary. 
Obtained from the flowering tops; it is sweet- 
scented. One cwt. will yield 8 oz. ; 1 lb. of dry 
leaves will yield from 1 to 3 drs. ; 70 lbs. of fresh 
leaves will yield 5 oz. 

Oil of Rue. 
Obtained from the dried plant; it is carminative 
and antispasmodic. Ten lbs. of leaves will yield 



292 



DISTILLATIOIir. 



from 2 to 4 drs. ; 4 lbs. in flower will yield 1 dr. ; I 
and 60 lbs. will yield 2i oz. ; 72 lbs., with the 
•eeds, will yield 3 oz. 

Oil of Sasia/raa. 
Obtained from the sassafras root. Twenty-four 
lbs. will yield 9 oz. ; 30 lbs. will yield 7 oz. and 1 
dr.; and 6 lbs. will yield 2 oz. 

Oil of Sandal Wood. 
1 here are three kinds of sandal or santal wood, 
the white, yellow and red. The yellow is mo?t 
used in perfumery. One cwt. of the wood will 
yield nearly 30 oz. of otto. 

Oil of Spearmint, 
Mentha viridis, is used in medicine as a carmina- 
tive, and in perfumery. 

Oil of Tar. 
Obtained by distilling tar. It is highly valued 
by painters, varnishers, etc., on account of its 
drj'ing qualities ; it soon thickens of itself, almost 
to a bnlsam. The pyroligneous acid that comes 
over with it is useful for many purposes. 
Oil of Thyme. 
Obtained from the plant ; 2 cwt. fresh will yield 
6i oz. ; 3i lbs., dried, will yield J a dr. It is 
stimulant and caustic; and used in toothache, 
applied to the tooth. 

Oil of Tongua. 
Obtained from the tongua, or tonka bean. 
Piptevix odorata is sometimes used in perfumery. 
The bean contains also a camphor-like body and 
benzoic acid. 

Oil of Terpentine. 
Distilled, in Europe, from common turpentine, 
■with the addition of about 6 times as much water ; 
but in America, where the operation is carried on 
upon a very large scale, no water is added, and its 
accidental presence is even dreaded, lest it should 
produce a disruption of the stilling apparatus. 
To Rectify Oil of Turpentine. 
Pour 3 parts of turpentine into a glass retort, 
capable of containing double the quantity of mat- 
ter subjected to the experiment. Place this retort 
on a Siind-bath, and having adapted to it a receiver 
5 or 6 times as large, cement with paste made of 
flour and water, some bands of paper over the place 
where the 2 vessels are joined. If the receiver 
is not tubulated, make a small hole with a pin in 
the bands of cemented paper, to leave a free com- 
munication between the exterior and interior of 
the receiver; then place over the retort a dome of 
baked earth, and maintain the fire in such a man- 
ner as to make the essence and the water boil. 

The receiver will become filled with abundance 
of vapors, composed of water and ethereous es- 
sence, which will condense the more readily if all 
the radiating heat of the furnace be intercepted by a 
plate of copper, or piece of board placed between 
the furnace and the receiver. When the mass of 
oil subjected to experiment has decreased nearly 
two-thirds, the distillation must be stopped. Then 
leave the product at rest to facilitate the separation 
of the ethereous oil, which is afterwards separated 
from the water, on which it floats, by means of a 
glass funnel, the beak of which is stopped by the 
finger. 

This ethereous oil is often milky, or merely ne- 
bulous, by the interposition of some aqueous parts, 
from which it may be separated by a few days' rest. 
The essence, thus prepared, possesses a great de- 
gree of mobility, and is exceedingly limpid. 

Another Method. 
The apparatus employed in the preceding pro- 
cess may be used in the present case. Fill the 



retort § with essence, and as the receiver is tubu- 
lated, apply to the tubular a small square of paper 
moistened with saliva, to afiTord a free passage to 
the vapors. Graduate the fire in such a manner 
as to carry on distillaticm very slowly, until a 
little more than i the oil contained in the retort 
is obtained. Separate from the product, a very 
small quantity of exceedingly acid and reddish 
water, which passes at the same time as the 
ethereous essence ; by these means the operation 
is much shortened. The oil of turpentine which 
remains in the retort is highly colored, and thicker 
than the primitive essence. It may be used for 
extending fat, varnish, or for coarse oil painting. 

Baham of Turpentine, or Dutch-drops. 

Obtained by distilling oil of turpentine in a 
glass retort, till a red balsam is left. 

Or, by distilling resin and separating the oils as 
they come over; first a white oil, then yellow, 
lastly a thick red oil, which is the balsam. It is 
stimulant and diuretic. 

Essence of Viiivert 
Is obtained by distillation of the kug-htg, the 
rhizoma of an East Indian grass. Used in per- 
fumery. 

Oil of Wintergreen, 
From the leaves of the gaiiltheria procumhens, is 
stimulant and carminative. Used in medicine, 
confectionary, and perfumery. 

Oil of Wormwood. 

Obtained from the herb; stomachic: 25 lbs. of 
green wormwood will yield from 6 to 10 drs. of oil; 
4 lbs. of dry will yield 1 oz. ; and 18 lbs. only ij 
troy oz. 

Adulterations of Volatile Oils. 

The most common are resinous matters, fixed 
oils, the cheaper volatile oils, and alcohol. 

Resinous and fitti/ matters are left behind when 
the oil is evaporated ; the latter communicate a 
greasy stain to paper «which does not disappear 
with a gentle heat, and are comparatively insolu- 
ble in alcohol. Both are left behind when the oil 
is mixed with water and distilled. 

The cheaper volatile oils are detected by the 
smell and taste, and specific gravity. Oil of tur- 
pentine (often used) may be detected by it being 
undissolved when the oil is treated with 4 times 
its volume of alcohol of a specific gravity of 0.84. 
Oil of geranium in oil of rose (a very common 
adulteration) is detected by sulphuric acid, which 
developes an unpleasant odor if the geranium oil 
be present, but has no effect upon pure oil of rose. 

Alcohol is largely used in adulteration. Take 
some small pieces of fused chloride of calcium in 
the bottom of a test tube, add the oil to be exam- 
ined, and heat gently to 212° Fahr. If much 
alcohol be present the chloride of calcium will be 
dissolved, if only a small quantity the fragments 
will fall together and form a pasty mass at the 
bottom of the tube. 



DISTILLED WATERS. 

Preservation of Flotcers for Distillation, 
Rub 3 lb. of rose-leaves for 2 or 3 minutes with 
1 lb. of common salt. The flowers being bruised 
by the friction of the grains of salt, form a paste, 
which is to be put into an earthen jar, or into a 
water-tight barrel. The same process is to be re- 
peated until the vessel is filled, so that all the 
roses may be equally salted. The vessel is then 
to be shut up and kept in a cool place until wanted. 
For distillation, this aromatic paste is, at any 
season, to be put into the body of the still with 
twice its weight of water; and when heat is ap- 



DISTILLED WATERS. 



293 



plied, the oil, or essential water, is to be obtained 
in the common way. Both the oil and water are 
in tL- w.iy produced in greater quantity than by 
nsing the leaves without the salt; besides, the 
preserved paste will keep its flavor and strength 
unimpiired for several years. 

Other flowers, capable of affording essential oils, 
may also be treated in the above-mentioned way 
with ecoiromy and advantage; as there is thereby 
no occasion to carry on a hurried process in the 
heat of summer, when these are in perfection. 

General Rules for the Distillation of Simple 
Waters. 

1. Plants and their parts ought to be fresh gath- 
ered. When they are directed fresh, such only 
must be employed ; but some are allowed to be 
used dry, as being easily procurable in this state 
at all times of the year, though rather more elegant 
waters might be obtained from them whilst green. 

2. Having bruised the subjects a little, pour 
thereon thiice its quantity of spring-water. This 
quantity is to be diminished or increased according 
as the plants are more or less juicy than ordinary. 
When fresh and juicy herbs are to be distilled, 
thrice their weight of water will be sufficient ; but 
dry ones require a much larger quantity. In gen- 
eral there shoulil be so much water, that after all 
intended to be distilled has come over, there may 
be liquor enough to prevent the matter from burn- 
ing to the still. 

3. Formerly, some vegetables were slightly fer- 
mented with the addition of yeast, previous to the 
distillation. 

4. If any drops of oil swim on the surface of 
the water, they are to be carefully taken off. 

5. That the waters may be kept the better, about 
Dne-twentieth part of their weight of proof spirit 
may be added to each after they are distilled. 

Stills for Simple Waters. 
,The instruments chiefly used in the distillation 
of simple waters are of two kinds, commonly called 
the hot still, or alembic, and the cold still. The 
waters drawn by the cold still from plants are 
much more fragrant, and more fully impregnated 
with their virtues, than those drawn by the hoi 
Still or alembic. 

The method is this : A pewter body is suspended 
in the body of the alembic, and the head of the 
still fitted to the pewter body; into this body the 
ingredients to be distilled are put, the alembic 
filled with water, the still-head luted to the pewter 
body, and the nose luted to the worm of the refri- 
gerator or worm. The same intention will be 
answered by putting the ingredients into a glass 
alembic and placing it in a bath heat, or balneum 
mar^e. 

The cold still is much the best adapted to draw 
off the virtues of simples which are valued for 
their fine flavor when green, which is subject to 
be lost in drying; for when we want to extract 
from plants a spirit so light and volatile as not to 
subsist in open air any longer than while the 
plant continues in its growth, it is certainly the 
best method to remove the plant from its native 
soil into some proper instrument where, as it dies, 
these volatile parts can be collected and preserved. 
And such an instrument is what we call the cold 
still, where the drying of the plant or flower is 
only forwarded by a moderate warmth, and all 
that rises is collected and preserved. 
Expediti<ius Method of Distilling Simple Waters. 

Tie a piece of muslin or gauze over a glazed 
earthen pot, whose mouth is just large enough to 
receivo the bottom of a warming-pan; on this 
cloth lay the herb clipped ; then place upon them 
the warming-pan with live coals in it, to cause 



heat just warm enough to prevent burning; by 
which means, as the steam issuing out of the 
herb cannot mount upwards, by reason of the 
bottom of the pan just fitting the brim of the 
vessel below it, it must necessarily descend and 
collect into water at the bottom of the receiver, 
and that strongly impregnated with the essential 
oil and the salt of the vegetable thus distilled; 
which, if wanted to make spirituous or compound 
water, is easily done by simply adding some good 
spirits or French brandy to it, which will keep 
good for a long time, and be much better than if 
the spirits had passed through a still, which must 
of necessity waste some of their strength. Cara 
should be taken not to let the fire be too strong, 
lest it scorch the plants ; and to be made of char- 
coal, for continuance and better regulation, which 
must be managed by lifting up and laying down 
the lid, as wanted to increase or decrease the de- 
grees of heat. The deeper the earthen pan, the 
cooler the season, and the less fire at first (after- 
wards to be gradually raised), in the greater per- 
fection will the distilled water be obtained. 

As the more movable or volatile parts of vege- 
tables are the aqueous, the oily, the gummy, the 
resinous, and the saline, these are to be expected 
in the waters of this process; the heat here em- 
ployed being so great as to burst the vessels of 
the plants, some of which contain so large a quan- 
tity of oil that it may be seen swimming on the 
surface of the water. 

Although a small quantity only of distilled wa- 
ters can be obtained at a time by this confined 
operation, yet it compensates in strength what is 
deficient in quantity. Such liquors, if well corked 
up from the air, will keep a good long time, espe- 
cially if about a twentieth part of any spirits 
be added, in order to preserve the same more 
effectually. 

To make Rosemary Water, 

As the method of performing the operation by 
the cold still is the very same, whatever plant or 
flower is used, the following instance of procuring 
a water from rosemary will be abundantly suffi- 
cient to instruct the young practitioner in the 
manner of conducting the process in all cases 
whatever. 

Take rosemary fresh gathered in its perfection, 
with the morning dew upon it, and lay it lightly 
and unbruised upon the plate or bottom of the 
still ; cover the plate with its conical head, and 
apply a glass receiver to the nose of it. Make a 
small fire of charcoal under the plate, continuing 
it as long as any liquor comes over into the re- 
ceiver. 

When nothing more comes over, take off the 
still head and remove the plant, putting fresh in 
its stead, and proceed as before ; continue to re- 
peat the operation successively, till a sufficient 
quantity of water is procured. Let this distilled 
water be kept at rest in clean bottles close stopped, 
for some days in a cold place; by this means it 
will, become limpid, and powerfully impregnated 
with the taste and smell of the plant. 
Simple Ale.vetereal Waters. 

Take of spearmint leaves, fresh, IJ lbs.; soa 
wormwood tops, fresh, angelica leaves, fresh, each 
1 lb. ; water, as much as is sufficient to prei^ent 
burning. Draw off by distillation 3 galls. Or 
take of elder-flowers moderately dried, 2 lbs.; 
angelica leaves, fresh gathered, 1 lb.; water, a 
sufficient quantity. Distill off 3 galls. 
Simple Pennyroyal Water. 

Take of pennyroyal lea 'es, dry, IJ lbs.; water 
as much as will prevent burning. Draw off by 
distillation 1 gall. 



294 



DISTILLATION. 



Simple Spearmint Water. 
Take of spearmint leaves, fresh, any quantity ; 
water, 3 times as much. Distil as long as the 
liquor which comes over has a considerable taste 
or suiell of the mint. Or, take spearmint leaves, 
dried, IJ lbs., water as much as is sufficient to pre- 
Tent burning. Draw off by distillation 1 gall. 

Cinnamon Water. 

Take of bruised cinnamon, 1 lb. ; water, 2 galls. 
Simmer in a still for i an hour, put what comes 
over into the still again ; when cold strain through 
flannel. 

Eau Sana- Pareil. 

Take 2 galls, of fine old honey-water, put it 
Into a still capable of holding 4 gulls., and add 
the thinly pared rindsof 6or 8 fresh citrons, neither 
green nor mellow ripe. Then add 60 or 70 drops 
of fine Roman bergamot ; and, having luted the 
apparatus well, let the whole digest in a moderate 
heat for 24 hours. Draw off, by a water-bath 
heat, about 1 gall. 

Jessamine Water. 

Take 6 lbs. of the white sweet almond cakes 
from which jessamine oil has been made abroad; 
beat and sift them to a fine powder, and put to it 
as much fresh oil of jessamine as will be required 
to make it into a stiff paste. Let this paste be 
dissolved in about 6 qts. of spring-water, which 
has been previously well boiled, and left until it 
has become about half cold. Stir and mi.x the 
whole well together; and when the oil and water 
have been well combined, let the whole stand 
until the powder has fallen to the bottom of the 
vessel. Now pour the liquid off gently, and filter 
it through cotton, in a large tin funnel, into the 
glass bottle in which it is to be kept for use. The 
powder or sediment which has been left at the 
bottom of the vessel, when dried by the heat of 
the sun, answers very well for making almond 
paste for the hands. 

Jamaica Pepper Water. 

Jamaica pepper is the fruit of a tall tree grow- 
ing in the mountainous parts of Jamaica, where 
it is much cultivated because of the great profit 
arising from the cured fruit, sent in large quanti- 
ties annually into Europe. Take of Jamaica pep- 
per, i lb. ; water, 2i galls. ; dmw off 1 gall, with a 
pretty brisk fire. The oil of this fruit is very pon- 
derous, and therefore this water is made in an 
alembic. 

Myrtle Water. 

Infuse 8 or 10 lbs. of the cuttings of green myr- 
tle in nearly 20 galls of rain or river water, and 
aid thereto a pint of fresh yeast, after it has stood 
for 24 hours. At the end of another day and night, 
put the whole into a still, with 1 lb. of bay-salt. 
Draw off the whole of the water, and next day in- 
fuse more myrtle leaves as before, and distill again. 
Repeat the same a third time. 

Orange-flower Water. 

Take 2 lbs. of orange-flowers, and 24 qts. of 
water, and draw over 3 pts. Or, take 12 lbs. of 
« range-flowers, and 16 qts. of water, and draw 
over 1& qts. 

Orange-peel Water. 

Take of the outward yellow rind of Seville 
©ranges, 4 oz. ; water, 3^ galls.; draw off 1 gall. 
by the alembic, with a brisk fire. 
Peppermint Water. 

Take of the herb of peppermint, dried, IJ lbs. ; 
water, as much as is suflicient to prevent burning. 
Distill off a gallon. This has been known to allay 
sickness when nothing else would succeed, and is 



used in flatulent colics. A wineglassful may be 
taken, and often repeated. 

Another. — Take of oil of peppermint, 1 lb.; 
water, a sufficient quantity. Draw off 30 galls. 
This is stimulant and carminative, and covers dig- 
agreeable flavors. 

Portugal and Angel Waters. 

Take 1 pt. of orange-flower water; 1 pt. of rose- 
water; and J pt. of myrtle water; to these put a 
\ oz. of distilled spirit of musk, and an ounce of 
spirit of ambergris. Shake the whole well to- 
gether, and the process will be finished. 
Rose-water. 

Take of the leaves of fresh damask-roses with 
the heels cut off, 6 lbs. ; water, as much as to pre- 
vent burning. Distill off a gallon. The distilled 
water should be drawn from dried herbs, because 
the fresh cannot be got at all times in the year. 
AVhenever the fresh are used the weights must be 
increased ; but whether the fresh or dry are made 
use of, it is left to the judgment of the operator to 
vary the weight, according as the plants are in 
greater or less perfection, owing to the season in 
which they grew, or were collected. 
Small Snail Water. 
* Take of balm, mint, hart's tongue, ground ivy; 
flowers of the dead nettle, mallow-flowers, elder- 
flowers, each a handful ; snails freed from their 
shells, and whites of eggs, each 4 oz. ; nutmegs, i 
oz.; miik, 1 gall. Distill in a water-bath to dry- 
ness. 

Strawberry Water. 

Take of the bruised fruit, 20 lbs. ; water a suflS- 
cient quantity. Draw off 2i galls. ; this water i3 
very fragrant. 

Common Distilled Water. 

Take of water, 10 galls. Distill. Throw away 
the first i gall, and draw off 4 galls., which keep 
in glass or stoneware. Distilled water is used 
in making medicine preparations when the salts 
contained in common water would decompose 
them. 



COMPOUND DISTILLED WATERS. 

Gejieral Rules for the Distillation of Spirituous 
Waters. 

1. The plants and their parts ought to be mode- 
rately and newly dried, except such as are ordered 
to be fresh gathered. 

2. After the ingredients have been steeped in 
the spirit for the time prescribed, add as much 
water as will be sufficient to prevent a burnt 
flavor, or rather more. 

3. The liquor which comes over first in the dis- 
tillation is by some kept by itself, under the title 
of spirit; and the other runnings, which prove 
milky, are fined down by art. But it is preferable 
to mix all the runnings together, without fining 
them, that the waters may possess the virtues of 
the plant entire. 

4. In the distillation of these waters, the gen- 
uine brandy obtained from wine is directed. 
Where this is not to be procured take, instead of 
that proof spirit, half its quantity of a well-recti-i 
fied spirit, prepared from any other fermented 
liquors. In this steep the ingredients, and then 
add spring-water enough both to make up the 
quantity ordered to be drawn off, and to prevent 
burning. 

Bergamot Water. 

Take of fine old French brandy 2 galls., or I 

gall, of highly rectified spirit of wine, and 1 galL 

of spring-water. Put to the brandy, or diluted 

spirits i oz., or more, of true Roman oil of berga- 



COMPOUND DISTILLED WATEKS. 



295 



mot, whose par(-» have been previously well di- 
vided by triturat'.on with lump-sugar, in a glass 
mortar, Now distill by a water heat, and draw 
off 6 qts. only. By this operation a most excel- 
lent bergamot water will be produced, which will 
remain good for 20 years. 

Orujiiial Receipt for Hungary Water. 
The original receipt for preparing this invalua- 
ble lotion is written in letters of gold in the hand- 
writing of Elizabeth, queen of Hungary. Take of 
aqua viti«, four times distilled, 3 parts; the tops 
and flowers of rosemary, 2 parts. To be put to- 
gether in a close-stopped vessel, and allowed to 
stand in a warm place during 50 hours, then to be 
distilled in an alembic, and of this, once every 
week, 1 dr. to be taken in the morning, either in 
the food or drink, and every morning the face and 
the diseased limb to be washed with it. 

French Hunynry Water. 

The French Hungar}' water is made wholly from 
a wine spirit, and from rosemary flowers alone, 
which about Montpellier (the place from whence 
this commodity comes) grow in great plenty and 
perfection. The fragrancy of these flowers is so 
great as to render the waters made from them 
more excellent and valuable than anything of the 
kind made in England. 

Best Hungary Water, 

Take 30 galls, of spirit of wine; put to it, in a 
large still, 6 large bunches of fine green rose- 
mary, when the flowers are white and in full 
bloom ; 1 lb. of lavender flowers, and 4 oz. of true 
English oil of rosemary. The rosemary-leaves 
and flowers must be stripped from all their wood 
and green twigs. When the whole has been in a 
state of digestion for 24 hours, distill as before, 
drawing off about 25 or 26 galls., but no more. 
When distilled, stop it closely in a copper vessel, 
and keep it undisturbed for about a month. 

Aqua ilellin, or the King's Honey-ioater. 
First Distillation. 

Take 28 lbs. of coriander seeds, ground small in 
the starch-mill ; 28 common bunches of sweet 
marjoram, in flower, dried and stripped from the 
twigs; 1 lb. of calamus aromaticus; 1 lb. of yel- 
low saundjrs; and 1 lb. of orange and lemon peel. 
Let the 3 last be separately beaten into gross pow- 
der. Mi.x the above ingredients, and put them 
into a 60 gall, copper still, and add to them 20 
galls, of proof spirit, and the same quantity of 
rain or spring-water. Lute well all the junctures 
of the apparatus, and leave the ingredients in this 
state, without fire, for 48 hours. At the end of 
this time begin to distill by a very gentle heat, lest 
the flowers and seeds, which are very light, should 
rise suddenly in the still-head, stop up the worm, 
and endanger the whole work. 

Increase the fire after the first half hour, and 
keep it regular till the termination of the process. 
Draw off about 26 or 27 galls., or continue so long 
as the spirit will burn by the application of a 
lighted paper to a small quantity of it in a saucer. 
Next day, when the still is perfectly cold, let it be 
well eleaneil out. The ingredients should be im- 
mediately dried in the sun, otherwise they will 
become mouldy. When there is a considerable 
quantity from 3 or 4 makings it ought to be 
ground in a mill, and fijiely sifted. They will be 
found to be of great use in the making of ordinary 
brown wash-balls, and, with some additions of 
brown powders for the hair. 

Second Distillation, 
Now return the spirits drawn off into the still, 
and add 10 or 12 galls, of water ; then put in the 



following ingredients, bruised and mixed : 14 oz. 
of nutmegs, 4 oz. of cloves, 12 oz. of cinnamon 
bark, 8 oz. of pimento, and 40 oz. of cassia-lignum. 
These are to be separately broken or bruised in an 
iron mortar, until they are about the size of small 
peas. If there be any dust, it must be sifted from 
them before they are used; then take 40 oz. of 
storax, 40 oz. of gum Benjamin, 44 oz. of labda- 
num, and 40 vencUios. 

Break and bruise the above also, but make as 
Jittle dust as possible. Put the dust from these 
and the foregoing, together, into a coarse muslin 
bag, which is to be hung in the still, so that tha 
liquor, during distillation, may extract all its vir- 
tues. The whole are then to remain in the liquor, 
in a cold state, for 48 hours, attention being still 
paid to luting and stopping close, as before. At 
the end of this time kindle the fire, and work off 
(slowly at first) until 26 galls, are distilled. Mix 
all the different runnings together in a copper 
vessel, kept for this purpose only. 

Having drawn off, in this second distillation, 
26 galls., mix together 10 oz. of spirit of musk, 
10 oz. of spirit of ambergris, J oz. of true oil of 
lavender, i oz. of essence of bergamot, and J oz. 
of oil of rhodium. Now add to it, in a copper 
vessel that will hold 40 galls., 6 galls, of orange- 
flower water, and 8 galls, of rose-water, recently 
made. When properly mixed, put all these into 
the copper vessel, and stir the whole well together. 
Add to all these a quart of milk, which has stood 
for a night, and which has had the cream taken 
clearly off; then agitate and mix the whole well 
together, and stop the vessel up close, until the 
time when it is to be used. 

The jar ought to have a lock-cock soldered into 
it, to prevent accidents. This should be placed full 
two inches from the bottom, in order that the milk 
and other impurities may fall to the bottom. 

If this honey-water be made in the spring, and 
if the weather be fair, it will be quite fined down 
in the course of a month, that is, if it be not 
opened or disturbed. When, by drawing off a 
little in a glass, the milk, etc., have fallen down 
to the bottom, draw the whole off into clean and 
well-seasoned stone or glass bottles, or into an- 
other copper jar. This composition ought never 
to be drawn off in rainy or cloudy weather, for 
then the milk is apt to rise. In warm weather it 
should be kept cool, and in winter as warm aa 
possible. When distilled in the winter the jars 
ought to be warmed, or otherwise the honey-water 
will not be fined for 5 or 6 months. 

This honey-water may keep 30 years. 

The ingredients from the second distillation are 
of much greater value than those from the first, 
and therefore require more care in the drying. 
These are of great use for the best sort of gross 
powders, for sweet bags, etc. ; and, if made into a 
fine powder, may be made use of with great suc- 
cess, in the best sort of brown perfumed balls. 

The same powder, with fresh ingredients, makes 
excellent pastils, to burn ; and may be further 
used in making spirit of Benjamin. 

Compound Spirit of Juniper. 
Take of juniper-berries, well bruised, 1 lb.; car- 
away seeds, and sweet fennel seeds, each, bruised, 
IJ oz. ; diluted alcohol, 1 gall. Macerate for two 
days, and having added as much water as will 
prevent emnyreuma, draw off, by distillation, 1 
gall. 

Lavender Spirit. 

Take 14 lbs. of lavender flowers, lOJ galls, of 
rectified spirit of wine, and 1 gall, of water, draw 
oft' 10 gall, by a gentle fire; or, which is much 
better, by a sand bath heat. 



296 



DISTILLATION. 



Laven der-wnter. 
Take 30 galls, of the best wine spirit, pour it 
into a copper still, placed in a hot water bath, 
over a clear but steady fire ; put to it 6 lbs. of the 
largest and freshest lavender flowers, after having 
separated them from all stalks and green leaves, 
which give the lavender water a woody and faint 
smell. Put no water into the still; close all the 
junctures well, and let the spirits and flowers 
stand ir. a state of digestion for 24 hours; and 
then, with n gentle fire, draw off 25. or, at most, 
26 galls, only, which, as soon as distilled, are to be 
poured into a copper vessel for keeping. Wooden 
vessels and cans are to be avoided, as the best parts 
of the oil and of the spirits will be absorbed by 
them, and consequently lost. When the distilla- 
tion is over, draw out, or quench the fire, and let 
the remaining spirits and flowers continue in the 
still until the next day. When the above quan- 
tity of 25 or 26 galls, has stood for 4 or 5 days, 
put to it 10 oz. of true English oil of lavender. 
Mix the whole well in the jar, by drawing out 1 
or 2 galls., and then returning them. Repeat this 
10 or 12 times, then stop the vessel up close, and 
do not disturb it for a month at least. 

Lnvender-icater of the Second Order. 
To the 4 or 5 galls, of the spirits, and the laven- 
der flowers left in the still, after the distillation 
mentioned in the last article, add 15 galls, of com- 
mon proof spirit, 9 or 10 galls, of -pring-water, 3 
lbs. of lavender flowers, and 4 oz. o. oil of laven- 
der, intimately mi.xed with loaf sugai. ''v powder- 
ing it in a glass mortar. Digest the vhole, and 
draw off 25 galls., proceeding in every respect as 
before, except that, in this case, no oil is to be 
added ; for, as there is so much water present, the 
addition of oil would be apt to turn the whole 
quantity muddy, or of a bluish or opaque color, 
which it cannot be easily freed from, without a 
second distillation. 

Lavender-water for immediate use. 
Mix with 1 gall, of proof spirit, IJ oz. of true 
English oil of lavender, which is all that will pro- 
perly combine with the spirit, without injuring the 
color, by rendering it muddy. When the spirit 
and the oil are properly mixed, they are to be put 
into glass bottles, which are to be well stopped, 
and ought to be shaken before used. 

Perfumed Lavender-water. 
Distill by a gentle heat in a sand or water bath, 
or mix and shake frequently, during 14 days, the 
following ingredients : 1 oz. of foreign oil of lav- 
ender, i oz. of English lavender, A oz. of essence 
of ambergris, and 1 gall, of rectified spirit of 
wine. 

Lemon-water. 

The peel of the lemon, the part used in making 
this water, is a very grateful bitter aromatic, 
and, on that account, very serviceable in repair- 
ing and strengthening the stomach. . Take of dried 
lemon-peel, 4 lbs. ; proof spirit, lOJ gall., and 1 
gall, of water. Draw off 10 galls, by a gentle fire. 

Spirit of Peppermint. 
Take of the herb of peppermint, dried, 1 J lbs. ; 
proof spirit, 1 gall. ; water, sufiicient to prevent 
burning. Distill off 1 gall. 

Compound Gentian-water. 
Take of gentian root, sliced, 3 lbs.; leaves and 
flowers of the lesser centaury, each 8 oz. ; infuse 
ihe whole in 6 qts. of proof spirit and 1 qt. of 
Water; and draw off the water till the feints begin 
to rise. 



Spirit of Sc'trvy- Grass. 

Take of scurvy-grass, fresh gathered and 
bruised, 15 lbs.; horseradish-root, 6 lbs.; recti- 
fied spirit of wine, 1 gall.; and water, 3 pts. Di- 
gest the whole in a close vessel 2 days, and draw 
off 1 gall, with a gentle fire. 

Antiscorbutic Water. 

Take of the leaves of water cresses, garden an I 
sea scurvy-grass, and brook-lime, each 20 hand- 
fuls ; of pine-tops, germander, horehound, and the 
lesser centaury, each 16 handfuls ; of the roots of 
bryony and sharp-pointed dock, each Bibs.; of 
mustard-seed, H lbs. Digest the whole in 10 
galls, of proof spirit, and 2 galls, of water, and 
draw off by a gentle fire. 

ACID LIQUORS. 
Vinefjar. {Impure Dilute Acetic Acid.) 

Vinegar is made by the oxidation of alcohol, 
cither directly or through the medium of a fer- 
ment, or by the distillation of wood ; the latter is 
known as pyroligneous acid. Any substance ca- 
pable of fermentation or any containing alcohol is 
suitable for making vinegar. It is made in the 
slow way from wine, cider, beer, sugar, or honey 
and water, whiskey and water, juice of plants and 
vegetables ; in the quick way from a spirit pre- 
pared for the purpose. 

Slow Method of Malcing Vinegar. 

This is the process usually adopted in the small 
scale. The "wash," as any weak alcoholic liquor 
is called, should be weak, from 5 to 10 per cent, 
of alcohol is best, too strong a liquor will ferment 
very slowly ; the strength is best judged by the 
taste. The temperature should be from 74° to 86° 
Fahr. Sour beer, wine, or cider are better than 
good liquors. The addition of sugar, honey, or 
other sweet matter with a view of strengthening 
the vinegar is not to be recommended, as it ren- 
ders the vinegar liable to spoil. Ordinary fer- 
mented liquors are quite alcoholic enough. 

The best ferment is vinegar ; an old cask in 
which good vinegar has been kept is the best to 
ferment in. Other ferments are used, as bread 
soaked in brewer's yeast, sour dough, dough of 
wheat and rye flour soaked in cream of tartar and 
vinegar; all these are used in small quantity, a 
few ounces to a barrel of wash. Vinegar made 
with them is more apt to spoil. The more ferment 
present the quicker the process. 

The wash is put into the cask, which is best 
painted black in order to absorb the sun's rays 
when the weather is ci:ol; the bung is left out, the 
bung-hole covered with a piece of slate, and in 
about 4 weeks the acetification is complete. The 
lower the temperature the slower the change. 
To Purify Vinegar. 

After all the mothers are deposited, draw it off 
into a vessel filled with beech shavings, and let it 
stand in a cool place until clear. Vinegar is apt 
to be infested with flies {Mnsca cellaris), and eels 
( Vibrio aceti). These may be killed by passing 
it through a coiled tube dipped in boiling water. 

Vinegar (especially when weak) if exposed to 
the air becomes thick or mothery, and deposits a 
mucilaginous substance; the vinegar becomes 
weak and mouldy as this change goes on. 

When vinegar is barrelled, a pint of spirits 
should be added to each bArrel to secure its keep- 
ing. It should be kept in a cool place. 

Varieties of Vinegar. 
Wine Vinegar, made from wine, contains citrio 
and tartaric acid, and a small portion of acetio 
ether, which communicates an agreeable flavor. 



VINEGAR. 



297 



It is imitated hy adding acetic ether and coloring 
matter to vinegar uiaile from whisliey. 

Cider Viiieijiu- (which includes all fruit vine- 
gars) contains malic acid. 

Malt, or Corn Vinegar, made from weak worts, 
oontains phos])hates of lime and magnesia, gum, 
and extractive matter. 

Wood Viiieynr, or pyroligneous acid, when crude, 
contains tar and wood spirit. 

Adulterations of Vinegar. 

Sulphuric, nitric and muriatic acids, are used 
to give a false strength ; burned sugar and acetic 
ether to give color and flavor. The latter cannot 
be considered as injurious. One one-thousandth 
of mineral acid is allowable, and tends to preserve 
the vinegar. This would be about four measured 
ounces to the barrel, or two to the ordinary half- 
barrel. 

Sii/phuric acid is detected by boiling with chlo- 
ride of calcium ; baryta is not admissible as a 
test for sulphuric acid in vinegar. 

Muriatic acid gives a white, curdy precipitate, 
with a solution of nitrate of silver. This precipi- 
tate is soluble in ammonia, and blackens on ex- 
posure to light. 

Nitric acid is detected by adding muriatic acid. 
If the solution will dissolve gold leaf, nitric acid 
is present. 

To Strengthen Vinegar. 

Freeze it and remove the ice which forms on the 
surface. The water of the vinegar alone freezes, 
leaving the acetic acid in solution in the remain- 
ing water. 

To Determine the Strength of Vinegar. 

The hydrometer (see Specific Gravity) is not 
to be much relied on in testing the strength of 
vinegar. The simplest test is to take a fragment 
of fine marble, weigh it and suspend it by a 
thread in a known measure of vinegar until all 
action ceases and the liquid has no longer a sour 
taste. Take out the marble, wash and dry it, and 
note the loss of weight it has sustained. Five- 
sixths of this is real (hydrated) acetic acid. An 
ounce of good vinegar should saturate from 30 to 
32 grs. of pure and dry carbonate of soda; such 
vinegar contains about 5 per cent, of anhydrous 
(absolute) acetic acid. Vinegar above 30 per cent, 
of real acid will dissolve the essential oils and 
camphor. 

Simple continuous Vinegar Process. 

The following household vinegar method is to 
be recommended as simple, expeditious, and fur- 
nishing a constant supply of vinegar with scarcely 
any trouble, and at trifling cost: Two barrels are 
procured, one for making, the other for storing the 
vinegar. Those from which good vinegar has just 
been drawn are preferable. The storage barrel is 
kept always in the cellar, the generating one in 
the cellar or house, according to the season. In 
this latter barrel a small hole is bored, for the cir- 
culation of air, at the top of one of its heads. The 
barrels lie on their side, and contain each a wooden 
faucet. Of course their capacity is regulated by 
the yearly demand of vinegar. 

AVe will suppose that the generator, filled to the 
level of the ventilating hole, contains 10 galls.; 
the manufacture will then be carried on in the 
following manner: Seven galls, of good vinegar 
are placed in it, and 3 galls, of a warm alcoholic 
mixture made in the following manner and added : 
If common whiskey (60 per cent.) be employed, 
have a small measure of 3 pts. and a large one (a 
bucket) of 3 galls. If 86 per cent, spirits are 
used, let the small measure be for 2 pts. Put a 
unall measureful of the spirits in the large mea- 



sure ; fill quickly to the mark with boiling water, 
and pour by a funnel into the generator. Every 

2 or 3 weeks 3 galls, of vinegar are withdrawn 
from the generator, added to the storajre barrel, 
and 3 galls, of alcoholic mixture are placed in the 
generating barrel as before. 

Another method of working the casks consists 
in half filling the generator with vinegar and ad- 
ding every week so much of the alcoholic mixture 
that it fills the barrel in from 8 to 16 weeks, ac- 
cording to the season. Half the vinegar is then 
added to the storage cask, and the process recom- 
menced in the generator. The wanner the sea- 
son the more rapid may be the manufacture. — 
Wttherill on the Mannfacture of Vinegaj-. 
Vinegar without a Ferment (Dohereiner's Process). 

The ferment used in the manufacture of vine- 
gar is not necessary. Alcohol may be oxidized 
directly by the agency of finely divided platinum 
(platinum black) ; 10 per cent, alcohol placed in 
a close vessel with platinum black is rapidly con- 
verted into acetic acid. Dr. Ure estimates that 
with a box of 12 ft. cube and 6 to 8 oz. of strong 
platinum, I lb. of alcohol daily can be converted 
into acetic acid, and with from 20 to 30 lbs. we 
may obtain 300 lbs. of vinegar from the propor- 
tionate quantity of spirits. The same platinum 
block will last for an indefinite time, requiring 
only to be heated to redness from time to time, to 
restore it. This method is undoubtedly the most 
elegant one known of vinegar manufacture, and 
has been tried on a large scale in Germany. The 
objection to it is, however, the high cost of the 
platinum, in which a large amount of capital must 
necessarily be kept locked up. 

The continuous Quick Vinegar Process. 

This is the method almost universally adopted 
for manufacturing vinegar on the large scale. 
Common new whiskey makes excellent vinegar; 
the fusel oil becoming oxidized during the process, 
is converted in harmless, agreeable ether. It is 
diluted so as to form a wash of about 6 per cent, 
alcohol. Two tubs, or upright casks, arc prepared 
as follows : A false top and bottom are inserted. 
In the false top are bored numerous holes one- 
tenth of an inch in diameter and 1^ in. apart; the 
top is fixed water-tight about 6 to 8 in. from the 
top of the barrel. At from 8 to 14 in. above the 
bottom of the tube are bored ^ in. air-holes, in- 
clining downwards, so that the liquid may not 
flow out. About 2 in. above the air-holes is placed 
the false bottom pierced with i in. or inch holes. 
The space between the false top and bottom is 
filled with closely-curled beech-shavings, or char- 
coal in lumps of the size of a walnut, sifted, 
washed and dried. The holes in the false top are 
filled with lamp-wick, and the space below the 
false bottom provided with a stop-cock, or goose- 
neck. There is also an inclined hole 6 in. below 
the false top for the insertion of a thermometer 
and hour-glass, or wood tubes are inserted into 
the false top, reaching nearly to the cover of the 
tub; these act as chimneys. The beech shavings 
are boiled in vinegar and pressed into their place 
until within 6 in. of the false top or sieve. Be- 
fore starting the process the room and tubs are to 
be kept a day at a temperature of 76° to 80° Fahr. 

The shavings at the thermometer hole, and at 
the lower ventilating holes, are then loosened by 
means of a stick thrust therein. A wash is now ' 
prepared which contains 1-5 vinegar and 4-5 of a 

3 per cent, solution of alcohol; this heated to from 
76° to 80°, is gradually poured through the hole 
in the cover of the generator, at the rate of 1 bar- 
rel in 24 hours. At the expiration of this time, 
warm the resulting vinegar if necessary, and hav- 



298 



DISTILLATION. 



ing added enough alcohol to make the whole 
quantity taken thus far of 5 per cent, alcoholic 
strength, pour this throujih the generators as 
befiire. Repeat this operation on the third, and 
even on the fourth diiy if necessary. Investigate 
the temperature of the air escaping from the gene- 
rator, and when it exceeds that of the wash which 
is running, it is a sign that the acetification has 
commenced. When it rises to a point between 98° 
and 104°, the generators are in a proper condition 
to commence the regular business of the manu- 
facture; the fermentation has been properly estab- 
lished. AVe then daily pour through generator 
No. 1, a wash cimsisting of a certain quantity of 
spirits, vinegar, and water, heated to a tempera- 
ture between 75° and 80° Fahr. ; and through No. 
2 the wash has passed through No. 1, to which 
has been added nmre spirits. We draw manufac- 
tured vinegar daily from generator No. 2. The 
vinegar resulting from setting the generators in 
action, though not prejudicial to health, is of in- 
ferior quality and bad flavor, from extractive 
matter from the shavings and tubs and from the 
iron cauldron. It may be added in very small 
quantity to the subsequent vinegar, if it be not 
thrown away. — WetheriU on the manufacture of 
vinegar. 

To make Qitass. 

Mix rye flour and warm water together, and 
leave it till it has turned sour. This vinegar is 
much drunk in Russia; it looks thick and unplea- 
sant at first, but becomes agreeable by use. 
Distilled Vinegar. 

This is obtained from vinegar by distillation, 
rejecting the fourth or eighth part that comes 
over first, and avoid its acquiring a burnt flavor. 

Distilled vinegar is weaker than the common, 
but is used sometimes in pickles, where its want 
of color is an advantage. 

To Deprive Vinegar and other Vegetable Liquids 
of their Color, 

To take away the color of vinegar, a litre of red 
wine vinegar, cold, is mixed with 45 grammes of 
bone-charcoal, in a glass vessel. Shake this mix- 
ture from time to time, and in 2 or 3 days tiie 
color completely disappears. AVhen the process 
is to be performed in the large way, throw the 
charcoal into a cask of vinegar, which must be 
stirred from time to time. The highest colored 
red wines treated in the same manner become per- 
fectly limpid. Ivory-black possesses the same 
property as bone-black. 

To Prepare the Charcoal. 

Fill a crucible with the most comp.act parts of 
ox and sheep bones, lute the cover, carefully leav- 
ing only a small opening at the top, place the cru- 
cible on a forge fire, and heat it gradually till red; 
when the flame from the oily and gelatinous parts 
has ceased, diminish the opening and suddenly 
raise the fire ; when cold, reduce the charcoal to 
fine powder. 

To Procure Pyroligneona Acid. 

This acid is procured from any kind of green 
wood (such as cord wood), used for making char- 
coal ; a cord of wood will produce about 80 galls. 
It is obtained in the following manner : A brisk 
oven is filled with coal or wood, until it becomes 
tufficiently hot to heat an oven over it to that de- 
gree as to reduce green wood to a charcoal. The 
upper oven sh juld be closely stopped except a tube 
at the top to carry oflf the steam or acid, which 
tube is passed through water, and the steam thus 
condensed forms the acid. 

To Prepare the same. 

Place a large cast-iron cylinder, or retort (simi- 



lar to those used for the production of coal gas), 
in a furnace, so that it may receive as much heat, 
,all round, as possible. One end of this cylinder 
must be so constructed as to open and shut, to 
admit wood, and exclude the air. 

Oak, in pieces about 1 foot in length, i? to bo 
put into the cylinder, which is to be filled as full 
as possible, without being wedged, and the door 
must be shut close to exclude air; from the cylin- 
der let a worm run through cold water to condense 
the acid ; by this it is conveyed to a large cask 
placed on one end, where there is a pipe to carry 
it from that to 2 or 3 more ; thus it is completely 
secured from flying off in the va]iorous state. The 
fire is now to be raised to a great heat, sufficiently 
piiwerful to convert the wood completely into char- 
coal. When the acid ceases to come over, the fire 
is to be taken out, and the mass of wood left to cool 
in the confined state, when it becomes perfect char- 
coal. In the first cask, tar is chiefly contained 
with the acid, it precipitates to the bottom, and is 
drawn ofi" by a cock ; it is afterwards boiled in an 
iron boiler to evaporate the acid, before it is fit for 
use. If the acid is not strong enough, it is put 
into large square vats about 6 inches deep, for the 
purpose of making a large surface, to evaporate a 
part of the water contained in the acid, more espe- 
cially by a slow heat. These vats are bedded on 
sand upon the top of a brick stove, where a gentle 
heat is applied ; thus it may be procured in a 
pretty strong state. 

This acid is a liquid of the color of white wine, 
possesses a strong acid and slightly astringent 
taste, combined with an empyreumatic smell. 
When allowed to remain in a state of rest for 8 or 
10 days, tar of a black color subsides, and the 
acid is then comparatively transparent. To purify 
it further, it undergoes the process of distillation, 
by which it is freed from a still greater portion of 
the tar, with which it is combined, and is thus 
rendered still more transparent. But though the 
process of distillation be repeated without end, it 
will never be freed from the volatile oil with which 
it is combined, and which is the cause of empy- 
reuma constantly attending it. In short, it con- 
tains the same properties for the preservation of 
animal matters from putrefaction as smoking 
them by wood does, which is practised at present 
by the most barbarous nations, and which has 
been handed down from the remotest ages of an- 
tiquity. 

Glacial Acetic Acid (Ice Vinegar). 

To 83 lbs. of fused acetate of soda add 100 lbs. 
of sulphuric acid and distill. Place the distillate 
in ice at 60° Fahr., it will become solid. Allow it 
to drain. It is the monohydrated acid. 
Oil of Vitriol. 

The strongest or Nordhausen or fuming acid is 
made by distilling green vitriol at a red heat. The 
residue is colcothar or crocus martis. It is used 
for dissolving indigo and other purfioses where an 
acid of great strength is required. The ordinary 
sulphuric acid is made by causing vapors of sul- 
phurous acid (from burning sulphur), nitric acid 
and water, to combine in a leaden chamber. The 
weak acid is concentrated in leaden pans, and 
afterwards in a platinum still, 
Nitric Acid, 

Or aqua fortis, may be made by distilling at a 
gentle heat in a glass retort, equal weights of salt- 
petre (nitrate of potassa), and sulphuric acid. The 
receiver should be kept cooled by a cloth dipped 
in water. To obtain it pure it must be redistilled 
over nitrate of silver. 

Hydrochloric Acid, 

Or muriatic acid (marine acid, spirit of salt). 



TEST LIQUORS, TEST PAPERS, ETC. 



299 



Take 3 parts common shU, 5 of oil of vitriol, and 
6 of wafer. Mix the oil of vitriol with 2 parts of 
water in a thin glass vessel, ami allow the mixture 
to eool. Put the salt into a glass retort connected 
with a receiver containing the renteining 3 parts 
of water. Pour the mixture of sulphuric acid and 
Water upon the salt, and distill with a gentle heat. 
To purify it, mix with an equal volume of water, 
and distill over chloride of barium. 

Chlorine Water, 
. Pass a current of chlorine gas, made by the 
action of commercial muriatic acid upon black 
oxide of manganese, into a bottle half filled with 
water, shaking occasionally. AVater will absorb 
twice its volume of this gas, acquires thereby a 
yellowish color, and the peculiar smell of chlorine. 
It is used in medicine and to bleach linen, take 
out fruit marks, etc. It should be kept in the 
dark, or in a bottle covered with blue paper. 

Siilphurotts Acid Water 
Is made ns above, using sulphurous acid instead 
of chlorine. This gas may be prepareJ by the 
action of sulphuric acid upon copper, charcoal, or 
sulphur. Water absorbs 50 volumes of the gas. 
The solution is used for bleaching purposes, in 
medicine, and to check fermentation. 



TEST LIQUORS, TEST PAPERS, ETC. 
Distilled water only should be used in these 
preparaticms. In preparing the papers the liquid 
should be placed in an earthenware plate or dish, 
and the paper carefully immersed in it so as to be 
uniformly wetted, then dried out of the reach of 
acid, ainmoniacal, or other vapors likely to aflfect 
it J and afterwards kept in bottles, jars, or cases. 
Brazil Paper. 
Dip paper in a strong decoction of Brazil wood, 
and dry it. [It is rendered purple or violet by 
alkalies ; generally yellow by acids.] 
Cabbage Paper. 
Make a strong infusion of red cabbage leaves, 
strain it, and evaporate it by a gentle heat till 
considerably reduced. Then dip the paper in it 
and dry it in the air. [This paper is of a grayish 
color; alkalies change it to green, acids to red. 
It is a very delicate test; if rendered slightly 
green by an alkali, carbonic acid will restore the 
color.] 

Dahlia Paper. 
From the petals of violet-dahlias, as cabbage 
paper. 

Elderherry Paper. 
This is merely paper stained with the juice of 
the berries. Its blue color is changed to red by 
acids, and to green by alkalies. 
Indigo Paper. 
Immerse paper in sulphate of indigo, wash it 
with water rendered slightly alkaline, then with 
pure water, and dry it in the air. 

Iodide of Potassium and Starch Paper. 
Mix starch paste with solution of iodide of 
potassium, and moisten bibulous paper with it. 
[It becomes blue when exposed to ozone. Chlorine 
has the same effect.] 

Lead Paper. 
Paper dipped in a solution of acetate of lead. 
[When moistened it delects sulphuretted hydrogen, 
which renders it black. 

Bine Litmus Paper. 
Bruise 1 oz. of litmus in a mortar, and add boil- 
ing water; triturate together, put them in a flask 
and add boiling water to make up to half a pint; 
when cool strain it, and dip paper in it. More 



color may be extracted from the litmus by hot 
water, but the liquid will require to be concen- 
trated by evaporation. [Acids change the color 
to red, but it does not become green with alkalies.] 
Bed Litmus Paper. 

As the last, adding to the strained infusion a 
few drops of nitric acid, or of pure acetic acid. 
Base Paper. 

Make a strong infusion of the petals of the red 
rose, and dip unsized paper in it. [Dipped in an 
alkaline solution so weak as not to affect turmeric 
paper, it assumes a bright grepn color.] 
Jlfanganese Paper. 

Dip paper in a solution of sulphate of manga- 
nese. [It becomes black in an ozonized atmos- 
phere.] 

Bhubarb Paper. 

Dip paper in a strong infusion of rhubarb, and 
dry it. [Alkalies render it brown. It is not, like 
turmeric paper, affected by boracic acid.] 

Starch Paper. 

This is merely paper imbued with starch paste. 
Cotton cord is sometimes used instead of paper. 
[As a test for iodine, which turns it blue.] 
Turmeric Paper. 

Boil 1 oz. of coarsely powdered turmeric-root in 
i a pint of water for i an hour, and strain ; dip 
paper in the liquid and dry it. [It is rendered 
brown by alkalies, and also by boracic acid and 
borates.] 



SALINE CARBONATED WATERS. 
The following afford approximate imitations of 
these waters. The earthy salts, with salts of iron, 
should be dissolved together in the smallest quan- 
tity of water. The other ingredients to be dis- 
solved in the larger portion of the water, and the 
solution irapreguiited with gas. The first solution 
may be then added, or be previously introduced 
into the bottles. The salts, unless otherwise 
stated, are to be crystallized. 

Baden Water, 
Chloride of magnesium, 2 grs. ;_ chloride of cal- 
cium, 40 grs. ; sesquichloride of iron, J gr. (or 3 
minims of the tincture); common salt, 30 grs.; 
sulphate of soda, 10 grs.; carbonate of soda, 1 
gr.; water, 1 pt. ; carbonic acid gas, 5 volumes. 

Carlsbad Water. 
Chloride of calcium, 8 grs.; tincture of chloride 
of iron, 1 drop; sulphate of soda, 50 grs.; car- 
bonate of soda, 8 grs. ; carbonated water, 1 pt. 

Eger, 
Carbonate of soda, 5 grs. ; sulphate of soda, 4 
scruples ; chloride of sodium, 10 grs. ; sulphate 
of magnesia, 3 grs.; chloride of calcium, 5 grs.; 
carbonated water, 1 pt. Or it may be mside with- 
out the apparatus, thus: — Bicarbonate of soda, 30 
grs. ; chloride of sodium, 8 grs. ; sulphate of mag- 
nesia, 3 grs. ; water, 1 pt. Dissolve, and add a 
scruple of dry bisulphate of soda, and clese the 
bottle immediately. 

Ems, 
Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples ; sulphate of pot- 
ash, 1 gr. ; sulphate of magnesia, 5 grs.; common 
salt, 10 grs. ; chloride of calcium, 3 grs. ; carbon- 
ated water, 1 pt. 

Piillna Water, 
Sulphate of soda, 4 drs. ; sulphate of magnesia, 
4 drs. ; chloride of lime, 16 grs. ; chloride of mag- 
nesium (dry), 1 scruple; common salt, 1 scruple; 
bicarbonate of soda, 10 grs. ; water slightly car- 



800 



DISTILLATION. 



bonated, 1 pt. One of the most active of the 
purgative saline waters. 

Pnlliin Water, without the Machine. 
Bicarbonate of soda, 50 grs. ; sulphate of mag- 
nesia, 4 drs. ; sulphate of soda, 3 drs. ; common 
salt, 1 scruple. Dissolve in a pint of water ; add, 
lastly. 2 scruples of bisulphate of soda., and close 
the bottle immediately. 

Salts for Hahing Pullna Water. 
Dry bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz. ; dried sulphate 
of soda, 2 oz. ; dried sulphate of magnesia, 1^ oz. ; 
dry common salt, 2 drs.; dry tartaric acid, J oz. 
(or rather, dry bisulphate of soda, 1 oz.). 

Seidlitz Water. 
This is usually imitated by strongly aerating a 
solution of 2 drs. of sulphate of magnesia in a 
pint of water. It is also made with 4, 6, and 8 
drs. of the salts to a pint of water. 

Seidlitz Powder. 
The common Seidlitz powders do not resemble 
the water. A closer imitation would be mnde by 
using effloresced sulphate of magnesia instead of 
the potassio-tartrate of soda. A still more exact 
compound will be the following : — Effloresced sul- 
phate of magnesia, 2 oz. ; bicarbonate of soda, ^ 
oz. ; dry bi'iuli)hate of soda, i oz. Mix and keep 
in a close bottle. 

Seltzer Water. 
Chloride of calcium and chloride of magnesium, 
of each 4 grs. Dissolve these in a small quantity 
of water, and add it t" a similar solution of 8 grs. 
bicarbonate of soda, 20 grs. CDiumon salt, and 2 
grs. of phosphate of soda. Mix, and add a solu- 
tion of J of a gr. of sulphate of iron. Put the 
mixed sidution into a 20-oz. bottle, and fill up with 
aerated water. But much of the Seltzer water 
sold is said to be nothing more than simple car- 
bonated water. An imitation of Seltzer water is 
also made by putting into a stone Seltzer bottle, 
filled with water, 2 drs. bicarbonate of soda, and 
2 drs. of citrate acid in crystals, corking the bottle 
immedately. Soda powders are sometimes sold as 
Seltzer powders. 

Vichy Water. 
Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr. ; common salt, 2 grs. ; 
sulphate of soda, 8 grs. ; sulphate of magnesia, 3 
grs. tincture of chloride of iron, 2 drops ; aerated 
wattr, 1 pt. Dorvault directs 75 gra. of bicar- 
bonate of soda, 4 grs. of chloride of sodium, one- 
fifth of a gr. sulphate of iron, 10 grs. sulphate of 
soda, .S grs. sulphate of magnesia, to 1 pt. of water. 
By adding 45 grs. (or less) of citric acid an effer- 
vescing water is obtained. 

M. Soubeiran, relying on the analysis of Long- 
champs, imitates Vichy water by the following 
combination: — Bicarbonate of soda, 135 grs.; 
chloride of sodium, 2i grs. ; cryst. chloride of 
calcium, 12 grs.; sulphate of soda, lU grs.; sul- 
phate of magnesia, 3| grs.; tartrate of iron and 
potash, i gr. ; water, 2 and one-tenth pts. (1 litre); 
carbonic acid, 305 cubic inches (5 litres). Dissolve 
the salts of soda and iron in part of the water, 
dissolve and add the sulphate of magnesia, and 
then the chloride of calcium in the remaining 
water. Charge now with the carbonic acid gas 
under pressure. 

Vichy Salts. 
Bicarbonate of soda, li oz. ; common salt, 15 
grs. ; effloresced sulphate of soda, 1 dr. ; effloresced 
sulphate of magnesia, 1 scruple; dry tartarized 
sulphate of iron, 1 gr. ; dry tartaric acid, 1 oz. (or 
dry bisulphate of soda, 1 oz.). Mix the powders, 
previously dried, and keep them in a close bottle. 



SULPHURETTED WATERS. 

Simple Sulphuretted Water. 
Pass sulphuretted hydrogen into cold water 
(previously deprived of air by boiling, and cooled 
in a closed vessel), till it ceases lo be absorbed. 

Aix-la-Chapelle Water. 
Bicarbonate of soda, 12 grs. ; common salt, 25 
grs. ; chloride of calcium, 3 grs. ; sulphate of soda, 
8 grs. ; simple sulphuretted water, 2i oz. ; water 
slightly carbonated, 17^ oz. 

Bareges Water. 
Crystallized hydrosulphate of soda, crystallized 
carbonate of soda, and common suit, of each 24 
grs.; water (freed from air), 1 pt. A stronger 
solution for adding to baths is thus made : — Crys- 
tallized hydrosulphate of soda, crystallized car- 
bonate of soda, and common salt, of each 2 oz. ; 
water, 10 oz. Dissolve. To be added to a com- 
mon bath at the time of using. 

Naples Water. 

Crystallized carbonate of soda, 15 grs.; fluid 
magnesia, 1 oz. ; simple sulphuretted water, 2 oz. ; 
aerated water, 16 oz. Introduce the sulphuretted 
water into the bottle last. 

Harrowgate Water. 

Common salt, 100 grs.; chloride of calcium, 10 
grs. ; chloride of magnesium, 6 grs. ; bicarbonate 
of soda, 2 grs. ; water, 18i oz. Dissolve, and add 
simple sulphuretted water, 1^ oz. 



CHALYBEATE WATERS. 
Simple Chalybeate M'^ater. 
Water freed from air by boiling, 1 pt. ; sulphate 
of iron, i gr. 

Aerated Chalyh^te Water. 
Sulphate of iron, 1 gr. ; carbonate of soda, 4 
grs. ; water deprived of air, and charged with 
carbonic acid gas. 1 pt. Dr. Pereira recommends 
10 grs. each of sulphate of iron and bicarbonate 
of soda to be taken in a bottle of ordinary soda 
water. This is equivalent to 4 grs. of carbonate 
of iron. 

Brighton Chalybeate. 
Sulphate of iron, common salt, chloride of cal- 
cium, of each 2 grs.; carbonate of soda, 3 grs.; 
carbonated water, 1 pt. 

Btissang, Forges, Proving, 
And other similar waters, may be imitated by 
dissolving from i to § of a gr. of sulphate of iron, 
2 or 3 gr. of carbonate of soda, 1 gr. of sulphate 
of magnesia, and 1 of common salt, in a pint of 
aerated water. 

Mont d'Or Water. 
Bicarbonate of soda, 70 grs. ; sulphate of iron, 
5 gr. ; common salt, 12 grs.; sulphate of soda, j 
gr. ; chloride of calcium, 4 grs. ; chloride of mag- 
nesium, 2 grs. ; aerated water, 1 pt. 

Paasy Water. 
Sulphate of iron, 2 grs.; chloride of sodium, 3 
grs. : carbonate of soda, 4 grs. ; chloride of mag- 
nesium, 2 grs. ; aerated water, 1 pt. 
Pyrmoni Water. 
Sulphate of magnesia, 20 grs. ; chloride of mag- 
nesium, 4 grs. ; common salt, 2 grs. ; bicarbonate 
of soda, 16 grs.; sulphate of iron, 2 grs. j Carrara 
water, 1 pt. 

Portable Lemonade. 
Take of tartaric acid, ^ oz. ; loaf sugar, 3 oz. ; 
essence of lemon, J dr. Powder the tartaric acid 
and the sugar very fine, in a marble or wedge- 
wood mortar (observe never to use a meta! one). 



FIXED OILS, ETC. 



- 301 



mix them together, and pour the essence of lemon 
upon them, by a few drops at ii tltie, stirring the 
mixture after each addition, till the (vhoie is added; 
then mix them thoroughly, and divide it into 12 
equal parts, wrapping each up separately in a piece 
of white paper. When wanted for use, it is only 
necessary to dissolve it in a tumbler of cold water, 
and fine lemonade will be obtained, containing the 
flavor of the juice and peel of the lemon, and 
ready sweetened. 



FIXED OILS. 
To malce Oil of Sweet Almonds, 
It is usually made from bitter almonds for 
cheapness, or from old Jordan almonds, by heat, 
the oil from which soon grows rank, while that 
from fresh B.arbary almonds, drawn cold, will keep 
good for some time. The almonds are sometimes 
blanched by dipping in boiling water, or by soak- 
ing some hours in cold water, so as to part with 
their skin easily ; but are more usually ground to 
a paste, which is put into canvas bags, and pressed 
between iron plates in a screw press, or by means 
of a wedge ; 1 cwt. of bitter almonds, unblanched, 
produces 46 lbs. of oil; the cake pays for pressing. 

mu Oil 
Is obtained from the kernel of the hazelnut, and 
is very fine. As it will keep better than that of 
almonds, it has been proposed to be substituted 
for that oil. It is drunk with tea in China, prob- 
ably in lieu of cream, and is used by painters, as 
a superior vehicle for their colors. 

Oil of Mace 
Is obtained from nutmegs by the press. It is 
buttery, having the smell and color of mace, but 
grows paler and harder by age ; 2 lbs. of nutmegs 
in Europe will yield 6 oz. of this oil. 

True Oil of Maee by Expression. 
This oil is red, remains always liquid or soft, 
has a strong smell of mace, subacid taste, and is 
imported in jars or bottles, the lower part being 
rather thicker than the top ; IJ lbs. of mace wiU 
yield in Europe H oz. troy of oil. 

Olive, Salad, or Sweet Oil. 
This is the most agreeable of all the oils ; it is 
demulcent, emollient, gently laxative, and is also 
Tised as an emetic with warm water; dose, 1 oz. 
troy, or a large spoonful; also externally, when 
warm, to the bites of serpents, and, when cold, to 
tumors and dropsies. Rank oil is best for plas- 
ters, but fresh oil makes the best hard soap. 

Castor Oil 
Is made by pressing the beans, cold or slightly 
warmed. It may be rendered colorless and odor- 
less by filtering through animal charcoal and mag- 
nesia. It is soluble in strong alcohol, and is used 
as the basis of many hair-oils. (See Perfumery.) 
Oil of Croton. 
This oil is extracted from Molucca grains, or 
purging nuts. In its chemical qualities it agrees 
with castor oil, but is considerably more active, as 
a single drop, when the oU is genuine, is a power- 
ful cathartic. 

Rape Oil. 
This is made from rape-seed. It dries slowly, 
and makes but a softish soap, fit for ointments. The 
mucilage it contains may be got rid of, in a great 
measure, by adding ^ ounce of oil of vitriol to 2 
pts. of the oil. 

To Purify Rape Oil. 
The following is a simple method of rendering 
rape oil equal to spermaceti oil, for the purposes 
of illumination : 



Begin by washing the oil with spring-water; 
which is effected by agitating the oil violently with 
a sixth part of the water. This separates the par- 
ticles of the oil, and mi.xes those of the water inti- 
mately with them. After this operation it looks 
like the yolk of eggs beat up. In loss than 48 
hours they separate completely, the oil swimming 
at the top, the water, with all feculent and extra- 
neous particles, subsiding to the bottom. This 
may be very much improved, by substituting sea- 
water in the place of fresh-water. 

By the process of washing the oil does not lose 
a hundredth part. The experiment can at all 
times be made in a glass decanter, or in a churn, 
with a cock at the bottom, the water to come up 
very near to the cock, by which all the oil can be 
drawn off, after it has deposited its impurities. 

Another Hfethod. 
To 100 parts of oil add IJ or 2 of concentrated 
sulphuric acid, and mix the whole well by agita- 
tion, when the oil will become turbid, and of a 
bliickish-green color. In about three-quarters of 
an hour the coloring matter will begin to collect 
in clots; the agitation should then be discontinued, 
and clean water, twice the weight of the sulphuric 
acid, be added. To mix the water with the oil 
and acid, a further agitation of half an hour will 
be requisite. The mass may, afterwards, be left 
to clarify for 8 days, at the end of which time 3 
separate fluids will be perceived in the vessel; the 
upper is the clear oil, the next is the sulphuric acid 
and water, and the lowest a black mud or fecula. 
Let the oil then be separated by a syphon from the 
acid and water, and filtrated through cotton or 
wool. It will be nearly without color, .smell, or 
taste, and will burn clearly and quietly to the last 
drop. 

To Purify Vegetable Oil. 

To 100 lbs. of oil add 25 oz. of alum, and mi.x, 
dissolved in 9 lbs. of boiling water. After stir- 
ring it about half an hour, add 15 oz. of nitric 
acid, still continuing to stir it. Let it stand 48 
hours, when the fine oil will swim on the surface, 
and then draw it off. Such oil is used all over the 
Continent, and an equal quantity yields double 
the light of whale and fish-oil, without its offen- 
sive odor. 

To make Pumpkin Oil. 

From the seeds of the pumpkin, which are gcn- 
eially thrown away, an abundance of an excellent 
oil may be extracted. When peeled tLey yield 
much more oil than an equal quantity of flax. 
This oil burns well, gives a lively light, lasts 
longer than other oils, and emits very little smoke. 
It has been used on the Continent for frying fish, 
etc. The cake remaining after the extraction of 
the oil may be given to cattle, who eat it with 
avidity. 

Beech-nut Oil. 

Beech-nuts are not only an excellent food for 
pigs, but they are known to yield an oil, fit for com- 
mon purposes, by the usual methods of extraction. 

ANIMAL OILS AND FATS. 
Hog's Lard. 
This is obtained like the rest of the animal fat3> 
from the raw lard, by chopping it fine, or rather 
rolling it out, to break the cells in which the fat 
is lodged, and then melting the fat in a water- 
bath, or other gentle heat, and straining it while 
warm. Some boil them in water ; but the fats 
thus obtained are apt to grow rank much sooner 
than when melted by themselves. 

Neat's-foot, or Trotter Oil. 
Obtained by boiling neat's-fcc- tritje, etc. in 



802 



DISTILLATION. 



water. It is a coarpe atiiraal oil, very emollient, 
and much used to soften leather. 

To Purify Trotter Oil. 
Put 1 qt. of trotter oil into a vessel containing 
1 qt. of rose-water, and set them over a fire till 
the oil melts and mixes with the rose-water. Stir 
■well with a spoon. When properly combined take 
the vessel from the firo, and let it cool. Now take 
oflF the oil with a spoon, and add rose-water as 
Were. When the oil is again separated and 
cleanseci, set it in a. ceo; place. The principal use 
of trotter oil is for th*; mirKitig of cold cream, in 
which its qualities e.vceed those of every other oil. 

To Prepare Oil from Yolks of Eggs, 
Boil the eggs hard, and after separating the 
whites break the yolks into 2 or 8 pieces, and roast 
them in a fryingpan till the oil begins to exude; 
then press them with very great force. Fifty eggs 
yield about 5 oz. of oil. Old eggs yield the greatest 
quantity. 

Another Method. 
Dilute the raw yolks with a large proportion of 
water, and add spirit of wine to separate the albu- 
men, when the oil will rise on the top after standing 
some time, and thus may be separated by a funnel. 
To Refine Spermaceti. 
Spermaceti is usually brought home in casks. 
and in some cases has so little oil mixed with it 
as to obtain the denomination of head matter. It 
is of the consistence of a stiff ointment, of a yel- 
lowish color, and not tenacinus. Besides the head 
matter, there is also a quantity of sperm obtained 
from the oil by filtrati<m. Indeed, in all good 
spermaceti lamp oil, which is not transparent, par- 
ticles of the sperm may he seen floating. 

Having the head-matter, or filtered sperm, in 
order to purify it, first put it into hair-cbiths, and 
with an iron plate between each cloth to the num- 
ber of half a dozen or more, submit it to the action 
of an iron screw-press; and, as the oil does not 
separate very readily, it will in general be neces- 
sary to let the cakes of sperm be pressed three 
diflferent times. The third time the cakes will be- 
come so dry that they may be broken in small 
pieces with little trouble, and then put in a fur- 
nace containing J water and | cake. Let the fire 
be raised sufiiciently under the furnace to melt 
the cake, which it will do before the water begins 
to boil ; after which boil the whole together for 
about i an hour, taking oflf during the boiling 
what scum and other extraneous bodies rise to 
the top ; then let the whole be dipped out into a 
tub or other coolers. After it is completely cold, 
take off the cake of spermaceti, which will be on 
the top of the water, and cut it into pieces. Sup- 
pose, for example, that the cake weighs 1 cwt.. it 
■will be necessary to have a furnace, or rather a 
movable kettle, where the light is thrown in such 
a way that the process can be observed. Having 
taken 1 cwt. of the unrefined spermaceti prepared 
as above, melt it together with about 3 galls, of 
water. As soon as it begins to boil, add from time 
to time small portions of the following liquor, say 
i pint at a time: Take of the alkaline salt, or 
potash, 7 lbs.; pour on it 2 galls, of water; let 
them stand together 24 hours, and from the top 
dip off the lye as wanted, adding more water 
occasionally, till the alkali is exhausted. After 
boiling the spermaceti for about 4 hours, having 
during the process taken off the scum as it arose, 
let the kettle be removed from the fire; and after 
remaining about J hour, dip off the spermaceti 
into suitable coolers. This process must in gen- 
eral be repeated 3 times. The third time, if the 
processes have been properly conducted, the sper- 



maceti will be as clear as crystal ; and then, aPtor 
it is cool, the only thing necessary to make it fit 
for sale, is to cut it info muderately sm;ill pieces, 
when it will break into that flakey appearance 
which it has in the shops. 

To Sweeten, Purify, and Refine Greenland Whala 
and Seal Oil. 
The oil, in its raw state, is filtered through bags 
about 41 inches long, with circular mouths ex- 
tended by a wooden hoop about 15 inches in di- 
ameter, fixed thereto. These bags are made of 
jean lined with flannel, between which jean and 
flannel powdered charcoal is placed, throughout, 
to a regular thickness of about i inch, for the 
purpose of retiiining the glutinous particles of the 
oil and straining it from impurities ; and the bags 
are quilted, to prevent the charcoal from becoming 
thicker in one part than another, and to keep tho 
linings mure compact. The oil is pumped into a 
large funnel made of tin, annexed to the pump 
through a perpendicular pipe, and passed from 
the funnel into another pipe placed over the bags 
horizontal!}', from whence it is introduced into 
them by cocks. The oil runs from the filtering- 
bags into a cistern about 8 feet long by 4 feet 
broad, and 4J deep, made of wood and lined with 
lead, and containing water at the bottom about 
the depth of 5 or 6 inches, in which are dissolved 
about 6 oz. of blue vitriol, for the purpose of draw- 
ing down the glutinous and offensive particles of 
the oil which have escaped through the charcoal; 
and thereby rendering it clean and free from the 
unpleasant smell attendant upon the oil in the raw 
state; and in order to enable the oil thus to run 
from the bags, they are hung in a frame or rack 
made like a ladder, with the spokes or rails at 
sufficient distances to receive the hoop of the bag 
between two; and such frame or rack is placed in 
a horizontal position over the cistern. The oil ia 
suffered to run into the cistern until it stands to 
the depth of about 2 feet in the water, and there 
to remain for 3 or 4 days, (according to the quality 
of the oil), and is then drawn off by a cock which 
is fixed in the cistern a little above the water, into 
a tub or other vessel, when it will be found to be 
considerably purified and refined ; and the oil. after 
having undergone this operation, may be rendered 
still more pure by passing a second or third time 
through similar bags and cisterns. But the oil, 
after such second and third process, is drawn off 
into, and filtered through additional bags made 
of jean lined with flannel, inclosed in other bags 
made of jean, doubled, when the process is com- 
plete. 

Clarifying Coal-Oils. 
In a close vessel are placed 100 lbs. of crude 
coal-oil, 25 qts. of water, 1 lb. of chloride of lime, 
lib. of soda, and ^ lb. of oxide of manganese. 
The mixture is violently agitated, and allowed to 
rest for 24 hours, when the clear oil is decanted 
and distilled. The 100 lbs. of coal-oil are to be 
mixed with 25 lbs. of resin-oil; this is one of the 
principal points in the manipulation ; it removes 
the gummy parts from the oil, and renders them 
inodorous. The distillation spoken of may termi- 
nate the process, or the oils may be distilled before 
they are defecated and precipitated. 

To Bleach and Purify Fixed Oils. 
Fish and other fat oils are improved in smell 
and color by passing hot air or steam through 
them. Dunn's method is to heat the oil by steam 
to 170° or 200°, and force a current of air through 
it, under a chimney, till it is bleached and puri- 
fied. Mr. Cameron's method of bleaching palm 
oil is to keep it at 230°, with continual agitation, 
by passing into it high pressure steam through 



PERFUMERY. 



803 



leaden pipes of 2 inches diameter. Four tons of 
oil require 10 hours' straining. Palui oil is also 
bleacheii by cblori'ie of lime. Take from 7 to 14 
lbs. of chloride of lime, triturate in a mortar, add- 
ing gradually 12 times the quantity of water, so 
as to form a smooth cream. Liquefy 112 lbs. of 
palm oil. remove it from the fire, add the s>dution 
of chloride of lime, and stir well with a wo<'den 
stirrer. Allow it to cnol, and when become solid, 
break it into small fragments, and expose it to the 
air for 2 or .3 weeks, then put into a ca*t-iron 
boiler lined with lead, diluted with 20 parts of 
water. Boil with a moderate heat till the oil drops 
clear from the stirrer: then let it cool. To remove 
the fcetor from fish oils, treat them in the same 
way (except the exposing to the air), using only 1 
lb. of chloride of lime to 112 lbs. of oil. It does 
not remiive the natural smell of the oil. 

Calcined magnesia has been used to deprive oils 
of their ranciiiity. 

Mr. Griseler finds that the addition of a few 
drops of nitric ether will prevent oils from becom- 
ing rancid. 

Mr. Watt's patented method of bleaching oil is 
by chromic acid. For palm oil it is thus used: 
The oil is heated in a steam vessel, ailnwed to set- 
tle and cool down to 130° Fahr., then removed 
into wooden vessels, taking care that no water or 
sediment accompany it. For a ton of palm oil, 
make a saturated solution of 25 lbs. of bichromate 
of potash ; add 8 lbs. of sulphuric acid, and 50 lbs. 
of muriatic acid (or an equivalent quantity of salt 
and sulphuric acid I. Put the mixture into the 
oil, and let it be constantly stirred till it becomes 
of a light-green color. If not sufficiently decolored, 
add more of the mixture. Let the oil settle for 
half an hour, then pump it into a wooden vat, 
boil it for a few minutes with fresh water, by 
means of a steam pipe, and let it settle. For lin- 
seed, rape, and mustard oils a dilute solution of 
chromic acid is used, with a little muriatic acid; 
for olive, almond, and castor oils no muriatic acid 
is required. Fish oils and fats are first boiled in 
a steain-apparatus with a weak soda lye i^ lb. of 
soda for every ton of fatj for half an hour ; then J lb. 
of sulphuric acid, diluted with 3 lbs. of water, is 
added; the whole boiled for 15 minutes, and al- 
lowed to settle for an hour or more, when the water 
and sediment are drawn off, and the oil further 
bleached by a solution of 4 lbs. of bichromate of 
potash and 2 lbs. of salphuric acid, properly 
diluted. 

Mr. Davidson treats whale oil first with a golu- 
lion of tan. next with water and chloride of lime, 
and lastly with diluted sulphuric acid and warm 
water. Rape and other seed oils are also refined 
by means of sulphuric acid and twice as much 
water. Mr. Gray directs 2 lbs. of oil of vitriol to 
112 lbs. of oil. The oil should be carefully washed 
from the acid and filtered. 



Mr. Bancroft's process for refining common olive 
oil, lard oil, etc., for lubricating purposes, is to 
agitate them with from 3i to 8 per cent, of caustio 
soda lye, of 1-2 specific gravity. If, on trial of a 
small quantity, the lye be found to settle clear at 
the bottom, enough has been added. The oil ia 
allowed to rest for twenty-four houis, fo. the 
soapy matter to subside : the supernatant oil is 
then filtered. 

Another plan of purifying oils ^especially lamp 
oilsj is to agitate them with a strong solution of 
common salt. 

Purification of Castor Oil. 
Mix 1000 parts of the oil with 25 parts of animal 
charcoal, and 10 parts of calcined magnesia, and 
leave them together for 3 days at a temperature 
of 68° to 78° Fahr., often stirring or shaking the 
mixture. The oil is then filtered off, and is found 
to be limpid, colorless, without taste, and easily 
soluble in alcohol. It congeals, too, at a lower 
temperature than before, and is in that respect 
superior to the ordinary oU. 

Oil of Brick, 
Used by lapidaries, is made by saturating frag- 
ments of brick with oil and distilling at a red 
heat. 

Watchmaker' n Oil. 

1. Expose the finest porpoise oil to the lowest 
natural temperature attainable. It will separate 
into two portions, a thick, solid mass at the bot- 
tom, and a thin, oily supernatant liquid. This is 
to be poured off while at the low temperatur* 
named, and is then fit for use. 

2. Put into a matrass or glass flask, a portion of 
any fine oil, with 7 or 8 times its weight of alco- 
hol, and heat the mixture almost to boiling, de- 
cant the clear upper stratum of fluid, and suffer it 
to cool ; a solid portion of fatty matter separates, 
which is to be removed, and then the alcoholic 
solution evaporated in a retort or basin, until re- 
duced to one-fifth of its bulk. The fluid part of 
the oil will be deposited. It should be colorless 
and tasteless, almost free from smell, without ac- 
tion on infusion of litmus, having the consistence 
of white olive oil, and not easily congenlable. 

3. Take a white glass bottle of pure olive or al- 
mond oil, put into it a coiled strip of lead, and ex- 
pose it to the sun's rays until a white curdy mat- 
ter ceases to be deposited. 

To Prevent Fats and Oih from becoming Rancid. 
Heat the oil or melted fat for a few minutes 
with powdered slippery-elm bark, in the propor- 
tion of 1 dr. of the powder to 1 lb. of fat. The 
bark shrinks and gradually subsides, after which 
the fat is poured off. It communicates an odor 
like that of the hickory-nut. Butter thus treated 
has been kept unchanged for a year. 



I>ERFXJ.^IEIIY. 



JfateriaU vaed. 

The flowers, roots, and woods employed in per- 
fumery are nearly all grown abroad, and even 
when raised in the United States are seldom used 
for perfumery. 

Etieiitinl or volatile oilt (p. 289) are obtained by 
distillation. In the c*se of delicate perfumes the 
flowers are macerated in warm oil or cold lard 
(enjieuraife). From this grease the oil may be ex- 



tracted by alcofaoL Sometimes the flowers or other 
odorous bodies are macerated in alcohol. 

Eisence* are solutions of volatile oils in alcohoL 
The term tincture is sometimes used to express 
the same idea. 

The dried flowers and rasped woods or roots are 
used in the manufacture of tachett. 

The following substances are obtained from the 
animal kingdom : — 



804 



PERFUMEKY. 



Miisl-, a secretion of the Musk deer {Mnxrhns 
nosr/intiix). which inhabits Eastern Asin. There 
are three varieties. The Totiquin or Chinese is 
the finer, but is apt to be adulterated. 

Civet, a secretion of the Civet cat ( Viverra ci- 
vetn), and 

Castor, from the beaver {Castor Jiber), are used 
in small quantities. 

The Enneiice of Mirbnne and flavoring ethers 
are obtained by the chemi.st. 

Lard, suet, and the fixed oils are used as vehi- 
cles. 

Alcnhnl employed in perfumery should be free 
from all smell of fusel or other oils. Atwood's (pa- 
tent) alcohol is generally preferred. It is deodor- 
ized by distillation over permanganate of potassa. 

Deodorizing Alcohol. 

1. Spirit of vpine, brandy, or alcohol distilled 
over soap lose their empyreumatic odors and tastes 
entirely. At about 215° the soap retains neither 
alcohol nor wood- spirit. 

2. The empyreumatic oil, which remains in com- 
bination with the soap which forms the residuum 
of the distillation, is carried off at a higher tem- 
perature by the vapor of water, which is formed 
during a second distillation, the product of which 
is a soap free from empyreuma, and fit to be used 
again for similar purposes. 

3. The concentration of the alcohol increases in 
this operation more than when soap is not em- 
ployed, because this compound retains the water, 
and the alcoholic vapors which pass over are 
richer. 

4. Thirty-three lbs. of soap is enough for 100 
galls, of empyreumatic brandy, and direct experi- 
ments have shown that under the most favorable 
circumstances the soap can retain 20 per cent, of 
empyreumatic oil. 

5. The soap employed should contain no po- 
tassa; it must be a hard or soda soap, and ought 
to be completely free from any excess of fat acids 
or fluids, otherwise it may render the product 
rancid and impure. Common soap, made with 
oleine and soda by the manufacture of stearine 
candles, has satisfied all the conditions in practice. 

If this soap is employed, it will be better to add 
a little soda during the first distillation. 

The hard soda-soaps, as exempt as possible 
from fluid fat- acids, remove completely the empy- 
reumatic odor. 

J. Maria Farina Cologne. ^ 

Benzoin dissolved in alcohol, 4 oz. ; essence of 
lavender, 8 oz. : essence of rosemary, 4 oz. ; alco- 
hol at 75°, .S25 qts. To this solution add succes- 
sively neroli, 21 oz. ; petit grain, 21 oz.; cedrat, 
21 oz. ; Portugal, 2i lbs. ; lemon, 2i lbs. ; alco- 
holic extract of geranium, 2J lbs. Shake several 
times ; leave 14 days, and bottle. 
Fine Cologne Water. 

Take alcohol at 85°, 10 qts.; dissolve in it es- 
sence of neroli petit grain, ^ oz. ; essence of rose- 
mary, 2i drs. ; essence of lavender, 1\ drs. ; es- 
sence of clove, i dr.; essence of peppermint, i 
dr.; essence of bergamot, ]2i drs.; lemon 12i 
drs. ; essence of Portugal, 7i drs. ; tincture of 
benzoin, IJ drs. 

Ordinary Cologne. 

Take alcohol at 8.i°, 10 qts.; essence of neroli, 
\\ drs.; essence of rosemary, 10 drs.; essence of 
lavender, 5 drs, ; essence of thyme and clove, each 
i dr. : essence of lemon, 2 oz. ; essence of pep- 
permint, J dr. ; tincture of benzoin, li drs.; rose- 
water, 2 lbs. 

Cheap Cologne. 

Take alcohol at 85°, 10 qts. ; essence of lemon, 



5 oz.; essence of cedrat, 12i drs.; essence of ber- 
gamot, 4 oz. ; essence of lavender, 1 oz. ; tincture 
of benzoin, 1 oz. 

Recipes for Cologne Water, from Redwood Gray'» 
Supplement. 

1. Oil of neroli, 2 drs. ; oil of orange-peel, ^ oz. ; 
oil of citron, 1 dr. ; oil of bergamot, 2 drs. ; oil of 
lavender, oil of rosemary, each i dr. ; oil of cin- 
namon, 1 scruple; cardamoms, powdered, balsam 
Peru, each 2 drs.; rectified spirits, 7 lbs. Macer- 
ate 10 days; then distill 6 pounds with a gentle 
heat. 

2. Oil of bergamot, 3 oz. ; oil of lemon, 2 oz. ; 
oil of lavender, 3i drs. ; oil of neroli, 2J drs.; oil 
of origanum, 2 drs.; oil of rosemary, 1 dr.: es- 
sence of vanilla, 2 drs.; musk, 10 grs. ; rectified 
spirits, 13 pts. ; rose-water, 1 qt. ; orange-flower 
water, 1 pt. Mix the oils ; dissolve them in 10 pts. 
of the spirits ; then add the musk, and finally the 
waters, previously mixed with the remainder of 
the spirits, and, after standing 2 weeks, filter. 

Florida Water. 
Alcohol at 90°, 60 qts,; essence of lemon and 
Portugal, each 4 oz. ; essence of lavender and 
clove, each 8 oz. ; canella, i oz. ; water, 20 qts. 
Hungary Water. 
Kectified alcohol, 1 gall. ; oil of English rose- 
mary, 2 oz. ; oil of lemon-peel, 1 oz. ; oil of balm 
(melissa) 1 oz. ; oil of mint, i dr. ; esprit de rose, 

1 pt. ; extract de fleur d'orange, 1 pt. 

Extract of Verbena. 

Kectified spirits, 1 pt. ; oil of lemon-grass, 3 
drs. ; oil of lemon-peel, 2 oz. ; oil of orange-peel, 
i oz. After standing together for a few hours, 
and then filtering, it is fit for sale. Another mix- 
ture of this kind, presumed by the public to be 
made from the same plant, but of a finer quality, 
is composed thus; it is sold under the title of 
Extrait de Verveine. 

Rectified spirits, 1 pt. ; oil of orango-peel, 1 oz. ; 
oil of lemon-peel, 2 oz.; oil of citron, 1 dr.; oil 
of lemon-grass, 2J drs. ; extrait de fleur d'orange, 
7 oz. ; extrait de tubereuse, 7 oz. : esprit de rose, 
ipt. 

Imitation Essence of Wallfiower. 

Extrait fleur d'orange, 1 pt. ; extract of vanilla, 
i pt. ; esprit de rose, I pt. ; extract of orris, i pt. j 
px tract of cassia, i pt. ; essential oil of almonds, 
i dr. Allow this mixture to be made for 2 or 3 
weeks prior to putting it up for sale. 
Imitation Essence of Violet. 

Extract of cassia, 1 pt. ; extract of rose, tinc- 
ture of orris, extract of tuberose, each J pint. 
Fleur d'ltalie, or Italian Nosegay. 

Esprit de rose, from pomade, 2 pts.; esprit de 
rose, triple, 1 pt. ; esprit de jasmin, esprit de vie-- 
lette, from pomade, each 1 pt. ; extract of cassia, 
i pt. ; extract of musk, extract of ambergris, each 

2 oz. 

Jockey Club Bouqtiet (English formula). 

Extract of orris-root, 2 pts. ; esprit de rose, 
triple, 1 pt. ; esprit de rose de pomade, 1 pt. ; ex- 
trait de cassia, extrait de tubereuse, de pomade, 
each i pt. ; extrait de ambergris, i pt. j otto of 
bergamot, i oz. 

Jockey Club Bouquet {French formula). 

Esprit de rose, de pomade, 1 pt. ; esprit de tu- 
bereuse, de pomade, 1 pt ; esprit de cassia, de 
pomade, i pt. ; esprit de jasmin, de pomade, J 
pt. ; extract of civet, de pomade, 3 oz. 

Kew Garden Nosegay. 
Esprit de neroli ( Petale), 1 pt. ; esprit de oaf 



PERFUMERY. 



805 



gie. esprit de tubereuse, esprit de jasmin, from 
pomade, each i pt. ; esprit de geranium, i pt.; 
esprit de musk, esprit de ambergris, each, 3 oz. 
Eau de Millejleiirs. 
Esprit de rose, triple, 1 pt. ; esprit de rose, es- 
prit de tubereuse, esprit de jasmin, esprit de fleur 
d'orange, esprit de cassie, esprit de violette, esprit 
de TKSedii {miynotielte), t'Tom pomade, each i pt. ; 
esprit de vanilla, esprit de ambergris, esprit de 
niusk, each 2 oz. ; otto of almonds, otto of neroli, 
otto of cloves, each 10 drops; otto of bergamot, 

1 oz. These ingredients are to remain together 
for at least a fortnight, then filtered prior to sale. 

Essence of Uondeletia. 

Spirits (brandy 60 o. p.), 1 gall. , otto of laven- 
der, 2 oz. ; otto of cloves, 1 oz. ; otto of rose, 3 
drs. ; otto of bergamot, 1 oz. ; extract of musk, 
extract of vanilla, extract of ambergris, each J 
pt. The mixture must be made at least a month 
before it is fit for sale. Very excellent rondeletia 
may also be made with vrhiskey. 
Bouquet lioyale. 

Extract of rose (from pomade), 1 pt. ; esprit de 
rose (triple), J pt. ; extract of jasmin, extract of 
violet (from pomade), each ^ pt. ; extract of ver- 
bena, extract of cassia, each 2^ oz. ; otto of lemons, 
otto of bergamot, each i oz. ; extract of musk, ex- 
tract of ambergris, each 1 oz. 
Suave. 

Extract of tuberose, extract of jasmin, extract 
of cassia, extract of rose (from pomade), each 1 
pt. ; extract of vanilla, 5 oz. ; extract of musk, 
extract of ambergris, each 2 oz. ; otto of berga- 
mot, otto of cloves, each 1 dr. 

Spring Flowers. 

Extract of rose, extract of violet (from pomade), 
each 1 pt. ; extract of rose (triple), 2i oz. ; extract 
of cassia, 2i oz. ; otto of bergamot, 2 drs. ; extract 
of ambergris, 1 oz. 

Bouquet de Caroline, also called Bouquet des 
Delices. 

Extrait de rose, extrait de violette, extrait de 
tubereuse (from pomade), each 1 pt. ; extract of 
orris, extract of ambergris, each i pt. ; otto of 
bergamot, otto of Limette, otto of cedrat, each 
i oz. 

Esterhazy Bouquet 

Extrait de fleur d'orange (from pomade), 1 pt. ; 
esprit de rose (triple), 1 pt. ; extract of vitivert, 
extract of vanilla, extract of orris, extract of ton- 
quin, each 1 pt. ; esprit de neroli, 1 pt. ; extract 
of ambergris, ^ pt. j otto of sautal, i dr. ; otto of 
cloves, i dr. 

Essence of Bouquet, 

Esprit de rose (triple), 1 pt. ; extract of vanilla, 

2 oz. ,* e.xtract of orris, 8 oz. ; otto of lemons, \ 
CE. ; otto of bergamot, 1 oz. 

American Skamjioo Liquor. 
Rum, 3 qts. ; spirit of wine, 1 pt. ; water, 1 pt. ; 
/^ tincture of cantharides, i oz. ; carbonate of am- 
monia, i oz. ; salt of tartar, 1 oz. Rub it on, and 
afterwards wash with water. By omitting the salt 
of tartar it nearly resembles Balm of Columbia. 
Glycerine and Cantharides Lotion. 
Rosemary water, 1 gall.; spirits of sal volatile, 
1 oz. ; tincture of cantharides, 2 oz. ; glycerine, 4 
oz. To be used with a sponge or soft brush twice 
a day when the hair is falling oflF. 
Dupuytren's Pomade. 
Tincture of cantharides (1 part flies to 8 of 
proof spirit), purified beef marrow, each 1 oz. : 
sugar of lead, 1 dr. ; balsam of Peru, 3 drs. ; oils 
of cloves and canella, each 15 drops. Used to 
prevent baldness, and restore the hair. 
20 



Sail Lustrate. 

Castor oil (deodorized), 2J lbs. ; strongest alco- 
hol (deodorized), 2J lbs. ; cantharides, in powder, 
i oz. ; oil of bergamot, 2i oz. ; otto of roses, 20 
drops. Mix ; let them stand a few days, nnd fil- 
ter. To soften the hair, and prevent baldness. 
Honey-toater for the Hair. 

Honey, 4 lbs. ; very dry sand, 5 lbs. Mix and 
put into a vessel that will hold 5 times as much; 
distill with a gentle heat a yellowish acid water. 
Vegetable Hair Wash. 

Southernwood 2 oz. ; box-leaves, 6 oz. ; water, 
4 pts. Boil gently for J of an hour; strain, and 
to each pint of the liquid'add 2 oz. spirit of rose- 
mary, and i dr. of salt of tartar, or 1 dr. of Naples 
soap. 

Borax Hair Wash. 

Borax, 1 oz. ; camphor, i oz.; boiling water, 1 
qt. When cold filter for use. 

Excellent Hair Wash. 

Sufficient liquid ammonia added to a pint of 
water to make the whole pungent. Be careful 
not to have it too strong. Afterwards wash with 
clean water. 

To Cleanse Long Hair. 

Beat up the yolk of an egg with a pint of sofl- 
water. Apply it warm, and afterwards wash it 
out with warm water. 

Bandoline 
Is usually made by infusing quince-seeds. It may 
also be made by boiling a tablespoonful of un- 
bruised flaxseed in a pint of water for 5 minutes, 
and straining. It is sometimes made by dissolv- 
ing gum arable or gum tragacanth in water. About 
4 oz. gum arable or 1 oz. gum tragacanth to the 
pint. 

Twiggs's Hair-Dye. 

Sugar of lead, 1 dr. ; milk of sulphur, 2 drs. ; 
rose-water, 4 fl. oz. ; glycerine, 1 fl. oz. Mix. 
This is the general composition of the Tarious 
popular hair-dyes and restoratives, which contain 
a yellowish sediment and are not oily. 
Silver Hair-Bye, 

Nitrate of silver, 1 oz. ; water, 9 oz., in blue 
bottle; sulphuret of potassium (fresh), 1 oz. ; 
water, 8 oz., in white bottle. Moisten the hair first 
with the latter solution, and when dry add the 
silver solution. 

Another. — Owing to the unpleasant smell of the 
mordant (white bottle) in the foregoing, a substi- 
tute is made by pouring boiling water, i pt., upon 
3 oz. of bruised galls. When cold strain and bot- 
tle. For the blue bottle add to the solution, as 
above, ammonia, until the precipitate formed is 
redissolved. 

Brown Bye. 

To a saturated solution of sulphate of copper 
(blue vitriol), add ammonia until the precipitate 
which falls is redissolved. For a mordnnt, to be 
first applied, as above, use a saturated solution of 
ferrocyanide of potassium. 

Orfilii's Hair-Dye. 

Take 3 parts of litharge and 2 of quicklime, 
mix thoroughly ; keep in a well stopped bottle. 
When used mix with water or milk, ap|>Iy to the 
hair, and envelope in an oil-skin cap for 5 or 6 
hours. 

To remove Superjluous Hair. 

Take of quicklime, 16 parts; pearlash, 2 parts; 
liver of sulphur, 2 parts. Mix thoroughly, and 
keep in a tight buttle. When used mix to tiie con- 
sistenc« of a paste, and after it has remained on 
2 or 3 minutes remove with a wooden knife. 

Another. — The following is more efiicient, but 
must be used with care as it contains arsenic. 



306 



PERFUMERY. 



Take of freshly slaked lime, 6 oz. ; orpiment, J 
oz. Mix thoroughly, and keep in well closed 
bottles. When used apply as a paste with water 
until it begins to burn the skin, and shave off with 
an ordinary paper-knife. The time required will 
vary with different hair. Black hair takes longer 
than fair. All of the depilatories sold are founded 
upon the two foregoing receipts. 
Toilet Powders 
Are made of starch variously scented. Many of 
the powders and lotions sold contain bismuth, 
which will sometimes blacken. 
Violet Powder. 

Wheat- starch, 12 lbs. ; powdered orris-root, 2^ 
lbs. ; oil of lemon, ^ oz. ; oil of bergamot, | oz.; oil 
of cloves, 2 dr. Mix. 

Bloom of Roues. 

Dissolve \ oz. of cinnamon in J oz. of strong 
ammonia; after 2 days add 1 pt. rose-water, and 
i oz. Esprit de Rose (triple). Mix and set aside 
for a week. Then pour off the liquid from any 
sediment that may be present. 

Pomade a la Rose. 

Take white grease, 1 lb.; nut-oil, 3J oz. ; sper- 
maceti, or white wax, IJ oz. Melt together and 
"add the oil. Pass the warm mixture through a 
clean cloth, and then stir it in a mortar till cold. 
If the pomade must be white, add no coloring 
matter; but if colored introduce the proper mate- 
terial. For red, soak i dr. of powdered alkanet 
in the oil previously warmed. For yellow, add ^ 
or i dr. of annotto to the mixture of grease, when 
melted. Pass through a clean cloth, and perfume 
with essence of geranium, \\ dr. ; essence of rose, 
J dr.; essence of canella, 1-16 dr. Introduce the 
essences into the grease half fluid. 
Economical Pomade. 

Take white grease, 2 lbs. ; essence of bergamot 
or lemon, H dr.; essence of cloves, 1 dr. Color 
with alkanet or carmine lake. 

Pomade of Bitter Almonds. 

Take pure white grease, 2 lbs.; natural essence 
of bitter aFinondg, I2 dr. ; essence of lemon, cedrat, 
or Portugal, li dr. 

Pomade Canadienne. 

Melt over a water-bath, 4 lbs. of bear's grease, 
and infuse 8 lbs. of rose leaves, as directed for the 
Pomade S, la Rose. Then strain, and perfume 
with essence of mint, J oz. ; essence of rose, 1 oz. ; 
essence of vanilla, a few drops. Color rose with 
.a little carmine. 

Pomade Divine. 

Beef marrow, 3 lbs. ; put it into an earthen ves- 
sel and cover it with cold water, and change the 
waterdaily for a few days, using rose-water the 
last day. Pour off and press out the water ; add 
to the marrow 4 oz. each of the styrax, benzoin, 
and Chio turpentine; 1 oz. orris powder; i oz. 
each of powdered cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg. 
Set the vessel in hot water, and keep the water 
boiling for 3 hours ; then strain. 
Stick Pomatum. 

This pomade is generally composed of mutton 
snets, but is sometimes made of hard body, to 
which is added, in summer, 1 oz. of wax for every 
pound of body. Lard body can also be used, but 
thepro])ortion of wax must be increased. In this 
preparation always melt the least fusible body 
first. In moulding care must be taken not to run 
the pomade while too hot, as cavities will occur 
■in the centre, rendering the sticks liable to break. 

To perfume the usual odors are, for 1 lb. of 
.pomade, essence of bergamot, lavender, thyme, 
orange peel, of each i dr. Color with annotto or 
saffron. 



Another method of preparing this pomade, also 
called cosmetic, is by melting 2 parts of tallow 
and 1 part of wax, in sheet-iron moulds, the size 
desired for the stick, the mass having been per- 
fumed and colored. 

Philicomea and Cosmetics. 

Philicomes and cosmetics are composed in 
winter, of equal parts of lard and eartlinut oil, 
and in summer, of 2 parts of grease and 1 part oil. 
The greases are melted over a waterimth, and 
passed through a cloth. When the products be- 
gin to solidify the oils are added, and the mass is 
then run into jars or bottles. For the fine phili- 
comes, the pominades a la rose, oriinge-flower, aa 
bouquet, geranium, a la tubereuse, etc., art sub- 
stituted for the lard. 

Beef Marrow Philicome, 

Take fat, 10 lbs. ; pommade a la rose, aux mille- 
fleurs, 1 lb. ; oil of cassia, 2 lbs.; oil of jasmine, 2 
lbs. ; spirit of roses IJ oz. ; bergamot, 5 drs. ; spirit 
of petit-grain, 2i drs. ; spirit of geranium, 2J 
drs. ; spirit of wintergreen, 4 drs. ; infusion of cin- 
chona, 5 drs. ; pure rum, 10 drs. ; essence of rosea, 

5 drops. 

Macassar Oil. 

Take oil of benzoin, 8 qts.; oil of noisette, 4 qts. ; 

alcohol, 1 qt. ; essence bergamot, 3 oz.; spirit of 

musk, 3 oz.; spirit of Portugal, 2 oz.; essence of 

roses, 2 drs. Mix, and keep the whole over a 

water-bath for 1 hour. Then digest for a week, 

stirring several times daily. Color with alkanet. 

An^andine. 

Mix in a mortar gum arable, 2 oz. ; white honey, 

6 oz. Reduce to a thick mass and add 3 oz. of 
neutral white soap. This being gradually incorpo- 
rated, add 2 oz. of fresh cold-pressed oil of sweet 
almonds, and finally, the yolks of 5 eggs. 

The paste has a firm consistence, and is reduced 
by a thick milk of pistachio, made of fresh peeled 
pistach nuts, 4 oz. ; distilled rose-water, 4 oz. 
Aromatize with ^ dr. of bitter almonds for 1 lb. 
of paste. A small portion, with a little warm 
water, produces a white lather of agreeable odor. 
This composition is used to whiten and soften the 
skin. 

Cold Cream, No. 1. 

Take of spermaceti and white wax, each 5 drs. j 
almond oil, 10 oz. Liquefy over a water-bath; 
pour into a marble mortar, heated by boiling water, 
stir quickly, and add 3i oz. of rose-water. 15 grs. 
essence of roses, and a few drops of potash lye. 
Camphor Cold Cream. 

Take of almond oil and rose-water, each 1 lb.; 
wax and spermaceti, 1 oz. ; camphor, 2 oz. ; otto of 
rosemary, 1 dr. 

Lotion for Freckles. 

Take of corrosive sublimate, 5 grs. ; muriatic 
acid, 30 drops; lump sugar, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 2 oz. ; 
rose-water, 7 oz. Agitate together till all is dis- 
solved. Apply night and morning. 

Another. — Take of sal ammoniac, 2 drs.; cologne 
water, 1 oz. ; soft water, 1 pint. Mix. 
Milk of Roses. 

Melt together in a stoneware vessel over a water- 
bath, spermaceti, white wax, and soap, each 1 01. 
Rub in a marble mortar bitter almonds, 2 oz. ; 
sweet almonds, 1 lb. Take out |, and on the re- 
maining J pour the above mixture, and continue 
rubbing. Then add by degrees the other j of 
the almonds, always pestling, so as to incorporate 
thoroughly. In a white glass bottle mix distilled 
water, 1 qt. ; rose-water and spirit of rose, each, 
i pt. Reserve 1 pt., and gradually pour the mix- 
ture first made into the remainder. 



PERFUMERY. 



307 



Rub, and (strain through a cloth, then return 
the residuum to the mortar, triturate it with the 
reserved mixture, strain, and mix with the other 
liquid. 

Kalydor for the Complexion, 

Take blanched bitter almonds, 1 part; rose- 
water. 16 parts. Mix and strain, then add 5 grs. 
of bichloride of mercury to every 8 oz. bottle of 
the mixture, and scent with rose or violet. 

Pomade for Chapped Lips. 
Take oxide of zinc, 1 oz. ; lyeopodiura powder, 
1 oz. ; pomade rosat, 2 lbs. Mix, and make into 
a perfectly homogeneous pomade. 

This is an excellent remedy for chapped lips, 
and is beneficial in cases of ulceration of the nails 
of the feet. 

Heliotrope Sachet. 
Powdered orris, 2 lbs. ; Rose leaves, ground, 1 
lb. ; Tonqua beans, ground, i lb. ; Vanilla beans, 
Jib.; grain musk, i oz. ; otto of almonds, 5 drops. 
Well mix by sifting in a coarse sieve, it is fit for sale. 
Lavender Sachet. 
Lavender flowers, ground, 1 lb. ; gum benzoin, 
in powder, i lb. ; otto of lavender, i oz. 
Millefleur Siiehet. 

Lavender flowers, ground, orris, rose leaves, 
benzoin, each, 1 lb. ; cinnamon, allspice, each, 2 
oz. ; tonqua, vanilla, santal, each, i lb.; musk 
and civet, each, 2 drs. ; cloves, ground, i lb. 

Portugal Sachet. 

Dried orange peel, 1 lb. ; dried lemon-peel, i 
lb. ; dried orris-root, i lb. ; otto of orange-peel, 1 
oz. J otto of neroli, J dr. ; otto of lemon-gras.s, i dr. 
Pose Sachet. 

Rose heels, 1 lb. ; santal wood, ground, i lb. ; 
otto of roses, i oz. 

Satital Wood Sachet. 

This is a good and economical sachet, and 
simply consists of the ground wood. Santal wood 
is to be purchased from some of the wholesale dry- 
oalters ; the drug-grinders are the people to re- 
duce it to powder for you — any attempt to do so 
at home will be found unavailable, on account of 
its toughness. 

Vervaine Sachet. 

Lemon peel, dried and ground, 1 lb. ; lemon 
thyme, J lb. ; otto of lemon-grass, 1 dr. ; otto of 
lemon-peel, i oz. ; otto of bergamot, 1 oz. 
Violet Sachet. 

Black-currant leaves, rose leaves, each, lib.; 
powdered orris-root, 2 lbs.; oil of bitter almonds, 
i dr. : grain musk, 1 dr. ; tonqua be.nns and gum 
benzoin, each, i lb. Mix thoroughly and keep 
together a week before ofifering for sale. 
Perfume for MoxUh Washes. 

Asarum Canadense, orris root, each 1 oz. ; strong 
alcohol, 1 pt. Make a tincture and add tincture 
of musk, 1 dr. ; essence of millefleurs, i dr. ; es- 
sence of patchouli, 20 drops. 

A Superior Mouth Wash. 

A close imitation of the popular sozodont. It 
cleanses the mouth thoroughly and is destructive 
to the parasites found in the deposits on the 
teeth. Add white castile soap, 2 drs. ; alcohol, 3 
fl. oz. ; honey, 1 oz. ; perfume as above, 4 fl. oz. 
Dissolve the soap in the alcohol, and add the 
honey and perfume. 

Fraugipanni Sachet. 

Take orris-root and rose-leaves, each 1 lb. ; san- 
dal-wood J lb.; Tonqua beans, i lb.; musk, 1 dr.; 
elvet, J dr.; essence of roses, j dr. Triturate the 



musk, civet, and essence of roses, and mix with 
the other substances reduced to a powder. 

Peau d'Espague, or Spanish SJcii), 
Is merely highly-perfumed leather. Take of oil 
of rose, neroli, and santal, each J oz. ; oil of lav» 
ender, verbena, bergauiot, each i oz. ; oil of clov<8 
and cinnamon, each 2 drs. In this dissolve 2 i.z. 
of gum benzoin ; in this steep good pieces of wa ste 
leather for a day or two, and dry it over a line. 
Prepare a paste by rubbing in a mortiir 1 dr. of 
civet with 1 dr. of grain musk, and enouj^h gum 
tragacanth mucilage to give a proper consistence. 
The leather is cut up into pieces about 4 inchea 
square; two of these are pasted together with th« 
above paste, placed between 2 pieces of paper, 
weighted or pressed until dry. It m;iy then be 
inclosed in silk or satin. It gives off its odor for 
years; is much used for perfuming paper. 
Indian or Yellow Pastils. 

Santal-wood, in powder, 1 lb.; gum benzoin, IJ 
lbs.; gum tolu, i lb.; nitrate of potassa, IJ lbs.; 
otto of santiil, otto of cassia, otto of cloves, each 
3 drs.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s., to m.ike the 
whole into a thick paste. The benzoin, santal- 
wood, and tolu are to be powdered and mixed by 
sifting them, adding the ottos. The nitre, being 
dissolved in the mucilage, is then added. After 
well beating in a mortar, the pastils are formed in 
shape with a pastil mould, and gradually dried. 

The Chinese josticks are of a similar composi- 
tion, but contain no tolu. Josticks ;ire burned aS 
incense in the temples of the Buddhist, in the Ce- 
lestial Empire, and to such an extent as greatly to 
enhance the value of santal-wood. 
Dr. Paris's Pastils. 

Benzoin, cascarilla, each i lb.; myrrh, IJ oz.; 
charcoal, li lb.; otto of nutmegs, otto of cloves, 
each I oz.; nitre, 2 oz. Mix as in the preceding. 
Perfumer's Pastils. 

Well-burned charcoal, 1 lb. ; tolu, vanilla pods, 
cloves, each i lb.; benzoin, J lb.; otto of santal, 
otto of neroli, each 2 drs.; nitre, IJ oz; benzoin, J 
lb. ; otto of santal, otto of neroli, each 2 dr. ; nitre, 
li oz. ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. 
Piesse's Pastils. 

Willow charcoal, i lb. ; benzoic acid, 6 oz, ; otto 
of thyme, otto of caraway, otto of rose, otto of 
lavender, otto of cloves, otto of santal, each J dr. 
Prior to mixing dissolve J oz. nitre in i pt. of dis- 
tilled or ordinary rose-water; with this solution 
thoroughly wet the charcoal, and then allow it to 
dry in a warm place. When the thus nitrated 
charcoal is quite dry, pour over it the mixed 
ottoes, and stir in the flowers of benzoin. When 
well mixed by sifting (the sieve is a better tool for 
mixing powders than the pestle and moriar), with 
enough mucilage to bind the whole together, and 
the less that is used the better. 

Cachou Aromatise. 

Take of extract of liquorice and water, each 3J 
oz. ; dissolve by the heat of a water-bath, and add 
Bengal catechu, in powder, 462 grs.; gum arabio, 
in powder, 231 grs. Evaporate to the consistence 
of an extract, and then incorporate the following 
substances, previously reduced to fine powder: 
Mastic, cascarilla, charcoal, and orris-root, each 
30 grs. Reduce the mass to a proper consistence, 
remove it from the fire, and then add English oil 
of peppermint, 30 drops; tincture of ambergris 
and tincture of musk, each 5 drops. ; pour it on 
an oiled slab, and spread it out, by means of a 
roller, to the thickness of a sixpenny piece. After 
it has cooled, apply some folds of bloiting-paper, 
to absorb any adhering oil, moisten the surface 



308 



PERFUMEEY. 



with water, and then cover it with the sheets of 
silver-leaf. It must now be allowed to dry, then 
cut into very thin strips, and these again divided 
into small pieces, about the size of a fenugreek seed. 



SOAPS. 



Hard soaps are made by boiling oils or fats with 
a lye of caustic soda. In soft soaps the lye is pot- 
ash. Resin is used in yellow soaps, as it snves 
fat. Silicate of soda is now frequently used in- 
stead ; it gives a white soap, which has no oflTen- 
fi\e smell, and has not the stickiness of resin soap. 
Prentiss' Washing and Scouring Solution is pure 
silicate of soda. Besides refuse fat, the palm and 
cocoa-nut oils are largely used as a basis for soap. 
Castile soap is made from olive oil, and is mottled 
by iron. 

Soft Soap. 

Add 3 galls, of rain or other soft water to 1 lb. 
of saponified or concentrated lye; boil it and put 
into it 4 lbs. of tallow or soap -fat. When the so- 
lution becomes clear, add 12 galls, more of water. 
It is ready for use when cold. 

Scented Soaps. 

Cut the soap into thin shavings, and heat it 
with enough water until liquefied. Let it cool to 
135° Fahr., and add the coloring matter and per- 
fumes. 

Almond Soap. 

To 1 cwt. of the best hai'd curd soap add 20 of 
oz. oil of bitter almonds, or essence of Mirban 
(p. 291). 

JRose Soap. 

Put into a copper vessel, placed in boiling water, 
20 lbs. of white curd soap and 30 lbs. of olive oil 
soap, both cut into thin shavings; add 5 lbs. of 
soft water, or rose-water; keep the heat below 
boiling until the soap is uniformly liquified, and 
then add 12 oz. of finely-sifted vermillion, or 
enough to give the required color. Withdraw 
from the fire and, when suflSciently cool, add 3i 
oz. otto of roses, i oz. oil of cloves, ^ oz. oil of cin- 
namon, and 2J oz. oil of bergamot. For cheap 
soap use less perfume. 

Honey Soap. 

White curd soap, IJ lbs.; Windsor soap, ^ lb. 
Cut into shavings and liquefy as before directed ; 
then add 4 oz. of honey, and keep it melted until 
most of the water is evaporated. Perfume with 
any of the essential oils. 

Floating Soaps 
Are made by beating up soaps, liquefied as before 
directed, so as to incorporate a certain quantity 
of air. 

Transparent Soaps 
Are made by dissolving white soap in alcohol and 
evaporating. By the use of a still most of the al- 
cohol may be recovered. They are made round 
by moulding with a drinking-glass, and then are 
known as wash-balls. 

Glycerine Soap. 

Cut the soap into fine shavings, dry, and powder 
it. Dissolve in a mi.\ture of equal parts of alcohol 
and water by the aid of a water-bath. When the 
greater part of the alcohol has been evaporated, 
add a corresponding quantity of glycerine. 
Windsor Soap. 

White tallow scraps, 20 lbs.; essence of bergamot, 

oz ; carvi, 6 drs. ; cloves, 4 drs. ; thyme, i oz. 

Saponaceous Cream of Almonds {Crime d'Amandes 
ameres.) 
The preparation sold under this name is a pot- 
ash soft soap, made with lard and perfumed with 
•ssential oil uf almonds. It has a beautiful pearly 



appearance, and makes an excellent lather with • 
brush, and has met with an extensive demand as 
a shaving-soiip, especially in Paris. It is prepared 
thus: Take of fine clarified lard, 7 lbs.; potash 
lye, containing abciut 26 per cent, of caustic pot- 
ash, 3 lbs. 12 oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 oz. ; essential 
oil of almonds, 2 drs. Melt the lard in a porcelain 
vessel, by a salt-water bnth or a steam-heat under 
15 lbs. pressure, then run in the lye very sluwly, 
agitating continually from right to left during the 
whole time ; when about half the lye is run in the 
mixture begins to curdle; it will, however, finally 
become so firm and compact that it cannot be 
stirred, if the operation is successful. The soap 
is now finished, but is not pearly; it will, how- 
ever, assume that appearance by long trituration 
in a mortar, gradually adding the alcohol, in 
which is previously dissolved the perfume. 
Tooth Powder. 

Take precipitated chalk and powdered orris- 
root, each 1 lb. ; carmine and powdered sugar, 
each 15 grs. ; essence rose and essence neroli, each 
60 grs. 

Tooth Paste. 

Honey, precipitated chalk, powdered orris-root, 
each 8 oz. ; tincture of opium, tincture of myrrh, 
each 1} drs.; essence of rose, cloves, and nutmeg, 
each i dr. 

Charcoal Tooth Powder. 

Finely powdered charcoal, sugar, each 2 oz. ; 
oil of cloves, 6 drops. 

Another. — Finely powdered charcoal and red 
Peruvian bark, each 2 oz.; sugar, 1 oz. ; oil of 
spearmint, 8 drops. 

Charcoal Tooth Paste. 

Finely powdered charcoal, white honey, and 
vanilla candy, each 2 oz. ; red bark, 1 oz. ; oil of 
rose or mint, 8 drops. Mix the whole into a paste. 



AROMATIC VINEGARS. 
In making these the vinegar known as No. 8 
may be used. Vinegar of 25 to 30 per cent, ia 
required to dissolve essential oils. 

Tarragon {Estragon) Vinegar. 
Tarragon ( Artemesia dracunculus), 1 lb. ; strong 
vinegar, 1 gal. The herb should be gathered bo- 
fore blossoming. This may be diluted when used. 
Vinaigre aux fines herbes. 
Tarragon, 12 oz. ; basil, laurel leaves, each, 4 
oz.; shallots, 2 oz. ; strong vinegar, i gal. Let 
them soak for a week or two, and strain. It is too 
strong for use, but is added to table vinegar to 
improve its flavor. 

Cologne Vinegar. 
Add to each quart of cologne water, 1 oz. of 
No. 8 vinegar. 

Aromatic Vinegar. 
Concentrated acetic acid, 8 oz. ; oil of English 
lavender, 2 drs.; oil of English rosemary, 1 dr.; 
oil cloves, 1 dr. ; oil of camphor, 1 oz. 
Henry's Vinegar. 
Dried leaves of rosemary, rue, wormwood, sage, 
mint, and lavender flowers, each Jt oz. ; bruised 
nutmeg, cloves, angelica root, and camphor, each, 
i oz. ; alcohol, rectified, 4 oz. ; concentrated acetio 
acid, 16 oz. Macerate the materials for a Jay in 
the spirit; then add the acid, and digest for a 
week longer, at a temperature of about 70° Fahr. 
Finally, press out the now aromatized acid, and 
filter it. 
Vinagre des quatre Voleurs, or Four Thieves' 

Vinegar. 
Take fresh tops of common wormwood, Roman 



1 

II 



BLEACHING AND SCOURING. 



309 



wormwood, rosemary, sage, mint, and rue, of 
each J oz. ; lavender flowers, 1 oz. ; garlic, calamus 
aromatious, cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg, each 1 
dr.; c;iii)|)hor, i oz. i alcuhol, or brandy. 1 oz. ; 
strong vinegar, 4 pts. Digest all the materials, 
except the camphor and spirit, in a closely cov- 
ered vessel fer a fortnight, at a summer heat; 
then express and filter the vinaigre produce<l, and 
add the camphor previously dissolved in the 
brandy or spirit. 

Hygienic Vinegar. 

Brandy, 1 pint ; oil of cloves, 1 dr. ; oil of laven- 
der, 1 dr.; oil of marjoram, i dr.: gum benzoin, 
1 oz. Macerate these together for a few hours, 



then add brown vinegar, 2 pts. ; and strain or 
filter, if requisite, to be bright. 

Toilet Vinegar (d la Violetle). 

Extract of cassia, i pt. ; extract of orris, J pt. ; 
esprit de rose, triple, i pt. ; white wine vinegar, 
2 pts. 

Toilet Vinegar (d Ja Rose). 

Dried rose leaves, 4 oz. ; esprit de rose, triple, 
J pt. ; white wine vinegar, 2 pts. Macerate in a 
close vessel for a fortnight, then filter and botUo 
for sale. 

Camphorated Vinegar. 

Camphor, 6 drs. ; alcohol 2 oz. ; strong vinegar, 
1 lb. Powder the camphor, by the aid of tb« 
alcohol, in a mortar, and add the vinegar. 



BLEA-OHIlSra and ©COURINa. 



To Bleach Cloths, &c. 

The mode of bleaching which least injures the 
texture of cloth formed of vegetable subtances, is 
that efiFected by merely exposing it in a moistened 
state to the atmosphere, after having been steeped 
in a solution of potash or soda, but the length of 
time and other inconveniences attending tiiis pro- 
cess, lead to the use of more active chemical oper- 
ations. 

It is by the combination of oxygen with the 
coloring matter of the cloth, that it is deprived of 
its hue, and the different processes employed must 
be adapted to prepare it for this combination, and 
render it as perfect as possible without destroying 
its texture, an effect which, however, must neces- 
sarily ensue in a greater or less degree from the 
union of oxygen with all bodies. The operation 
of bleaching requires 4 distinct processes. First, 
to remove the impurities, with which the threads 
are covered in the operation of spinning, which is 
called the weaver's dressing. This may be effected 
by soaking the cloth for some hours in warm water, 
and then boiling it in an alkaline lye, prepared 
with 20 parts of water, and I part of peurlash, 
rendered more active by being mixed with J of 
lime. After it has been boiled for some hours in 
this solution, it is to be well washed with water, 
and then exposed to the second process. The 
solution of chloride of lime must be of such strength 
as nearly to destroy the color of a solution of indi- 
go in water, slightly acidulated with sulphuric 
acid. The cloth is to be alternately steeped in this 
liquor, and a solution (made as before directed), 
4 or 5 times, using fresh liquor at each process. 
It is then to be well rubbed and washed with soft 
soap and water, which prepares it for the last 
process. 

The steeping is in a weak solution of sulphuric 
acid, and from 60 to 100 parts of water, the 
strength being thus varied according to the tex- 
ture of the cloth. This dissolves the remaining 
coloring matter which had resisted the action of 
alkali, and the chloride of liiue, as well as a small 
quantity of iron contained in all vegetable matter. 
The cloth is then to be exposed to the air for some 
days, and watered, to carry off any remains of the 
acids, and remove the un|ileasant odor it acquires 
from the chloride of lime and potash. 

Blenching Salt, 
Commonly called chloride of lime, is made by 
passing chlorine gas over moistened lime. It is a 
moist greyish powder, soluble in 10 parts of water, 



any excess of hydrate of lime remaining undis- 
solved. It deteriorates by keeping ; when freshly 
made it may contain 30 per cent, of chlorine, but 
often has less than 10 per cent. It is decomposed 
by acids, yielding chlorine. It consists of hypo- 
chlorite of lime and chloride of calcium, with 
water and excess of lime. 

Chlorimetry, 

The bleaching power of chloride of lime is often 
estimated, as above stated, by the quantity of a 
solution of sulphate of indigo, which a certain 
weight will deprive of its blue color. But as the 
indigo solution alters by keeping, this method is 
not unobjectionable. 

Mr. Graham's test is founded on the fact that 
10 grains of chlorine are capable of converting 
77.9 grains of protosulphate of iron (copperas, 
green vitrol) into persulphate. Seventy-eight grains 
of green vitriol (powdered and dried by strong 
pressure between folds of cloth) are dissolved in 
about 2 oz. of water, which may be acidulated by 
a few drops of sulphuric or muriatic acid. Fifty 
grs. of the bleaching salt to be examined are dis- 
solved in about 2 oz. of tepid water, by trituration 
in a mortar. This is trajsferred to a graduated 
glass vessel, which is filled to its with pure 
water. The solution thus made is poured gradu- 
ally into that of the iron, until it is entirely per- 
oxidized. To test this we have a solution of 
ferricyanide of potassium (red prussiate of pot- 
ash). This gives a precipitate only with the salts 
of the protoxide of iron. It is spattered in drops 
over the surface of a plate, and after each addi- 
tion of the chlorine solution, a drop of the iron 
solution, on the end of a rod, is touched to the 
ferricyanide solution. When a deep blue preci- 
pitate is no longer formed, an amount of salt 
equal to 10 grains of chlorine has been used. By 
noting what portion of the whole solution has 
been employed, the percentage of chlorine may be 
determined. 

To Bleach Cotton. 

The first operation consists in scouring it in a 
slight alkaline solution ; or what is better, by ex- 
posure to steam. It is afterwards put into a basket 
and rinsed in running water. The immersion of 
cotton in an alkaline ley, however it may^be 
rinsed, always leaves with it an earthy di^posit. 
It is well known that cotton bears the action of 
acids better than hemp or flax ; that time is even 
necessary before the action of them c:in be preju- 
dicial to it; and by taking advantage of this y&l- 



810 



BLEACHING AND SCOURING. 



nable property in regard to bleaching, menns have 
been found to free it from the earthy deposit by 
pressing down the cotton in a very weak solution 
of sulphuric acid, and afterwards removing the 
acid by washing, lest too long remaining in it 
should destroy the cotton. 

To Bleach Wool. 

The first kind of bleaching to which wool is 
Bubjected, is to free it from grease. This opera- 
tion is called scouring. In manufactories, it is 
generally performed by an ammoniacal lye, formed 
of 5 measures of river water and 1 of stale urine; 
the wool is immersed for about 20 minutes in a 
bath of this mi.\ture heated to 56°; it is then 
taken out, suffered to drain, and then rinsed in 
running water. This manipulation softens the 
wool, and gives it the first degree of whiteness. 
It is then repeated a second, and even a third 
time; after which the wool is fit to be employed. 
In some places, scouring is performed with water 
slightly impregnated with soap; and indeed, for 
valuable articles, this process is preferable; but 
it is too expensive for articles of less value. Bi- 
sulphide of carbon and benzine have been em- 
ployed in cleansing wool. The fat may be saved 
by distilling off the solvent, which may be used 
over and over again. 

Sulphurous acid gas unites very easily with 
water; and in this combination it may be em- 
ployed for bleaching wool and silk. 

To Prepare the Sulphurous Acid. 

Sulphurous acid is used either as gas or in solu- 
tion in water, which dissolves 60 times its volume 
of the gas. In the former case sulphur is burned 
in a close, moist room in which the stuffs (moist- 
ened) are hung. Two exposures, of 24 hours 
each, suflice for wool. 

To get a solution of sulphurous acid, the cheapest 
and best plan is to heat in a glass retort 12 oz. 
sulphuric acid and 2 oz. of sulphur. The gas, 
which comes off quietly, is collected in a large 
bottle partially filled with water; or better a series 
of bottles, so connected together that the gas must 
pass successively through the water contained in 
each. I 

To Full Cloths, Woollens, etc. 

The method of fulling woollen stuffs with soap, 
is this : A colored cloth of about 45 ells, is to be 
laid in the usual manner in the trough of a fulling 
mill without first soaking it in water, as is com- 
monly practised in many places. To full this 
trough of cloth, 15 lbs. of soap are required; i of 
which is to be melted in 2 pails of river or spring- 
water, made as hot as the hand can well bear it. 
This solution is to be poured by little and little 
upon the cloth, in proportion as it is laid in the 
trough ; after which it is to be taken out and 
stretched. This done, the cloth is immediately 
returned into the same trough, without any new 
soap, and there fulled for 2 hours more. Then 
taken out, it is rung well, to express all the grease 
and filth. After the second fulling the remainder 
of the soap is dissolved in, as in the former, and 
ea?t 4 different times on the cloth, remembering 
to take out the cloth every two hours to stretch 
it, and undo the plaits and wrinkles it has ac- 
quired in the trough. When sufiiciently fulled 
and brought to the quality and thickness required, 
scour it in hot water, keeping it in the trough till 
it is quite clean. As to white cloths, as these full 
mere easily and in less time than colored ones, a 
third part of the soap may be spared. 

To Bleach Silk. 
Take a solution of caustic soda, so weak as to 
make only a fourth of a degree, at most, of the 



areometer for salts, and fill with it the boiler of 
the apparatus for bleaching with steam. Charge 
the frames with skeins of raw silk, and place 
them in the apparatus until it is full; then close 
the door and make the solution boil. Having 
continued the ebullition for 12 hours, slacken the 
fire and open the door of the apparatus. The 
heat of the steam, which is always above 250°, 
will have been sufficient to free the silk from the 
gum, and to scour it. Wash the skeins in warm 
water, and having wrung tli ui, place them again 
on the frames in the apparatus, to undergo a 
second boiling. Then wa.-h them several times 
in water, and immerse tliem in water somewhat 
soapy, to give them a little softness. Notwith- 
standing the whiteness which silk acquires by 
these different operations, it must be carried to a 
higher degree of splendor by exposing it to the 
action of sulphurous acid gas, in aclo.-^e chamber, 
or by immersing it in sulphurous acid, as before 
recommended in wool. 

To Bleach Prints and Printed Boohs. 
Simple immersion in chlorine gas, letting the 
article remain in it a longer or shorter space of 
time, according to the strength of the liquor, will 
be sufficient to whiten an engraving. If it is re- 
quired to whiten the paper of a bound book, as it 
is necessary that all the leaves should be acted on 
by the gas, care must be taken to open the book 
well, and to make the boards rest on the edge of 
the vessel, in such a manner that the paper alone 
shall be dipped in the gas. The leaves must be 
separated from each other, in order that they may 
be equally acted on on both sides. Chlorin* 
water, freshly made, will answer instead of the gas 

Hare's Method of Bleaching Shell-lac. 
Dissolve in an iron kettle 1 part of pearlash in 
about 8 parts of water, add 1 part of shell or seed- 
lac, and heat the whole to ebullition. When the 
lac is dissolved cool the solution and impregnat* 
it with chlorine, till the lac is all precipitated. 

To Wash Chintz. 
Take 2 lbs. of rice, boil it in 2 galls, of water 
till soft; then pour the whole into a tub; let it 
stand till about the warmth in general used for 
colored linens; then put the chintz in, and use 
the rice instead of soap ; wash it in this till the 
dirt appears to be out, then boil the same quantity 
as above, but strain the rice from the water, and 
mix it in warm clear water. Wash in this till 
quite clean ; afterwards rinse it in the water which 
the rice has been boiled in, and this will answer 
the end of starch, and no dew will affect it. If a 
gown it must be taken to pieces, and when dried 
be careful to hang it as smooth as possible; after 
it is dry rub it with a sleek stone, but use no iron. 

To Wash Fine Lace or Linen. 
Take 1 gall, of furze blossoms and burn them 
to ashes, then boil them in 6 qts. of soft water; 
this, when fine, use in washing with the suds, as 
occasion requires, and the linen, etc., will not only 
be exceedingly white, but it is done with half the 
soap and little trouble. 

To Clean Black and White Sarcenets. 
Lay these smooth and even upon a board, spread- 
a little soap over the dirty places ; then make a 
lather with Castile soap, and with a common brush 
dip it in, pass it over the long way, and repeat it 
in this manner till one side is sufficiently scoured; 
use the other in the same manner; then put it 
into hot water, and there let it lie, till you have 
prepared some cold water, wherein a small quan- 
tity of gum arable has been dissolved. Now rinse 



BLEACHING AND SCOURING. 



311 



them well, take them ont and fold them, pressing 
out the warer with the hands on the board, and 
ketpinj; them under the bands till they iire dry; 
at which time have brimstone ready to dry them 
over, till they are ready for smoothing, which 
mui^t be done on the right side, with a moderately 
hot iron. 

To Wosh and Stain Tiffanies. 
Let the hems of the tiffanies be at first only a 
little soaped, then having a lather of soap, put 
them into it hot, and wash them very gently for 
fear Ihfy should be crumpled : and when they are 
clean rinse them in warm water, in which a little 
gum araliic has been dissolved, keeping them from 
the air as much as possible; then add a lump of 
starch, wet the tiffanies with a,soft linen rag, and 
fold them up in a clean cloth, pressing them till 
they are nearly dry ; after which put them near the 
fire, and finish the drying over brimstone; then 
shape them properly by gently ironing them. 

To Wufh (Did Starch Lawns. 
Lawns mny be done in the same manner as the 
former, only observe to iron them on the wrong 
side, and use gum arabic water instead of starch, 
and, aecording to what has been directed for sar- 
cenets, any colored silks may be starched, abating 
or augmenting the gum-water as may be thought 
fit, according to the stiffness intended. 

To Cle«n Buff-colored Cloth. 
Take tobacco-pipe clay, and mix it with water 
till it is as thick as lime-water used for white- 
washing rooms; spread this over the cloth, and 
■when it is dry rub it off with a brush, and the 
cloth will look extremely well. 

To make Sapouacemis Lye for Washing. 
Boil together in a suflBcient quantity of water, 1 
gall, of good wood-ashes and 2 or 3 handfuls of 
fresh-burnt lime. Leave the lixivium at rest till 
the extraneous matters have been deposited at the 
bottom, or thrown to the surface to be skimmed 
off. Then draw off the pure lixivium, add to it 
oil, to about a thirtieth or fortieth part of its own 
quantity. The mixture will be a liquor white as 
milk, capable of frothing like soap-water, and in 
dilution with water perfectly fit to communicate 
BuflBcient whiteness to linen. This liquor may be 
prepared from wood-ashes of all sorts, and from 
rancid grease, oil or butter. It is therefore highly 
worthy the attention of the economist. AVhen the 
ashes are suspected to be unusually deficient in 
alkali, a small addition of pulverized potash or 
soda may be made to the lixivium. 

To Clean and Starch Point Lace. 

Fix the lace in a prepared tent, draw it straight, 
make a warm lather of Castile soap, and, with a 
fine brush dipped in, rub over the point gently; 
and when it is clean on one side do the same to 
the other; then throw some clean water on it, in 
which a little alum has been dissolved, to take off 
the suds, and having some thin starch go over 
with the same on the wrong side, and iron it on 
the same side when dry, then open it with a bod- 
kin and set it in order. 

To clean point lace, if not very dirty, without 
washing, fix it in a tent as the former, and go 
over with fine bread, the crust being pared off, and 
when it is done dust out the crumbs, etc. 

To Clean White Veils. 
Put the veil in a solution of white soap, and let 
it simmer a quarter of an hour. Squeeze it in 
some warm water and soap till quite clean. Rinse 
it from soap, and then in clean cold water, in 
which is a drop of liquid blue. Then pour boiling 



water upon a teaspoonful of starch, run the veil 
through this, and clear it well by clapping it. 
Afterwards pin it out, keeping the edges straight 
and even. 

To Clean Black Veils. 

Pass them through a warm liquor of bullock'* 
gall and water; rinse in cold water; then take a 
small piece of glue, pour boiling water on it, and 
pass the veil through it; clap it, and frame it to 
dry. 

To Clean White Satin and Floicered Silks. 

Mix sifted stale bread-crumbs with powder blue, 
and rub it thoroughly all over, then shake it well, 
and dust it with clean soft cloths. Afterwards, 
where there are any gold or silver flowers, take a 
piece of crimson ingrain velvet, rub the flower* 
with it, which will restore them to their original 
lustre. 

Another Method. 

Pass them through a solution of fine hard soap, 
at a hand heat, drawing them through the hand. 
Rinse in lukewarm water, dry and finish by pin- 
ning out. Brush the flossy or bright side with a 
clean clothes-brush the way of the nap. Finish 
them by dipping a sponge into a size, made by 
boiling isinglass in water, and rub the wrong side. 
Rinse out a second time, and brush and dry near 
a fire or in a warm room. 

Silks may be treated in the same way, but not 
brushed. If the silks are for dyeing, instead of 
passing them through a solution of soap and water 
they must be boiled off; but if the silks are very 
stout, the water must only be of heat sufiBcient to 
extract the dirt, and when rinsed in warm water 
they are in a state for the dye. 

Another Method. 

Strew French chalk over them, and brush it off 
with a hard brush once or twice. 

To Clean Colored Silks of all kinds. 

Put some soft soap into boiling water, and beat 
it till dissolved in a strong lather. At a hand heat 
put in the article. If strong, it may be rubbed as 
in washing; rinse it quickly in warm water, and 
add oil of vitriol, sufficient to give another water a 
sourish taste, if for bright yellow, crimsons, ma- 
roons, and scarlets ; but for oranges, fawns, browns, 
or their shades, use no acid. For bright scarlet, 
use a solution of tin. Gently squeeze and then 
roll it in a coarse sheet, and wring it. Ilang it in 
a warm room to dry, and finish it by calendering 
or mangling. 

For pinks, rose colors, and thin shades, etc., in- 
stead of oil of vitriol, or solution of tin, prefer 
lemon-juice, or white tartar, or vinegar. 

For blues, purples, and their shades, add a small 
quantity of pearlash ; it will restore the colors. 
Wash the articles like a linen garment, but in- 
stead of wringing gently squeeze and sheet them, 
and when dry finish them with fine gum-water or 
dissolved isinglass, to which add some pearlash, 
rubbed on the wrong side; then pin them out. 

Blues of all shades are dyed with archil, and 
afterwards dipped in a vat; twice cleaning with 
pearlash restores the color. For olive greens, a 
small quantity of verdigris dissolved in water, or 
a solution of copper mixed with the water, will 
revive the color again. Grease spots may be re- 
moved by benzine. 

To Clean Black Silks. 

To bullock's gall add boiling water sufficient to 
make it warm, and with a clean sponge rub the 
silk well on both sides ; squeeze it well out, and 
proceed again in like manner. Rinse it in spring- 
water, and change the water till perfectly clean ; 
dry it in the air, and pin it out on a table ; but 



312 



BLEACHIN-Q AND SCOURING. 



first dip the sponge in pine-water, and rub it on 
the wrong side ; then dry it before a fire. 

To Dip Rusty Black Silks. 
If it requires to be red dyed, boil logwood, and 
in hall an hour put in the silk and let it simmer 
half an hour. Take it out, nnd dissolve a little 
blue vitriol and green copperas, cool the copper, 
let it simmer ^ hour, then dry it over a stick in 
the air. If not red dyed, pin it out, and rinse it 
in spring water, in which A teaspoonful of oil of 
vitriol has been put. Work it about 6 minutes, 
rinse it in cold water, and finish it by pinning aud 
rubbing it with gum-water. 

To Clean Silk Stockings. 
Wash with soap and water, and simmer them 
in the same for 10 minutes, rinsing in cold water. 
For blue cast, put 1 drop of liquid blue into a pan 
of cold spring-water; run the stockings through 
this a minute or two, and dry them. For a pink 
cast, put 1 or 2 drops of saturated pink dye into 
•old water, and rinse them through this. For a 
flesh-color, add a little rose pink in a thin soap- 
liquor, rub them with clean flannel, and calender 
or mangle them. 

To Extract Grease-spots from Silks and Colored 
JHuslins, etc. 
Scrape French chalk, put it on the grease-spot, 
and hold it near the fire, or over a warm iron, or 
water-plate, filled with boiling water. The grease 
will melt, and the French chalk absorb it; brush 
or rub it ofi'. Repeat if necessary. 

To take Stains out of Silk. 

Mix together in a phial 2 oz. of essence of lemon, 
1 oz. of oil of turpentine. Grease and other spots 
in silk are to be rubbed gently with a linen rag 
dipped in the above composition. Benzine may 
be used instead. 

To Scour Yarn. 

It should be laid in lukewarm water for 3 or 4 
days, each day shifting it once, wringing it out, 
and laying it in another water of the same na- 
ture; then carry it to a well or brook, and rinse 
it till nothing comes from it but pure, clean water ; 
that done, take a bucking-tub, and cover the bot- 
tom with very fine aspen ashes, and then having 
opened and spread the slippings, lay them on 
those ashes, and put more ashes above, and lay 
in more slippings, covering them with ashes as 
before; then lay one upon another till the yarn is 
put in ; afterwards cover up the uppennost yarn 
■with a bucking-cloth, and, in proportion to the 
size of the tub, lay in a peck or two more of ashes; 
this done, pour upon the uppermost cloth a great 
deal of warm water, till the tub can receive no 
more, and let it stand so all night. Ne.xt morn- 
ing set a kettle of clean water on the fire, and 
when it is warm pull out the spigot of the buck- 
ing-tub to let the water run out of it into another 
clean vessel ; as the bucking-tub wastes fill it up 
again with warm water on the fire, and as the wa- 
ter on the fire wastes so likewise fill up that with 
the lye that comes from the bucking-tub, ever ob- 
serving to make the lye hotrer and hotter, till it 
boils; then you must, as before, ply it with the 
boiling lye at least 4 hours together. For whiten- 
ing, you must take off this bucking-cloth, then 
putting the yarn with the lye ashes into large 
tubs, with your hands labor the yarn, ashes and 
lye pretty well together; afterwards carry it to 
a well or river, and rinse it clean ; then hang it 
upon poles in the air all day, and in the evening 
take the slippings down and lay them in water all 
night; the next day hang them up again, ahJ 
throw water on them as they dry, observing to 



turn that side outermost which whitens slowest. 
After having done this for a week together, put 
all the yarn again into the bucking-tub without 
ashes, covering it as before with a bucking-cloth; 
lay therecm gnod store of fresh ashes, and drive 
that buck, as before, with a verj' strong boiling 
lye for half a day or more; then take it out and 
rinse it, hanging it up, as before, in the day-time, 
to dry, and laying it in water at night another 
week. Lastly, wash it over in fair water, and 
dry it. 

To Scour Thick Cotton Counterpanes. 

Cut 1 lb. of mottled soap into thin slices, and put 
it into a pan with i oz. of potash and 1 oz. of pearl- 
ash; pour a pail of boiling water on it and let it 
stand till dissolved ; then pour hot and cold water 
in a scouring tub, with a bowl of the solution ; 
put in the counterpane, beat it well, turn it often, 
and give it a second liquor as before ; then rinse 
it in cold water ; now put 3 teaspoonfuls of liquid 
blue into a thin liquor, stir it, and put in the 
counterpane; beat it about 5 minutes, and dry it 
in the air. 

To Scour Undyed Woollens. 

Cut i lb. of the best palm soap into thin slices, 
and pour such a quantity of boiling river-water 
on it as will dissolve the soap, and make it of thjg 
consistence of oil; cover the articles about 2 in. 
with water such as the hand can beai, and add a 
lump of pearlash and about J of the soap solution. 
Beat them till no head of lather rises on the wa- 
ter; throw away the dirty water and proceed as 
before with hotter water, without pearlash. 

To Scour Clothes, Coats, Pelisses, etc. 

If a black, blue, or brown coat, dry 2 oz. of ful- 
ler's earth, and pour on it sufficient boiling water 
to mi.x it, and plaster with it the s))ots of grease; 
take a pennyworth of bullock's gall, mix with it 
i apt. of stale urine, and a little boiling water; 
with a hard brush dipped in this liquor, brush 
spotted places. Then dip the coat in a bucket of 
cold spring-water. When nearly dry, lay the nap 
right, and pass a drop of oil of olives over with a 
brush to finish it. 

If gray, drab, fawns, or maroons, cut palm soap 
into thin slices, and pour water upon it to moisten 
it. Rub the greasy and dirty spots of the coat. 
Let it dry a little, and then brush it with warm 
water, reiieating, if necessary, as at first, and use 
water a little hotter;^rinse several times, in warm 
water, and finish as before. 

To Scour Carpets, Hearth-Bugs, etc. 

Rub a piece of soap on every spot of grease or 
dirt; then take a hard brush dipped in boiling 
water, and rub the spots well. If very dirty, a 
solution of soap must be put into a tub, with hot 
water, and the carpet well beat in it, rinsing it in 
several clean waters, putting in the last water a 
tablcspoonful of oil of vitriol, to brighten the 
colors. 

To Clean Cotton Gowns. 

Make a s(dution of soap, put in the articles, and 
wash them in the usual way. If greens, reds, etc., 
run, add lemon-juice, vinegar, or oil of vitriol to 
the rinsing water. 

To Clean Scarlet Cloth. 
Dissolve the best white soap ; and if black-look- 
ing spots appear, rub dry soap on them ; while the 
other soap is dissolving, brush it otf with hot 
water. If very dirty, immerse the article into the 
warm solution, and rub the stained jiarts. Dis- 
patch it quickly, and as soon as the color begins 
to give, wring it o\it, and immerse it in a pan or 
I pail of warm water ; wring it again, and immerse 



BLEACHING AND SCOURING. 



313 



it in colcl ppring-wnter, in which mix a table- 
Bfioonful of solution of tin. Stir it ahnut, and in 
10 minutes hang it to dry in tho ishude, and cold 
press it. 

Another Method. 

On J of a peck of whcjiten bran pour boiling 
water in a hair sieve. In the bran water, at a 
hand-heat, iminerse the cloth, and rub it, looking 
through it to i^ee the spots. To a second liquor, add 
nearlj' J oz. of white or crude tartar. If darkened, 
D)ake a clean liquor of cold spring-water with a 
drop or two of solution of tin, soak it in 10 minutes, 
wring it, and hang it up to dry. 

To D!p Scarlet doth. 

After it has been thoroughly cleaned with soap, 
and rinsed in warm water, put into boiling spring- 
water i lb. of young fustic or zant, 1 dr. of pounded 
and sifted cochineal, and an equal quantity of 
cream of tartar; boil 5 or 6 minutes, and cool by 
adding 1 or 2 pts. of cold spring-water, and 1 
tablespoonful of the solution of tin. Stir the mix- 
ture, put in the cloth, boil it for 10 minutes, and 
when dry, cold press it. 

To Raise the Nop on Cloth. 

Soak in cold water for i an hour, thpn put on 
a board, and rub the thread-bare parts with a half- 
worn hatter's ciird, filled with flocks, or with a 
prickly thistle, yntil a nap is raised. Hang up to 
dry, and with atard brush lay the nap the right 
way. 

To Revive Faded Black Cloth. 

Having cleaned it well, boil 2 or 3 oz. of log- 
wood for i an hour. Dip it in warm water and 
squeeze it dry, then put it into the copper, and 
boil \ an hour. Take it out and add a small piece 
of green copperas, and boil it another ^ an hour. 
Hang it in the air for an hour or two, then rinse 
it in 2 or .S cold waters, dry it, and let it be regu- 
larly brushed with a soft brush, over which 1 or 
2 drops of oil of olives have been rubbed. 

To Dry Clean Cloth. 

Dip a brush in warm gall, and apply it to 
greasy places, rinse it ofi' in cold water; dry by 
the fire, then lay the coat flat, strew damp sand 
over it, and with a brush beat the sand into the 
cloth; then brush it out with a hard brush, and 
the sand will bring away the dirt. Rub a drnp of 
oil of olives over with a soft brush, to brighten the 
colors. 

To Prevent Prints from Fading. 

The dress should be washed in lather, and not 
by applying the soap in the usual way direct 
upon the muslin. Make a lather by boiling soap 
end water together; let it stand until it is suffi- 
ciently cool for use, and previously to putting the 
dress into it, throw in a handful of salt; rinse the 
dress without wringing it in clear, cold water, 
into which a little salt has been thrown; remove 
it and rinse it in a fresh supply of clear water and 
salt. Then wring the dress in a cloth and hang 
it to dry immediately, spreading as open as possi- 
ble, so as to prevent one part lying over another. 
Should there be any white in the pattern, mix a 
little blue in the water. 

To Bleach Wool, Silks, Straw Bonnets, etc. 
Put a chafing-dish with some lighted charcoal 
into a close room, or large box ; then strew 1 
or 2 oz. of powdered brimstone on the hot coals. 
Hang the articles in the room or box, make the 
door fast, and let them hang some hours. Fine 
colored woollens are thus sulphured before dyed, 
and straw bonnets are thus bleached. 

To lake Iron-moulds out of Linen. 
1. Hold the iron-mould on the cover of a tank- 



ard of boiling water, and rub on the spot a little 
oxalic acid, or salt of sorrel, and when the cloth 
has thoroughly imbibed the acid, wash it in lye. 

2. Wet the spot wi h lemon-juice, sprinkle with 
salt, and lay in the sun until dry. Repeat the ap- 
plication until the stain is removed. 

To make Breeches-Ball. 
Mix 1 lb. of Bath brick, 2 lbs. of pipe-clay, 4 
oz. of pumice-stone powder, and 6 oz. of ox galls; 
color them with rose-pink, yellow ochre, uuiber, 
Irish slate, etc., to any desired shade. 

Clothes' Ball. 

1. Mix 2 lbs. of pipc-cIay, 4 oz. of fuller's earth, 
4 oz. of whiting, and i of a pt. of ox-galls. 

2. Portable balls, for removing sp<jts from 
clothes, may be thus prepared : Fuller's earth, 
pcrf(!ctly dried (so that it may crumble into a 
j)ow(ler), is to bo moistened with the clear juice 
of lemons, and a small quantity of fiure pearl- 
ashes is to bo added. Knead the whole carefully 
together, till it acquires the consistence of a thick 
elastic yiaste ; form it into convenient small balls, 
and dry them in the sun. To be used, first 
moisten the spot on the clothes with water, then 
rub it with the ball, and let the sjiot dry in the 
sun ; after having washed it with pure water, the 
spot will entirely disappear. 

To take Grease out of Leather Breeches. 

The white of an egg applied to the injured part 
and dried in the sun, will efl'ectually answer this 
purpose. 

Another Method. 

To 2 tablespoonfuls of spirits of turpentine, put 
i an oz. of mealy potatoes, add some of the best 
Durham mustard, with a little vinegar; let them 
dry, and when well rubbed, the spots will be en- 
tirely removed. 

To Cleanse Feathers from Animal Oil. 

Mix well with 1 gall, of clear water, 1 lb. of 
quicklime; and, when the lime is prt-cipitated in 
fine powder, pour off" the clear lime-water for use, 
at the time it is wanted. Put the feathers to be 
cleaned in a tub, and add to them a sufficient 
quantity of the clear lime-water, so as to cover 
them about 3 inches. The feathers, when thor- 
oughly moistened, will sink down, and should re- 
main in the lime-water for 3 or 4 days; after 
which, the foul liquor should be separated. 
Fuller's Purifer for Woollen Cloths. 

Dry, pulverize, and sift the following ingredi- 
ents : 

Six lbs. of fuller's earth, 1 lb. of pipe clay, and 
4 oz. of French chalk. 

Make a paste of the above with the following: 
One oz. of rectified oil of turpentine, 2 oz. of spirit 
of wine, and IJ lbs. of melted oil soap. 

Make up the compound into six-penny or shil- 
ling cakes for sale. These cakes are to be kept 
in water, or in small wooden boxes. 

To Clean all Sorts of Metal. 

Mix i pt. of refined neat's-foot oil, and J a gill 
of spirit of turpentine. Scrape a little rotten- 
stone; wet a woollen rag with the liquid, dip it 
into the scraped kernel, and rub the metal well. 
Wipe it off with a soft cloth, polish with dry 
leather, and use more of the kernel. In respect 
to steel, if it is very rusty, use a little powder of 
])umice with the liquid, on a separate woollen rag 
first. 

To Takeout Writing. 

Wash by means of camel's hair pencils dipped 
alternately in solutions of cyanide of potassium 
and oxalic acid. 



3U 



BLKACniNO AND SCOUIUNQ. 



To lol'« otil }f<n-l,-iiii/ liih. 
Most indoliltle ink oonliiiiis .silvor iis a linsiH, 
mill mnv 1)0 ii'inovod l>y a solution of cviiiiido of 
potiiM.siiiin. Wlit<ii tho liiisis of tlio ink i.s oiirlum, 
iiowovor, this will t'nil. ("Iiloiino will doslioy nil 
Eitiiin.i iinil niarkinus (l(-|it'ntlont u|ii>ii iir^anio 
liiatti'v.t oxoi'pl, tho oaibon ink. 

'7'<i AV(i/(ir<i //(iii;/iH(/», Citrfirt*, Choir*, ele. 
Bent, tlio tlnst out of tlioin n» oloan n» |>OMsililo, 
tlion ml) tlioni ovor with a dry hrn.sh, and inako a 
(food lallior of t'n.slilo Moaj), and nil) thcin well 
ovor witli a luiid hrnsh, tlit>ii lako oloiin wiiUt iintl 
with it \vii.--h nil lln< frolh, nmko ii wiitor with hIuid, 
mid wash thi'iii oM>r with it, and whon drv, im st 
of tho oolors will III) rostorod in a short liiuo; and 
thoso that aro vot loo faint, must Do lonohod up 
with a iit'Ui'il dipped in suitjildo colors; it uiiiv I'o 
run all ovir in thosnnio inauni'r with wiitcr oolors 
mixed well with KUiu-wuler, audit will look at u 
dislanoo liko now. 

7'ci (Vfiri) I'ltpcr Hii)iiiiiii/$, 
Cut into 8 half-nnartors a stalo (|uartorn loaf; 
■with 01)0 of thoso piooos, aftor liiivin>; lilown oil' all 
tho dust iVoii) tho papor to ho oloimod hy nioiins 
of a good pnir of hollows, hojjin at tho top id' tho 
room, holdini; tho oiiist in tho hiiiid, and wipini; 
lijthtlv downward with tho orunih, ahoiit IimH' a 
yiiril at oiioh stroke, till tho upper part of tho 
lianjjiuns is ooinplelol.v oleanod all round; then j;o 
nj^ain round with tho liko swoepiii}; siroko down- 
ward, always onU)nionein); enoh siiooessivo oourso 
a little hii;lioi- than the upper stndio had oxteinlod, 
till tho hottou) l>o tinisiiod. This operation, if 
oarofull.v perl'onnod, will fro<iuontly miike very (dd 
pM|>or look almost oi|ual to now. (iroat oautloii 
must ho used not hy any inoiins to rub tho paper 
hard, nor to attempt eloanin;;; it the oro.ss or hoii- 
sontal way. The dirty part td' the hread too must 
1)0 oiioh lime out away, and tho picoos renewed as 
soon as at all neoossary. 

To CIton Ltathe>: 
Take of Fronoh yellow ooliro, 1 lb. ; sweet oil, a 
dossortspoontiil. Mix woU tojjother, so that the 
oil liiiiy not bo soon ; then liike of pipo-olny I lb. ; 
etaroh, i Ih. Mix with boilint; water; whon oold 
lay it on tho leather. ^Vhen dry rub and brush 
it well. 

V'li (^!fon Mnrhle. 
Take verdij;ris and pumioe-slono,woll powdered, 
with lime newly slaked. Mix with soap loos, to 
the oonsistoneo of putty. I'nt it in a woollen rnf^, 
and rub tho stains well ono way. Wash ott" with 
soap and water. Re])oat, if not roiuovod. Or, 
oovor the stains with fuller's earth or plaster of 
Paris, anil when diy brush it otV. 

Y'o tiik-f Stoiim out of Silrer Plote. 
Steep tho plate in soap lyes for tho si)aoo of -1 
hours; then oovor it ovor with whiting;, wot with 
vinofjar, so that it may stiok Ihiok upon it, and 
dry it by a tiro; aftor whioh, rub off tho whitiufr, 
and pas's it over with dry bran, and the spots will 
not only disappear, but tho pliito will look o.xcoed- 
iugly brijjht. 

To Utk-e out Fniit Si>otii. 

lict tho spotted part of the oloth imbibe a little 

water without dippiiis;, iind hold the i>nrt over a 

lifjhtod ooiiuiion biimstone miitoli at n proper dis- 

tiinoo. The sulphurous aoid j^as, whioh is dis- 

char'red, soon eanses tho spots to disappear, t'lr, 

wot tho spot with ohiorino water. [See pa.ijo 4;?t).J 

To CIriiii lioUl Lace nnd Emhro'uh-ry. 

For this purpose uo alkaline liiiuors are to be 

used; for while they elean tho gold they oorrodo 

Ibo silk, and ohaugo or disohargu its oulur. Soap 



also alters the shade, nnd oven tho opneieH of oor- 
lain oolnrs. Itut spirit of wine may bo used with- 
out any danger of its injuring oithor eolor or 
iinalily ; and, in many eiisos, pri.ves as otVootiial 
lor restoring the lusiro ol the gold, as tln> oiirrosivo 
delorgoiits. lint, though spirit of wine is the most 
innooout inntorial employod for this purpose, it is 
noi in all onsos proper. The golden oovoiiiig may 
be in some parts worn olV; or tlie l>iise ux'tal, with 
whioh it has been alloyed, may ho oornnlod by 
the air, so as to leave the partioles of the gold 
ilisunileit ; while the silver iinderiieiith, tiirnishod 
to a yellow hue, may ooutiniio a tolenible oolur to 
the whole; so it is apparent thai iho lomovnl of 
the tarnish would ho prejudioinl, and miiKo tho 
laee or embroidery less liko gold than it wiis boforo. 
To liiiiiovf Spiitu of (irriinr J'rom Vlolh», 
Spots of grease may bo rouioved by a, diluted 
solution of polash, but this iiinst bo eautioiisly 
applied to prevent injury to tho oloth. .A bolter 
way is to liiy a piooe of brown or blotting paper 
ovor the spot, iind jmss over it a hot iron. Tho 
grouse is absorbed l)y Iho papor. Stains of white 
wnx, whioh sometimes falls upon ololhes from wa.x- 
oMiullos, are removed by spirits of turponlino, sul- 
phurie ether, or bonxine. The marks of while 
paiul mny also bo disoharged by the abovo-iuon- 
lioned agents. 

To lake ^tililrir out ojl.itirn. 
Iviib it well with snap; llieii soriiiie sonio fine 
ehiilk and rub that also in tho linen, lay it on the 
fl^rass ; as it dritis, wet it a little, nnd it will eomo 
out alter twioe doing. (See page l.'i'.J 
To tokr out Si>otno/ Ink. 
A.<i soon as the noeidont hnppens, wet tho pinoe 
with jniee of sorrel «)r leiiion, or with vinegar, and 
tho host hard white soap. (>xalie noid in weak 
solution is inoro active, but must be used cau- 
tiously. 

To lukr out Sloiim of Cloth or Silk. 
round Kreneli olinlk fine, nii.x with lavender- 
water to the thiokness of iiiiislnrd. l*ut on tho 
stain; rub it soft with the linger or pnliii of tho 
hniid. I'ut n sheet of blotting and brown pnpor 
on tho top, nnd smooth it with an iron, luilk-wann. 
To Ittiiioff (imisr S/iotn /rout I'o/iri: 
Lot the ))apor stained with grease, wax, oil, or 
any other fat body, be gently warmed, taking out 
as mueli as possible of it by hlotting-pnper. Dip 
a small brush in other or ben/.iiio, nnd drnw it 
gently ovor both sides of the pnpor, whioh must 
bo onrofully kept warm. Lot this operiition bo 
repented as many times as tho quantity of tho fat- 
body, imbibed by the i)nper, or Iho tliiokness of 
the pnpor niny render it neoessnry. Whon tho 
greasy substnuoe is removed, to restore the i)apor 
to its former whiteness, dip another brush in 
highly reolilied sjiirit of wine, and drnw it, in liko 
iiiniinor over the plaoo ; and imrtioulnrly around 
tho edges, to remove tho border tlnit would still 
present a slain. D' the prooess has boon em])li)yed 
oil a part written on with oomnion ink, or printed 
with printer's ink, it will oxi)orienoe no alteration. 
Aiiolliir. — Sernpo finely some pipo-olny (tho 
iiunnlity will be easily deterniinod on making Iho 
experimont); on this lay the shoot or loaf, (ind 
oovor the spot, in like manner, with the einy. 
Cover the wliolo with a shoot of pni)er, and apply, 
for a few sooonds, a heated iron-box, or any sub- 
stitute adopted by Inunilresses. t)n using Indian 
rubber, to remove the dust taken n|) by the grouse, 
tho pnpor will bo found restored Ik its originnl 
whiteness nnd opaoity. 'Phis simple melliod has 
often proved inuoU more effootunl than turpentine, 
and was remarkably so, iu an instunoo, whore the 



► 



MORDANTS AND DYE-STUFFS. 



815 



folioof a Ic'l(?firhadcxhibit«'l the iiiiirkn ofciindle- 
greaHO uii>l Ojc xnufffor luoro ttiini ]'Z inonlliA. 

To VleUHHr (Jhinnn. 
Benzine io the bewt material for cicuning glovcx. 



It rniiy he iif;|<lii:r] with a soft K\><inv^ or a ))i«o« 
of cl.,th. 

7'., (;i.:„u Sirn.n Unln. 
Jtiil) the Hoilu'l Htraw with af;iJt liirnon, iind witilh 
o(f lhejui<;« with water. Ktiflen with gum-naler 



DYEING-, in all its Varieties. 



PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 

The art of (lycin;^ ha« for \\.n ohject the fixinjj 
pcrtiiiiricritly oC a color of a <Ji;ll(iili; «h;i<le upon 
ituffK. 'I'he Mtun'H are atiiinal, ax Kilk, wool, ari<l 
featberM, or vef^etiible, aH coit^ui aii'l linen. The 
former t^ke the colors tnuuh more readily, and 
tbcy are more brilliant. 

in Home caneH, sh in dyeinjj silk and wool .with 
coal-tar colorH, the color at once iiniteH with the 
fiber; (generally, however, a procex* of prepara- 
tion i« neceHKary. In cjrtain other Ciiiie«, a/t in 
dyein(5 nilk and wool yellow by nitric a<;id, the 
color in due to a change in the niuVi, and is not 
I^roperly dyeinjf. 

Inxolublc colorH are managed by taking advan- 
tage of known chemical changCK; tbux chromate 
of lead (chrome yellow) in precipitated by dipping 
the liiufT into rolutionx, firxt 'A' a<;etate uf lead, 
and then of bichromate of pota«Ha. 

Miinluniii {liiiidKi-iitiiilj:, middle binder of the 
QermanH) are bodicK which, by their attraction 
for oiganic matter, adhere to the fibre of the ntulf, 
and alho to the coloring mattxT. 'J'bey are ap)jlied 
firnt; but in domectic dyeinj^ they are often mixed 
with the dye-ftuff. liy the umc of a mordant, a 
dye which would wash out in rendered permanent. 

Some iiiordantK modify the color; thux alur:i 
brighteni! madder, giving a light-red, while iron 
darkens it, giving a purple. 

MORDANTS. 
The principal mordants are alum, cubic-alum, 
acetaie of alumina, protochlonde of tin, bichloride 
of tin, Hulphute of iron, acetate of iron, tannin, 
•tannate ol' Hoda. 



DYE-STUFFS. 
The material*! ui^ed in dyeing are numerouK; the 
following are the mont important: Madder, in- 
digo, logwood, quercitron or oak-bark, Rrazil- 
wood, t!uiii:u;h, galln, weld, annato, tiirrncrie, al- 
kanet, red HaunderK, litmuo or archil, cudbear, 
cochineal, lac; and the following mineral xub- 
StanceK : ferrocyanide of potafitium, bichromate of 
potaiib, cream of tartar, lime-water, and verdigriu. 

Coal-t'tr C'lilorn 
Are made under patenttt, and on the large Rcale. 
The receii)li! fi^r their manufacture will, therefore, 
Dot be given ; in many caKCM, indeed, they are 
kept secret. Expecial inKtructiou>' an to their u«e 
will be fouod at the end of the article. 

Olhtr MuUri'tlii. 

A bath of cow'h dung in uxed after mordanting 
vegetable fibreii, tt> remove the excenH of mordant. 
A Kolution of gilicaUi of aoda ba« been lately ueed 
a« a Kubiititute. 

Alhanitit, or gluten, ib nptd to thicken the 
colons for printing, and Kou-etimet! to fix them. 
The colors are incorporat<;d with the albumen ap- 
plied to the »tufl'. iJy exposure Vi heat the albu- 
laen iii ooagulated aud the color fixed. 



Sili'-iitt; of S'ltl't, at 'I Meunii of Fixinif M'lril.'iulii. 
'i'he use of silicate of soda in calico printing haa 
tb'; advantage of rendering the <;ii\i,tk ilc''p<;r ihan 
when the dung-bath alone is used. In reference 
U> the iu;tion of this salt, it is worthy of remark 
that alkaline silicates exist in cow-dung, which, 
a<!cording to Ro/ers, contains 1 76 per cent, of 
HnJKi Hubxtance, i'.t fier cent, of this a»!h ; so that 
the fresh dung contains 2'8 pi-r cent, of ash, and 
the ash contains VI-:) per cent, of silica. A large 
portion of this silica is in the in<toluble condition, 
but the quantity of soluble silica is not inconsid- 
erable. 'I'be soluble |>orti«n of the ash amounts 
to .'58 (ler cent., and of this 12 per. cent, is silica, 
and 10 percent, potash and soda. There is, there- 
fore, reason for re;:urding silicate of soda an the 
etlieient ingredient of cow-dung. 

Mum, 

Used as mordant for silk and wool, is then di(i- 
Holved in water. If it contain iron, reds will be 
injured. It is a sulphate of alumina combined 
with m\\i\\HU: of potasna or ammonia, 'fbe alu- 
lumina is the active mordant. Ammonia alum 
may be distinguir.hed from potash alum by adding 
a little caustic potash to the powder; if ammonia 
exist it wil' be given off, and may be easily recog- 
nized by its pungent smell. 

Cnhit: Alum 
Is much used. It is made by adding carbonate 
of soda to alum until the pr<M;ipitatc, at firiit thrown 
down, is re-dissolved. Jf too much be abided a 
permanent precipitate will be formed. It yields 
its alumina much more readily Vi organic matter 
than common alum. 

Anf.laiK of Alumina. 
Use<l for COTTO."* and link.-*. When hcat/;d the 
acetic acid is driven off, and the alumina remains 
in (he fibre. It is made by a<Jdiiig a solution of 
acetate i sugar) of lead to a solution of alum as 
long as any pre<:ipitat<; is formed; or take 8^ lbs. 
alum, ftit lbs. sugar of lea<i ; dissolve each in 2 
galls, of boiling wat*r. Mix and allow to settle. 

Jiichlt/Tule of Tin (Soil of Tin, Nitromurtute of 
Tin). 

Take 4 lbs. of commercial nitric acid, \ lb. Hal 
ammonia/:; put it in a stone vessel, and a<ld ^ lb. 
of pure granulated tin ; or dissolve granulated tia 
in a mixture of 2 parts muriatic to 1 of nitric acid 
as long as any is taken up. 

Prot'iijiloride of Tin. 

Dissolve granulated tin in hot muriatic acid as 
long as any is taken up. Cream of tartar 'u gen- 
erally added V) the alum and tin batb. 

(Jiiyiif.riiH. 
Used for dyeing dark shades in wool. It is 
made by dissolving clean iron in dilute sulphuric 
acid and crystallizing. An inferior kind is made 
fr'>m pyrites. It contains iron in the form of prot- 
oxide. On exposure to the air, however, more 
oxygen is taken up, and, as in the case of all the 
lialUi of the iiToUjxiile of ijou, itenquioxide is 



316 



DYEING. 



fornied. This is a powerful mordnnt, as may be 
Been by ttie tenacity with which iron mould ad- 
heres to stufis. 

Acetate of Trim 
Is made by dissolving iron scraps in acetic or py- 
roligncous acid. It is preferred for dyeing vegeta- 
ble fibres. 

Nitrate of Iron. 

Take lOJ l^s. each nitric and muriatic acids, and 
add little by IwVe '2i lbs. of copperas dissolved 
in water. 

Preparation for Dyeing. 

Wool requires to be scoured ; raw silk to be 
unguinmcd; cotton to be sheared, singed, and 
bleached. (See Bleaching and Scouring.) 

To Determine the Effectn of Various Salts or Mor- 
dants on Colors, 
The Dye of Madder. 

For a madder red on woolens, the best quantity 
of madder is i of the weight of the woollens that 
are to be dyed; the best proportion of salts to be 
used, is 6 parts of alum and 1 of red tartar, for 
16 parts of the stuff. 

A variHtion in the proportions of the salts, 
wholly alters the color that the madder naturally 
gives. If the alum is lesseneil, and the tart.ar in- 
creased, the dye jiroves a red cinnamon. If the 
alum be entirely omitted, the red wholly disap- 
pears, and a durable tawny cinnamon is produced. 

If wo(jllens are boiled in weak pearlash and 
water, the greater part of the color is destroyed. 
A soluticm of soap discharges part of the color, 
and leaves the remaining more beautiful. 

Volatile alkalies heighten the red color of the 
madder, but they make the dye fugitive. 
To Dye Wool and Wo'dlen Cloths of a Bine Color. 

Dissolve 1 part of indigo in 4 parts of concen- 
trated sulphuric acid; to the solution add 1 part 
of dry carbonate of potass, and then dilute it with 
8 times its weight of water. The cloth must be 
boiled for an hour in a solution containing 5 parts 
of alum and 3 of tartar, for every 32 parts of 
cloth. It is then to be thrcjwn into a water- 
hath, previously prepared, containing a greater 
or smaller proportion of diluteil sulphate of in- 
digo, according to the shade which the cloth is 
intended to receive. In this bath it must be boiled 
till it has acquired the wished-for color. 

The only coloring matters employed in dyeing 
blue, are woad and indigo. 

Indigo has a very strong affinity for wool, silk, 
cotton, and linen. Every kind of cloth, therefore, 
may be dyed with it without the assistance of any 
mordant whatever. The color thus induced is 
very permanent. But indigo can only be applied 
to cloth in a state of solution, and the only solvent 
known is sulphuric acid. The sulphate of indigo 
is often used to dye wool and silk blue, and is 
known by the name of sa.xon blue. 

It is not the only solution of that pigment 
employed in dyeing. By far the most common 
method is, to deprive indigo of its blue color and 
reduce it to green, and then to dissolve it in water 
by means of alkalies. Two different methods are 
employed for this purpose. The first is, to mi.x 
with indigo a solution of green oxide of iron, and 
difi'erent metallic sulphurets. If therefore indigo, 
lime, and green sulphate of iron are mi.xed toge- 
ther in water, the indigo gradually loses its blue 
color, becomes green, and is dissolved. The second 
method is, to mi.v the indigo in water with certain 
vegetable substances which readily undergo fer- 
mentation; the indigo is dissolved by means of 
quicklime or alkali, which is added t« the solu- 
tioa. 



The first of these methods is usually followed 
by dyeing cotton and linen; the necond in dyeing 
wool and silk. 

In the dvting of wool, woad and bran are com- 
monly employed as vegetable ferments, and limo 
as the solvent ot the groen base of the indigo. 
Woad itself contains a coloring matter pre<!isely 
similar to indigo ; and by following the common 
process, indigo may be e.xtracteil fnim it. Id the 
usual state of woad when purohased by the dyer, 
the indigo which it contains is probably not far 
from the state of green pollen. Its quantity in 
woad is but small, and it is mixed with a great 
proportion of other vegetable matter. 

When the cloth is first taken out of the vat, it 
is of a green color; but it 80(ms becomes blue. 
It ought to be carefully washed, to carry cifF the 
uncombined particles. This solution of indigo is 
liable to two inconveniences: first, it is apt some- 
times to run too fast into the putrid fermentation ; 
this may be known by the putrid vapors which it 
exhales, and liy the disappearance of the green 
color. In this state it would soon destroy the 
indigo altogether. The inconvenience is remedied 
by adding more lime, which has the property of 
moderating the putrescent tendenwj Secondly, 
Sometimes the fermentation goes on too ..^nguidly. 
This defect is remedied by adding more bran or 
woad, in order to diminish the proportion of thick 
lime. 

To make Chemic Blue and Green. 

Chemic for light blues and greens, on silk, cot- 
ton or woollen, and for cleaning and whitening 
cottons, is niiide by the following process: 

Take 1 lb. of the Ijest oil of vitricd, which pour 
upon 1 oz. of the best indigo, well pounded and 
sifted ; add to this after it has been well stirred, 
a small lump of common pearlash as big as a 
pea, or from that to the size of 2 peas; this will 
immediately raise a great fermentation, and cause 
the indigo to dissolve in minuter iind finer parti- 
cles than otherwise. As soon as this fermentation 
ceases, put it into a bottle tightly corked, and it 
may be used the next day. Ol>serve, if more than 
the quantity prescribed of pearlash should be 
used, it will deaden and sully the color. 

Chemic for green, as above for blue, is made by 
only adding one-fourth more of the oil of vitrioL 

To Discharge Colors. 
The dyers generally put all colored silks which 
are to be discharged, into a copper in which i a 
lb. or 1 lb. of while soap has been dissolved. They 
are then boiled off, and when the copper begins to 
be too full of color, the silks are taken out and 
rinsed in warm water. In the interim a fresh so- 
lution of soap is to he added to the copper, and 
then proceed as before till all the color is dis- 
charged. For those colors that are wanted to bo 
eficctually discharged, such as greys, cinnamons, 
etc., when soap does not do, tartar must be used. 
For slate colors, greenish drabs, olive drabs, etc., 
oil of vitriol in warm water must be used ; if other 
colors, alum must be boiled in the copper, then 
cooled down and the silks entered and boiled off, 
recollecting to rinse them before they are again 
dyed. A small quantity of muriatic acid, diluted 
in warm water, must be used to discharge some 
fast colors; the goods must be afterwards well 
rinsed in warm and cold water to prevent any in- 
jury to the stalk. 

To Discharge Cinnnmoni, Grays, etc., when Dyed 

Too Full. 

Take some tartar, pounded in a mortar, sift it 

into a bucket, then pour over it some boiling water. 

I The silks, etc., may then be run through the clear- 



DYEING. 



317 



est of this liqiii/r, which will discharge th« color; 
but if the dye does ni<t take on again evenly, more 
tartar rnay be added, and the gooda run through 
as before. 
To Re- Dye or Change the Color of Garments, etc. 

The change of color depends upon the ingredi- 
ents with which the garments have been dyed. 
Sometimes when these have been well cleaned, 
more dyeing stuff' must be added, which will afford 
the color intended; and sometimes the color aU 
ready on the cloth must be discharged and the 
article re-dyed. 

Every color in nature will dye black, whether 
blue, yellow, red, or brown, and black will always 
dye black again. All color.x will take the same 
color again which they already possess ; and blues 
can be made green or black ; green may be made 
brown, and brown green, and every color on re- 
dyeing will take a darker tint than at first. 

Yellows, browns, and blues, are not easily dis- 
charged ; maroons, reds of somo kind*, olives, etc., 
may be discharged. 

For maroons, a small quantity of alum may be 
boiled in a copper, and when it is dissolved, put 
in the goods, keep them boiling, and probably in 
a few minutes, enough of it will be discharged to 
take the color intended. 

Olives, grays, etc., are discharged by putting 
in 2 or .3 tablcspoonfuls, more or less, of oil of 
Titriol ; then put in the garment, etc., and boil, 
and it will become white. If chemic green, either 
alum, pearlash, or soap will discharge it off" to 
the yellow; this yellow may mostly be boiled off" 
with soap, if it has received a preparation for tak- 
ing the chemic blue. Muriatic acid used at a hand 
heat will discharge most colors. A blavk may be 
dyed maroon, claret, green, or a dark brown ; and 
it often hap|>ens that black is dyed claret, green, 
or dark brown ; but green is the principal color 
into which black is changed. 

To Alum Silks. 

Silk should be alumed cold, for when it is alum- 
ed hot, it is deprived of a great part of its lustre. 
The alum liquor should always be stroiig for silks, 
as they take the dye more readily afterwards. 

To Dye Silk Blue. 
Silk is dyed light blue by a ferment of 6 parts 
of bran, 6 of indigo, 6 of potassa, and 1 of madder. 
To dye it of a dark blue, it must previously re- 
ceive what is called a ijround-f.i-lor ; a red dye- 
iiaS, called archil, is used for this purpoiie. 

Prussian Blue. 

A mordant is prepared of nitrate of iron, 1 pt. ; 
8 oz. of bichloride of tin crystals, i oz. of oil of 
vitriol, and 10 galls, of water. Another liquid is 
prepared by dissolving 4 oz. of red or yellow 
prussiate of potash, according to the shade desired. 
The silks are to be alternately handled in these 
for 10 minutes, 6 times. After each handling they 
are washed in cream of tartar water. 

To Dye Cotton and Linen Blue. 

Cotton and linen are dyed blue by a solution of 
1 part of indigo, 1 part of green sulphate of iron, 
and 2 parts of quicklime. 

Yellow Dyes. 
The principal coloring matters for dyeing yel- 
low, are weld, fustic, and quercitron bark. Yel- 
low coloring matters have too weak au affinity for 
cloth, to produce permanent colors without the 
use of mordants. Cloth, therefore, before it is 
dyed yellow, is always prepared by soaking it in 
alumina. Oxide of tin is sometimes used when 
very fine yellows are wanting. Tan is olten em- 



ployed as subsidiary to alumina, and in order to 
fix it more copiously on cotton and linen. Tartar 
is also used as an auxiliary, to brighten the color; 
and muriate of soda, sulphate of lime, and even 
sulphate of iron, to render the shade deeper. 
The yellow dye by means of fustic is more perma- 
nent, but not so beautiful as that given by weld, 
or quercitron. As it is permanent, and not much 
injured by acids, it is often used in dyeing com- 
pound colors, where a yellow is required. The 
mordant is alumina. When the mordant is oxide 
of iron, fustic dyes a good permanent drab color. 
Weld and quercitron bark yield nearly the same 
kind of color; but the bark yields coloring mat- 
ter in greater abundance and is cheaper than weld. 
The method of using each of these dye-stufi's is 
nearly the same. 

To Dye Woollens Yellov). 

Wool may be dyed yellow by the following pro- 
cess ; let it be boiled for an hour, or more, with 
above 1-6 of its weight of alum, dissolved in a 
sufficient quantity of water as a mordant. It is 
then to be plunged, without being rinsed, into a 
bath of warm water, containing as much querci- 
tron bark as equals the weight of the alum em- 
ployed as a mordant. The cloth is to be turned 
through the boiling liquid, till it has acquired the 
intended color. Then, a quantity of clean pow- 
dered chalk, equal to the 100th part of the weight 
of the cloth, is to be stirred in, and the operation 
of dyeing continued for 8 or 10 minutes longer. 
By this method a pretty deep and lively yellow 
may be given. 

For very bright orange, or golden yellow, it is 
necessary to use the oxide of tin as a mordant. 
For producing bright golden yellows, some alum 
must be added along with the tin. To give the 
yellow a delicate green shade, tartar must be 
added in different proportions, according to the 
shade. 

To Dye Silks Yellow. 

Silk may be dyed of different shades of yellow, 
either by weld or quercitron bark, but the last is 
the cheapest of the two. The proportion should 
be from 1 to 2 parts of bark, to 12 parts of silk, 
according to the shade. The bark, tied up in a 
bag, should be put in the dyeing vessel, whilst 
the water which it contains is cold ; and when it 
has acquired the heat of about 100°, the silk, hav- 
ing been previously alumed, should be dipped in, 
and continued, till it has assumed the wished-for 
color. When the shade is required to be deep, a 
little chalk or pearlash should be added towards 
the end of the operation. Silk and wool may be 
dyed a fine yellow by picric acid : 16i grains will 
color 2 lbs. of silk. No mordant is necessary. 
Various shades may be obtained by using solu- 
tions of different strength. 

To Dye Cottons and Linens Yellow. 

The mordant should be acetate of alumina, pre- 
pared by dissolving 1 part of acetate of lead, and 
3 parts of alum, in a sufficient quantity of water. 
This solution should be heated to the temperature 
of 100°, the cloth should be soaked in it for 2 
hours, then wrung out and dried. The soaking 
may be repeated, and the cloth again dried as be- 
fore. It is then to be barely wetted with lime- 
water, an<l afterwards dried. The soaking in the 
acet^ite of alumina may be again repeated; and if 
the shade of yellow is required to be very bright 
and durable, the alternate wetting with lime- 
water and soaking in the mordant may be repeat- 
ed .3 or 4 times. 

The dyeiiig-hath is prepared by putting 12 or 18 
parts of quercitron bark (according to the depth 



318 



DYEING. 



of the shade required), tied up in a bag, into a 
sufficient quantity of cold WHter. Into this bath 
the cloth is to be put, and turned in it for an hour, 
■while its temperature is gradually raised to about 
120". It is then to be brought to a boiling heat, 
and the cloth allowed to rem;iin in it only for a 
few minutes. If it is kept long at a boiling heat, 
the yellow acquires a shade of brown. 

Golden ( Chrome) Yellow on Cotton. 
Heat till boiling, stirring all the time, 8^ oz. 
sugar of lead, 16^ oz. litharge, 3 galls, of water. 
Keep boiling about 10 minutes; leave to settle, 
decant, and while warm, handle carefully in it 
the bleached cotton. When the cotton is thor- 
oughly impregnated with the subacetate of lead 
of the bath, dry it by a gentle heat, and handle it 
in a bath of 8i oz. bichromate of potassa and 4 oz. 
of nitric avid. Wash well with warm water. 
Afterward? dip it into a bath of 2 drs. saffron to 
1 qt. of strong alcohol, until the desired tint is 
acquired. — Uliich. 



COAL-TAR AND OTHER NEW COLORS. 

Coal-tar colors are made from aniline, carbolic 
or jihenic acid and naphthaline, bodies obtained 
directly or indirectij' from the distillation of coal. 
The following, among others, have been obtained 
from aniline, aniline purple, violine, rosein, bleu 
de Paris, magenta, mauve, fuchsine, Tyrian pur- 
ple, night blue, aniline black, etneraldine. These 
may be divided into two groups: the reds as ma- 
genta, made by the action of bichlorides of car- 
bon, tin or mercury on aniline, and the purples as 
mauve, made by the action of oxidizing agents, 
as bichromate of potasfa. 

Picric acid is obtained by the action of nitric 
acid upon phenic acid, the coal-tar creasote; it is 
a fine yellow. Artificial alzarin, carminaphtha, 
etc., obtained frem naphthaline, are not employed 
practicallj' in dyeing. 

Chri/sdttimic acid is made by the action of nitric 
acid on aloes ; it gives blues, purples and greens, 
which are very solid. 

Chinese Green, apparently identical with the 
lo-kao, is obtained from the bark of the Ehamnus 
cathnrtlcHS (Buckthorn). 

Mitrexide, a splendid purple, is obtained from 
guano by the action of nitric acid. It has been 
displaced by the aniline purples. 

Molybdate of ammonia gives a magnificent and 
permanent blue to silks. 

To Dye Silk and Wool with Coal-tar Colors. 

Silk and wool can bo dyed with all these colors, 
except the roseolates. Many of them, as aniline 
purple and violine, are taken from their solutions 
so perfectly as to leave the menstruum colorless. 
The coloring matters are generally dissolved in 
alcohol ; for silks, this is diluted with eight times 
its bulk of hot water, slightly acidulated with tar- 
taric acid ; this is poured into the dye-bath, which 
consists of cold water, slightly acidulated. For 
wool, the solutions are cold, and acids are to be 
avoided as much as possible, as the colors are not 
80 fine when they are used. 

lied Djjea, 

The coloring matters employed for dyeing red 
are archil, madder, carthamus, kermes, cochineal, 
and Brazil-wood. 

To Dye \Voollen8 Red, Crimson, and Scarlet. 

Coarse woollen stuffs are dyed red with mad- 
der or archil, but fine cloth is almost exclusively 
dyed with cochineal, though the color which it re- 
ceives from kermes is much more durable. Bra- 
sil-wood is scarcely used, escept as an auxiliary. 



because the color which it imparts to wool is not 
permanent. 

Wood is died crimson, by first impregnating it 
with aluiiiine by means of an alum bath, and then 
boiling it in a decoction of cochineal till it has 
acquired the wished-for color. The crimson will 
be finer if the tin-mordant is substituted for alum ; 
indeed, it is usual with dyers to add a little bi- 
chloride when they want fine crimsons. The ad- 
dition of archil and potass to the cochineal both 
renders the crimson darker and gives it more 
bloom, but the Idoom very soon vanishes. For 
paler crimsons, one-half of the cochineal is with- 
drawn, and madder substituted in its place. 

Wool may be died scarlet by first boiling it in 
a solution of protochloride of tin, then dyeing it 
pale yellow with quercitron bark, and afterwards 
crimson with cochineal, for scarlet is a compound 
color, consisting of crimson mixed with a little 
yellow. 

To Carry the Color into the Body of the Cloth. 

Make the moistened cloth pass through between 
rollers placed within at the bottom of the dye- vat, 
so that the web passing from one windlass through 
the dye-vat, and being strongly compressed by the 
rollers in its passage to another windlass, all the 
remaining water is driven out, and is re-placed by 
the coloring liquid, so as to receive color into its 
very centre. The winding should be continued 
backwards and forwards from one windlass to the 
other, and through the rolling-press, till the dye is 
of sufficient intensity. 

To Dye Silks Red, Crimson, etc. 

Silk is usually dyed red with cochineal or car- 
thamus, and sometimes with Brazil-wood. Kermes 
does not answer for silk; madder is scarcely ever 
used for that purpose, because it does tiot yield a 
color bright enough. Archil is employed to give 
silk a bloom, but it is scarcely ever used by itself, 
unless when the color wanted is lilac. 

Silk may be ayed crimson by steeping it in a 
solution of alum, and then dyeing it in the usual 
way in a cochineal bath. 

The colors known by the names of poppy, cher- 
ry, rose, and flesh-color, are given to silk by means 
of carthamus. The process consists merely in 
keeping the silk as long as it extracts any color 
in an alkaline solution of carthamus, into which 
as much lemon-juice as gives it a fine cherry-red 
color, has been poured. 

Silk cannot be dyed a full scarlet, but a color 
apjiroaching to scarlet may be given to it by first 
impregnating the stuff with protochloride of tin, 
and afterwards dyeing it in a bath composed of 
4 parts of cochineal and 4 parts of quercitron 
bark. To give the color more body, both the mor- 
dant and the dye may be repeated. 

A color approaching to scarlet may be given to 
silk by first dyeing it in crimson, then dyeing it 
with carthamus, and lastly yellow, without heat. 

To Dye Linens and Cottons Red, Scarlet, etc. 

Cotton and linen are dyed red with madder. 
The process was borrowed from the East; hence 
the color is often called Adrianople, or Turkey- 
red. The cloth is first impregnated with oil, then 
with galls, and lastly with alum. It is then boiled 
for an hour in a decoction of madder, which is 
commonly mixed with a quantity of blood. After 
the cloth is dyed it is plunged into a soda lye, in 
order to brighten the color. The red given by 
this process is very permanent, and when prop- 
erly conducted it is exceedingly beautiful. The 
whole difficulty consists in the application of the 
mordant, which is by far the most complicated 
employed in the whole art of dyeing. 



COMPOUND COLORS. 



819 



Solferino, aniline green, etc., are obtained from 
ooal-tar. The silk is dyed without murdunt. 

Turkey-red on Cotton. 

The cotton goods are cleaned regularly with 
goap mnde from cocoanut or palm oil, and a cop- 
per proportioned to tlie quantity of worlt ; from 10 
yds. to 100 yds. is made to boil, and when it boils 
the water is merely softened with pearlash, and 
then some of the palm-oil soap put in to make a 
soap liquor; put the cottons in this, boil i hour; 
have a tub wifh clean hot soap-liquor in it, han- 
dle the work well in this, wring it out and hang 
it up to ry. The next process is to beat up 
sheep and cow-dung, ash and water together un- 
til you have a paste; work this through a sieve 
into a clean copper, and put to it one-fourth of its 
bulk of sweet oil. Stir all together, with a fire 
under the copper, until a soap is formed. Add 
double its bulk of water. The cotton is well han- 
dled in this and allowed to dry overnight. In the 
morning it has a palm soap liquor, wrung out 
well and dried, and when dry is regularly cleaned 
in cocoanut-oil soap and dried again. Ne.xt give 
it a strong nut- gull liquor, and then a strong, hot 
alum; give it an hour in the alum, then return to 
the nut gall liquor again for an hour, and then 
another hour in the alum ; wring it out and dry 
it. In a clean copper put for every 3 pails of wa- 
ter 1 lb. of the best madder and 1 qt. of horses', 
sheeps', pigs' or bullocks' blood ; get the copper 
on to a scald, and handle in it, but do not boil ; 
keep it in an hour, and then give it a good strong 
alum and hot water for i an hour ; rinse in two 
waters and return to the blood and madder cop- 
per for half an hour; rinse dry and clean in 
very hot and strong soap liquors ; dr3', give them 
a weak starch for a finish. — Love's Art of Dye- 
ing, etc. 

Bhtclc Dye«. 

The substance employed to give a black color 
to cloth, are red oxide of iron and tannin ; also, 
bichromate of potassa and logwood. These sub- 
stances have a strong affinity for each other, and 
when combined assume a. deep black color, not 
liable to he destroyed by the action of air or light. 

Logwood is usually employed as an auxiliary 
because it communicates lustre, and adds conside- 
rably to the fulness of the black. It is the wood 
of a tree which is a native of several of the West- 
India islands, and of that part of Mexico which 
surrounds the bay of Honduras. It yields its col- 
oring matter to water. The decoction is at first a 
fine red, bordering on violet, but if left to itself 
it gradually assumes a black color. Acids give it 
a deep red color ; alkalies, a deep violet, inclin- 
ing to brown ; sulphate of iron renders it as black 
as ink, and occasions a precipitate of the same 
color. 

Cloth, before it receives a black color, ?s Hsunlly 
dyed blue ; this renders the color much fuller iind 
finer than it would otherwise be. If the cloth is 
coarse, the blue dye may be too expensive; in 
that case a brown color is given by means of wal- 
nut-peels. 

To Dye Woollens Black. 

Wool is dyed black by the following process : 
It is boiled for 2 hours in a decoction of nut-galls, 
and afterwards kept for 2 hours more in a bath 
composed of logwood and sulphate of iron, kept 
during the whole time at a scalding heat, but not 
boiling. During the operation it must be fre- 
quently exposed to the air, because the green 
oxide of iron of which the sulphate is composed 
must be converted into red oxide by abs(»rbing 
oxygen before the cloth can acquire a proper 
Qol>r. The common proportions are 5 farts of 



galls, 5 of sulphate of iron and 30 of logwood 
for every 100 of cloth. A little acetate of copper 
is commonly added to the sulphate of iron, bo- 
cause it is thought to improve the color. 

To Dye' Wool a Chrome Black. 

Having cleaned the wool with soap and cream 
of tartar, take 4 oz. each of bichromate of potash 
and crude tartar to a copper of water; put in the 
merino, boil for 40 minutes, and, after cooling, 
immerse in a bath made from 4 oz. logwood chips 
with one-fourth of fustic chips to a copper of 
water. 

To Dye Silks Black. 

Silk is dyed in nearly the same manner. It is 
capable of combining with a great deal of tan, 
the quantity given is varied at the pleasure of the 
artist, by allowing tlie silk to remain a longer or 
shorter time in the decoction. 

To Dye Cottons and Linens Black. 

The cloth, previously dyed blue, is steeped for 
24 hours in a decoction of nut-galls. A bath is 
prepared containing acetate of iron, formed by 
saturating acetic acid with sesquioxide of iron ; 
into this bath the cloth is put in small quantities 
at a time, wrought with the hand for a quarter of 
an hour; then wrung out and aired again, wrought 
in a fresh quantity of the bath, and afterwards 
aired. These alternate processes are repeated till 
the color wanted is given ; a decoction of alder 
bark is usually mixed with the liquor containing 
the nut-galls. 

To Dye Wool, etc., Broton. 

Brown, or fawn color, though in fact a com- 
pound, is usually ranked among the simple colors 
because it is applied to cloth by a single procest. 
Various substances are used for brown dyes. 

Walnut-peels, or the green covering of the wal- 
nut, when first separated, are white internally, but 
soon assume a brown, or even a black color, on 
exposure to the air. They readily yield their col- 
oring matter to water. They are usually kept in 
large casks, covered with water, for above a year 
before they are used. To dye wool brown with 
them, nothing more is necessary than to steep the 
cloth in a decoction of them till it has acquired 
the wished-for color. The depth of the shade is 
proportional to the strength of the decoction. 

The root of the walnut-tree contains the same 
coloring matter, but in smaller quantity. The 
bark of the birch also, and many other trees, may 
be used for the same purpose. 

To Dye Compound Colors. 

Compound colors are produced by mixing to- 
gether two simple ones; or, which is the same 
thing, by dyeing cloth first of the simple color, 
and then by another. These colors vary to infi- 
nity, according to the proportions of the ingredi- 
ents employed. 

From blue, red and yellow, red olives and green- 
ish grays are made. 

From blue, red and brown, olives are made from 
the lightest to the darkest shades; and by giving 
a. greater shade of red, the slated and lavender 
grays are made. 

From blue, red and black, grays of all shades 
are made, such as sage, pigeon, slate and lead 
grays. The king's or prince's color is duller than 
usual ; this mixture produces a variety of hues, or 
colors almost to infinity. 

From yellow, blue and brown, are made the 
goose dung and olives of all kinds. 

From brown, blue and black, are produced 
brown olives and their shades. 

From red, yellow and brown, are derived the 



820 



DYEING. 



orange, gold color, feuille-mort or faded leaf, dead 
carnations, chintniitni, fawn and tobacco, by using 
2 or 3 of the colors as required. 

From yellow, red and black, browns of every 
ibade iire made. 

From blue :ind yellow, greens of all shades. 
From red and blue, ptuyles of all kinds are 
formed. 

To Bye Different Shades of Green, 
Green is distinguishable by dyers into a variety 
of shiidcs, according to the depth, or the preva- 
lence of either of the component parts. Thus we 
have sea-green, grass-green, pea-green, etc. 

Wool, silk, and linen, are usually dyed green 
by giving them first a blue color, and afterwards 
dyeing them yellow. When the yellow is first 
given, several inconveniences follow; the yellow 
partly separates again in the blue vat, and com- 
municates a green color to it, thus rendering it 
useless for every other purpose except dyeing 
green. Any of the usual processes for dyeing 
blue and yellow may be followed, taking care to 
proportion the depth of the shades to that of the 
green required. 

When sulphate of indigo is employed, it is usual 
to mix all the ingredients together, and to dye the 
cloth at once ; this produces what is known by 
the name of Saxon or English green. 

To Bye Violet, Purple and Lilac. 
Wool is generally first dyed blue, and after- 
wards scarlet, in the usual manner. By means of 
cochineal mixed with sulphate of indigo, the pro- 
cess may be performed at once. Silk is first dyed 
erimson by means of cochineal, and then dipped 
into the indigo vat. Cotton and linen are first 
dyed blue, and then dipped in a decoction of log- 
wood ; but a more permanent color is given by 
means of oxide of iron. 

To Dye Olixie, Orange and Cinnamon. 
When blue is combined with red and yellow on 
cloth, the resulting color is olive. Wool may be 
dyed orange by first dyeing it scarlet and then 
yellow. When it is dyed first with madder, the 
result is a cinnamon color. 

Silk is dyed orange by means of carthamus; a 
cinnamon color by logwood, Brazil-wood and 
fustic, mixed together. 

Cotton and linen receive a cinnamon color by 
means of weld and madder, and an olive color by 
being passed through a blue, yellow, and then a 
madder bath. 

To Dye Gray, Drab and Dark Bro%m. 
If cloth is previously mordanted with iron, and 
afterwards dyed yellow with quercitron bark, the 
result will be a drab of different shades, according 
to the proportion of mordant employed. When 
the proportion is small, the color inclines to olive, 
or yellow ; on the contrary, the drab may be deep- 
ened, or saddened, as the dyers term it, by mixing 
a little sumach with the bark. 

To Dye a Black upon Cotton, Linen and Mixed 
Goods. 
Take tar iron liquor of the very best quality; 
add to each gall, thereof i of a lb. of fine flour, 
and boil it to the consistency of a thin paste. Put 
the liquor or paste above-mentioned into a tub 
belonging to a machine used in the process. The 
goods intended to be dyed are wound upon a rql- 
ler, and passed through the liquor or paste, betwixt 
the two rollers; thereby completely staining or 
dyeing the whole mass or body of the cloth. Pass 
them into a very hot stove or drying-house till 
dry, then take cow's dung, put it into a large cop- 
per of water about scalding hot, and mix it well 
together, through which pass the piece of cloth 



until it be thoroughly softened. Wash the good\ 
so dunged, extremely well in water. Take a quan- 
tity of madder, or logwood, or sumach, or all of 
them mixed together, as the strength of the cloth 
and nature of the color may require, and put 
them into a copper or tub of hot water, then enter 
the goods before mentioned in this liquor, and 
keep rinsing or moving them therein until they 
are brought up to the strength of color required. 
Have the goods again well washed and dried. 
For dyeing black, it will be proper to pass tho 
goods a second time through the above operation, 
adding nifire or less of the dyeing- woods as before. 
If after the above operations the shade of color is 
too full, or too much upon the red hue, it will be 
necessary to give them a little sumach, and then 
run them through a liquor made from iron and 
owler, or alder-bark. 

Another Method. 
Take common iron liquor, and add | of a lb. of 
fine flour, and by boiling bring it to the consistency 
of a thin paste; or instead of flour, add glue or 
linseed, or gum, or all of them mixed together, 
till it is brought to a proper thickness. Then pass 
the goods through the machine, and follow the 
before-mentioned operations. 

To Dye Olives, Bottle-greens, Purples, Browns, 
Ciunamous or Snuffs. 
Take common iron liquor, or common iron liquor 
with alum dissolved therein, in quantity of each 
according to the shade of color wanted, made into 
a paste or liquid by adding flour, gum, glue, lin- 
seed, or one or more of them as before. Then put 
the liquor or paste above mentioned into a tub 
belonging to the machine, and pass the goods so 
intended to be dyed through the machine. Take 
them from the machine, and hang them up in a 
very cool room, where they are to remain till thor- 
oughly dry. Take cow's dung, put it into a large 
copper of hot water, and mix it well together; 
through which pass the cloth or goods until thor- 
oughly softened, the quantity of dung and time 
required being proportioned as before. 

The goods after this process being well washed, 
take a quantity of liquor made from madder, log- 
wood, sumach, fustic, Brazil-wood, quercitroa 
bark, peach-wood, or other woods, to produce the 
color wanted, or more of them; and if necessary 
dilute this liquor with water, according to the 
shade or fulness of color wanted to be dyed. 
Then work the goods through this liquor; after 
which pass them through cold or warm water, ac- 
cording to the color, the proper application of 
which is well known to dyers, adding a little alum, 
copperas or Roman vitriol, or two or more of 
them, first dissolved in water. Then wash them 
oflf in warm water and dry them. But if the color 
is not sufiBciently full, repeat the same operations 
till it is brought to the shade required. 

To Dye Crimson, Red, Orange, or Yelloio. 
Take red liquor, such as is generally made from 
alum, and dilute it with water according to the 
strength or shade of color wanted to dye, bring- 
ing it to the consistency of a paste or liquid, as 
before described. Then pass the cloth through 
the machine; which being dried in a cool room, 
pass it through the operations of dunging and 
washing as before. Take a quantity of liquor, 
made from cochineal, madder, peach-wot»d, Bra- 
zil, logwood, woad, fustic, sumach, or any two or 
more of them proportioned in strength to the shade 
or color wanted to dye, and work the goods through 
this liquor till they are brought to the shade of 
color required ; after which wash them in cold or 
warm water, and dry them. 



DYEING SILKS. 



321 



ChevreitVs Mode of Gradnntinri Shades of Color 
from PiuHsian Blue. 
Impregnate each parcel of silk to be dyed with 
a different proportion of the oxide of iron by im- 
Diersins it in a solution, the strength of which has 
been regulated accordingly. For the deeper tones 
of color employ the acetate, and for the others the 
chloridoorsulphate. After hnving properly rinsed 
(in sepiirate water) each parcel, it is to be dipped 
Into distinct baths of the i>russiate of potash, the 
quantity of which has been made to correspond 
with the quantity of oxide of iron previously united 
to it. With these precnutinns all the desired shades 
may be obtained. Those which are light and have 
a greenish cast should be well washed in river 
water, which will soon produce the blue in its pu- 
rity. If this does not happen, a very weak solu- 
tion of muriatic acid will produce the effect to a 
certainty. 

To Dye Wool a Permanent Blue Color. 
Take 4 oz. of the best Indigo, reduce it to a very 
fine powder, and add 12 lbs. of wool in the gre;ise; 
put the whole into a copper large enough to con- 
tain all the wool to be dyed. As soon as the re- 
quisite color is obtained, let the wool be well 
washed and dried. The liquor remaining may be 
again used to produce lighter blues. The color 
will be as beautiful and permanent as the finest 
blue produced by woad, and the wool, by this 
method, will lose less in weight than if it had been 
previously scoured. 

To Dye Silks and Satins Broion in the small way. 
Fill the copper with river-water, when it gently 
boils put in J lb. of chipped fustic, 2 oz. of mad- 
der, 1 oz. of sumach, and ^ oz. of cam-wood; but 
If not required to be so red, the cam-wood maybe 
omitted. These should boil at least from ^ an 
hour to 2 hours, that the ingredients may be well 
incorporated. The copper must then be cooled 
down by pouring in cold water; the goods may 
then be put in, and simmered gently from i an 
hour to 1 hour. If this color should appear to 
want darkening or saddening, it may be done by 
taking out th« goods, and adding a small quantity 
of old black liquor ; a small piece of green cop- 
peras maybe used; rinse in 2 or 3 waters, and 
hang up to dry. 

To Dye Silks of Fawn-color Drabs. 
Boil 1 oz. of fustic, i oz. of alder bark, and 2 drs. 
of archil. From 1 to 2 drs. of the best crop mad- 
der must be added to a very small quantity of old 
black liquor, if it be required darker. 

To Dye a Silk Shaiol Scarlet. 

First dissolve 2 oz. of white soap in boiling 
water, handle the shawl through this liquor, now 
and then rubbing such places with the hands as 
may appear dirty, till it is as clean as this water 
■will make it. A second, or even a third liquor 
may be used, if required, the shawl must be 
rinsed out in warm water. 

Then take ^ oz. of the best Spanish anatto. 
and dissolve it in hot water ; pour this solution into 
a pan of warm water, and handle the shawl through 
this for i of an hour; then take it out and rinse 
it in clean water. In the meanwhile dissolve a 
piece of alum of the size of a horse-bean in warm 
water, and let the shawl remain in this ^ an hour; 
take it out and rinse it in clear water. Then boil 
i oz. of the best cochineal for 20 minutes, dip it 
out of the copper into a pan, and let the shawl re- 
main in this from 20 minutes to ^ an hour, which 
Will make it a full blood red. Then take out the 
shawl, and add to the liquor in the pan 1 qt. more 
of that out of the copper, if there is as much re- 
21 



maining, and about i a small wineglassful of th« 
solution of tin; when cold; rinse it slightly but in 
spring-water. 

To Dye a Silk Shawl Crimson. 
Take about I tablespoonful of cud-bear, put it 
into a small pan, pour boiling water upon it, stir 
and let it stand a few minutes, then put in th« 
silk, and turn it over a short time, and when the 
color is full enough take it out; but if it should 
require more violet or crimson, add 1 or 2 spoon- 
fuls of purple archil to some warm water: and dry 
it within doors. To finish it, it must be mangled 
or calendered, and may be pressed, if such a con- 
venience is at hand. 

To Dye Silk Lilac. 
For every pound of silk take IJ lbs. of archil, 
mix it well with the liquor; make it boil i of an 
hour, dip the silk quickly, then let it cool, and 
wash it in river- water, and a fine violet or lilac, 
more or less full, will be obtained. 

To Dye thick Silks, Satins, Silk Stockings, etc., of 
a Flesh-color. 
Wash the stockings clean in soap and water, 
then rinse them in hot water ; if they should not 
then appear perfectly clear, cut i oz. of white soap 
into thin slices, and put it into a saucepan half- 
full of boiling water ; when this soap is dissolved, 
cool the water in the pan, then put in the stock- 
ings, and simmer for 20 minutes; take them out, 
and rinse in hot water; in the interim pour 3 
tablcspoonfuls of purple archil into a washhand- 
basin half full of hot water ; put the stockings iu 
this dye-water, and when of the shade called half 
violet or lilac, take them from the dye- water, and 
slightly rinse them in cold ; when dry hang them 
up in a close room in which sulphur is burnt; 
when they are evenly bleached to the shade re- 
quired of flesh-eolur, take them from the sulphur- 
ing-room, and finish them by rubbing the right 
side with a clean flannel. Some persons calender 
them afterwards. Satins and silks are done the 
same way. 

To Dye Silk Stockings Black. 
These are dyed like other silks, excepting that 
thej' must be steeped a day or two in black liquor, 
before they are put into the black silk dye. At 
first they will look like an iron gray ; but, to finish 
and black them, they must be put on wooden 
legs, laid on a table, and rubbed with the oily rub- 
ber or flannel, upon which is oil of olives, and 
then the more they are rubbed the better. Each 
pair of stockings will require i a tablespoonful of 
oil, at least, and i an hour's rubbing, to finish 
them well. Sweet oil is the best in this process, 
as it leaves no disagreeable smell. 

To Dye. Straw and Chip Bonnets Black. 
Chip hats being composed of the shavings of 
wood, are stained black in various ways. First, 
by being boiled in strong logwood liquor 3 or 4 
hours; they must be often taken out to cool in 
the air, and now and then a small quantity of 
green copperas must be added to the liquor, and 
this continued for several hours. The saucepan 
or kettle that they are dyed in may rem.-iin with 
the bonnets in it all night; the next morning they 
must be taken out and dried in the air, and 
brushed with a soft brush. Lastly, a sponge is 
dipped in oil, and squeezed almost to dryness; 
with this the bonnets are rubbed all over, both 
inside and out, and then sent to the blockers to 
be blocked. Others boil them in logwood; and 
instead of green copperas, use steel filings steeped 
in vinegar j after which they are iinished as above. 



322 



DYEING. 



To Dye Straw Bonnets Broicn. 

Take a sufiBcient quantity of Brazil-wood, su- 
mach, bark, madder, and copperas, and sadden, 
according to the shade required. 
To Remove the Stain of Light Colon from the 
Hnnds. 

Wash the hands in soap and water in which 
some peiirlash is dissolved, or wash in a paste of 
ehloride of lime. 

To Dye Black Cloth Green. 

Clean the cloth well with bullock's gall and 
water, and rinse in warm water; then make a 
copper full of river water, boiling hot, and take 
from 1 to li lbs. of fustic; put it in, and boil it 
20 minutes, to which add a lump of alum of the 
size of a walnut ; when this is dissolved in the 
copper, put in the coat, and boil it 20 minutes ; 
then take it out, and a<ld a small wineglass, three 
parts full, of chemic blue, and boil again from i 
an hour to 1 hour, and the cloth will be a beauti- 
ful dark-green; then wash out and dry. 

To Dye Cotton with Coal-tar Colon. 

The cotton is soaked in a decoction of galls, 
sumach, or other astringent matter, for an hour 
or two, then passed into a weak solution of stan- 
nate of soda, and worked in it for about an hour. 
It is then wrung out in a dilute acid liquor and 
rinsed in water. Cotton thus prepared is of a 
pale yellow color. The stannate of soda may be 
applied before the tannin, or alum may be sub- 
stituted for it. The prepared cotton is immersed 
in a bath of the color slightly acidulated and 
worked. It will absorb all the coloring matter in 
time, leaving the bath colorless. Picric and rosa- 
lic acids are not adapted for dyeing cotton. 



CALICO PRINTING. 

This art consists in dyeing cloth with certain 
colors and figures upon a ground of a different 
hue; the colors, when they will not take hold of 
cloth readily, being fixed to them by means of 
mordants, as a preparation of alum, made by dis- 
solving Z lbs. of alum and 1 lb. of acetate of lead 
in 8 lbs. of warm water. There are added at the 
same time 2 oz. of potash, and 2 oz. of chalk. 

Acetate of iron, also, is a mordant in frequent 
use in the printing of calicoes; but the simple 
mixture of alum and acetate of lead is found to 
answer best as a mordant. 

To Apply the Mordants. 

The mordants are applied to the cloth, either 
with a pencil or by means of blocks, or rollers, on 
which the pattern, according to which the cotton 
is to be printed, is cut. As they are applied only 
to particular parts of the cloth, care must be taken 
that none of them spread to the part of the cloth 
which is to be left white, and that they do not in- 
terfere with each other when several are ajiplied ; 
it is necessary, therefore, that the mordants should 
be of such a degree of consistence, that they will 
not spread beyond those parts of the cloth on 
which they are applied. This is done by thicken- 
ing them with flour or starch, when they are to 
be applied by the block, and with gum arable 
when they are to be put on with the peticil. The 
thickening should never be greater than is sufii- 
cient to prevent the spreading of the mordants; 
when carried too far, the cotton is apt not to be 
sufficiently saturated with the mordants, and of 
course the dye takes but imperfectly. 

In order that the parts of the cloth impregnated 
with mordants may be distinguished by their 
color, it is usual to tinge the mordants with some 
coloring matter. The printers commonly use the 
decoction of Brazil-wood for this purpose. 



Sometimes, the two mordants are mixed to- 
gether in different proportions ; and sometimes 
one or both is mixed with an infusion of sumach, 
or of nut-galls. By these contrivances a great 
variety of colors are produced by the same dye- 
stuff. 

Process of Dyeing, etc. 

After the mordants have been applied, the cloth 
must be completely dried. It is proper for this 
purpose to employ heat, which will contribute to- 
wards the separation of the acetic acid from its 
base, and towards its evaporation ; by which means 
the mordant will combine in a greater proportion, 
and more intimately with the cloth. 

When the cloth is sufficiently dried, it is to be 
washed with warm water and cow-dung, till the 
flour or gum employed to thicken the mordants, 
and all those parts of the mordant." which are un- 
combined with the cloth, are removed. After 
this the cloth is to be thoroughly rinsed in clean 
water. 

Dye-stuffs. 

Almost the only dye-stuffs employed by calico- 
printers are indigo, madder, quercitron bark, or 
weld, and coal-tar colors; but weld is little 
used, except for delicate greenish yellows. The 
quercitron bark gives colors equally good; and 
is much cheaper and more convenient, not re- 
quiring so great a heat to fix it. Indigo, not 
requiring any mordant, is commonly applied at 
once, either by a block or by a pencil. It is pre- 
pared by boiling together indigo and potash, made 
caustic by quicklime and orpiment; the solution 
is afterwards thickened with gum. It must be 
carefully excluded from the air, otherwise the 
indigo would soon be regenerated, which would 
render the solution useless. Dr. Bancroft has 
proposed to substitute coarse brown sugar for 
orpiment; it is equally efficacious in decomposing 
the indigo, and rendering it soluble; while it like- 
wise serves all the purposes of gum. Some cali- 
coes are only printed of one color, others have two, 
and others three or more, even to the number of 
8, 10, or 12. The smaller the number of colors, 
the fewer in general are the processes. 

New Process to Separate the Red Coloring Priti' 
ciple of Madder. 
For this purpose 3 tubs are necessary, say, A, 
B, C. The first, or A, sufficient for 55 lbs. of 
madder, is to be 2 feet 8 inches deep, and 2 feet 6 
in diameter. The second, or B, is 5i feet high 
and 3 feet in diameter. This tub is to be furnished 
with 3 cocks, the first placed at 2, the second at 3, 
and the third at 4 feet above its bottom. A serves 
as a fermenting tub ; B, a washing vessel ; and C, 
as a deposit. These tubs are placed near to each 
other, in the summer, in the open air, under a 
shed ; in the winter, in a cellar kept at from 66° 
to 70°. To commence the process, put from 60 
to 56 lbs. of ground madder into A, and add water, 
stirring the mixture continually, until the madder, 
when at rest, is covered with an inch and a half 
of water. In 36 or 48 hours (being at rest) fer- 
mentation takes place and raises a crust of mad- 
der to the surface. The mass is now to l)e trans- 
ferred to the second tub or B, which is then to bo 
filled with water, where it is to repose for 2 hours 
The upperm(jst cock is then opened, next the under 
one, and lastly the third. The liquor collected 
from the second and third cocks is carried to the 
tub C, where the precij<itation of the madder that 
escaped from B, is completed. You may make 
repeated washings of the madder in B, until the 
water ceases to be colored. Care should be taken 
in summer to prevent the madder from fermenting 



CALICO PRINTING. 



823 



a second time. The madder in C being washed 
and precipitated, is equally good with the other. 

To Print Yellow. 

For yellow, the block is besmeared with acetate 
of alumina. The cloth, after receiving this mor- 
dant, i." dyed with quercitron bark, and is then 
bleached. 

Nankeen Yellow. 

One of the most common colors on cotton printg, 
is a kind of Nankeen j'ellow. of various shades 
down to a yellowish br^wn or drab. It is usually 
in stripes or spots. To produce it, the printers 
besmear the block, cut out into the figure of the 
print, with acetate of iron, thickened with gum 
or flour; and apply it to the cotton, which, after 
being dried and cleansed in the usual manner, is 
plunged into a potash lye. The quantity of ace- 
tate of iron is always proportioned to the depth 
of the shade. 

Red. 

Ked is communicated by the same process, only 
madder is substituted for the bark. 
Blue. 

The fine light blues which appear so frequently 
on printed cottons, are produced by applying to 
the cloth a block besmeared with a composition, 
consisting partly of wax, which covers all those 
parts of the cloth which remain white. The cloth 
is then dyed in a cold indigo vat; and after it is 
dry, the wax composition is removed by hot water. 

Lilac and Brown. 

Lilac, flea brown, and blackish brown, are given 
by means of acetate of iron ; the quantity of which 
is always proportioned to the depth of the shade. 
For very deep colors a little sumach is added. 
The cotton is afterwards dyed in the usual man- 
ner with madder and then bleached. 
Green. 

To 12 qts. of muriatic acid, add by degrees 1 qt. 
of nitric acid; saturate the whole with grain tin, 
i,nd boil it in a proper vessel till two-thirds are 
evaporated. 

To prepare the indigo for mixing with the solu- 
tion, take 9 lbs. of indigo, \ pound of orange orpi- 
ment, and grind it in about 4 qts. of water; mi.x 
It well with the indigo, and grind it all in the usual 
way. 
To Mix the Solution of Tin with Prepared Indiyo. 

Take 2 galls, of the indigo prepared as above: 
then stir into it, by degrees, 1 gall, of the solution 
of tin, neutralized by as much caustic alkali as 
ean be added without precipitating the tin from 
the acids. For a lighter shade of green, less indigo 
will be necessary. The goods are to be dipped in 
the way of dipping China blues ; they must not, 
however, be allowed to drain, but moved from one 
vat to another as quickly as possible. They are 
to be cleansed in the usual way, in a sour vat of 
about 150 galls, of water to 1 gall, of sulphuric 
acid ; they are then to be well washed in decoc- 
tions of weld, and other yellow color drugs, and 
are to be branned or bleached till they become 
white in those parts which are required colorless. 
To Print Dove-color and Drab. 

Dove-color and drab are given by acetate of 
Iron and quercitron bark; the cloth is afterwards 
prepared in the usual manner. 

To Print different Colore. 

When different colors are to appear in the same 

print, a greater number of operations is neces- 

lary. Two or more blocks or rollers are employed ; 

npon each of which, that part of the print only 



is cut which is to be of some particular oolar. 
These are besmeared with different mordants and 
applied to the cloth, whii/h is afterwards dyej af 
usual. Let us suppose, for instance, that thes* 
blocks are applied to cotton ; one with acetate of 
alumina, another with acetate of iron, a third with 
a mixture of those two mordants, and that the 
cotton is then dyed with quercitron bark and 
bleached. The parts impregnated with the mor- 
dants would have the following colors: 

Acetate of alumina, yellow; acetate of iron, 
olive, drab, dove. The mixture, olive green, olive. 

If the part of the yellow is covered over with 
the indigo liquor applied with a pencil, it will be 
converted into green. By the same liquid, blue 
may be given to such parts of the print as re- 
quire it. 

If the cotton is dyed with madder, instead of 
quercitron bark, the print will exhibit the follow- 
ing colors : 

Acetate of alumina, red : acetate of iron, brown, 
black. The mixture, purple. 

When a greater number of colors is to appear 
— for instance, when those communicated by bark, 
and those by madder are wanted at the same time 
— mordants for parts of the pattern are to be ap- 
plied. The cotton then is to be dyed in the mad- 
der bath and bleached ; then the rest of the mor- 
dants to fill up the pattern, are added, and the 
cloth is again dyed with quercitron-bark, and 
bleached. The second dyeing does not much af- 
fect the madder colors, because the mordants, 
which render them permanent, are already satu- 
rated. The yellow tinge is easily removed by the 
subsequent bleaching. Sometimes a new mordant 
is also applied to some of the madder colors ; in 
consequence of which, they receive a new perma- 
nent color from the bark. After the la.st bleaching, 
new colors may be added by means of the indigo 
liquor. The following table will give an idea of 
the colors which may be given to cotton by these 
processes. 

I. Madder dye. — Acetate of alumina, red ; ace- 
tate of iron, brown, black; acetate diluted, lilac. 
Both mixed, purple. 

II. Black dye. — Acetate of alumina, yellow ; ace- 
tate of iron, dove, drab; lilac and acetate of alumi- 
na, olive; red and acetate of alumina, orange. 

III. Indigo dye. — Indigo, blue; indigo and yel- 
low, green. 

To Print in Coal-tar Colors. 
The colors are mixed with albumen printed on 
the fibre; the albumen is then coagulated, and 
the color thus fixed. Another method consists in 
printing with tannin on the fabric, previously im- 
pregnate<l with stannate of soda, and then dj-eing 
with a hot, dilute, acid bath. The color on the 
unmordanted parts, is easily discharged. This 
preparation is not necessary for silk and wool. 

To Print Green with Aniline. 
Print the design with a thickened solution of 
chlorate of potassa; pass through a solution of 
an aniline salt; in 2 or 3 days the green c( lor 
will be developed. It may be changed to dark- 
blue by the use of soap or an alkaline liquid. 
Another method is to use alternately aniline blue 
and picric acid. 

To Prepare a Substitute for Gum Used in Calico 
Printing. 
Collect i a ton weight of scraps of pelts or 
skins, or pieces of rabbit or sheep-skins, and boil 
them together for 7 or 8 hours in 350 galls, of 
water, or until it becomes a strong size. Then 
draw it off, and when cold weigh it. Warm it 
again, and to every 1 cwt. add 4 galls, of the 



824 



DYEING. 



Btrnnjiost swoot wort, that can he, maflo from tnnlt 
or 20 lbs. wciRht of augur. When incorporated, 
take it off anil put it into a cask for u.so. 

This sub.-tituto for puni may bo used by calico 
printers in mixing up nearly all kiniLs of colors. 
By using a sixth part only of gum with it, it will 
also improve the gum. It will also improve and 
preserve the paste so much used by jjrintors. 
To Prnpcirc Aiiidtd for (IxfeAnrf. 
Anatto is a coloring fcoula of a resinous nature, 
extracted from the seeds of a tree very common 
in the West Indies, and which in height never 
exceeds 1 5 foot. 

The Indians employ two processes to obtain the 
rod fenula of these seeds. They first pound them 
and mix them with a certain quantity of water, 
which in the course of 5 or days favors the pro- 
gross of fermentation. The li((nid then l)ocomcs 
charged with tho coloring part, and the superflu- 
ous moisture is afterwards separated by slow eva- 
poration over tho fire, or by tho heat of tho sun. 
Another Method. 
This consists in rubbing tho seeds between tho 
hands in a vessel filled with water. The coloring 
part is precipitated, and forms itself into a mass 
like acako of wax: but if tho red foculathus de- 
tached, is much more bcaiitiful than in the first 
proe(!SS, it is less in quantity. Besides, as the 
splendor of it is too bright, the Indians are ac- 
customed to weaken it by a mixture of red sandal 
wood. 

Une of Anntto. 
The natives of the East India islands used for- 
aiorly to employ aiiatto for ])ainting tboir boili(\s, 
etc. At present, it is om|>loyed in Europe for tho 
purpose of dyeing. It is eiuployod to give the 
first tint to woollen stuffs intended to bo dyed red, 
blue, yellow and green, olc. 

In the art of tho varnishor it forms part of the 
composition of changing varnishes, to give a cold 
color to the metals to which those varnishes are 
applied. 

To Ohonne Anntto. 
It ought to bo chosen of a flame color, brighter 
in the interior part than on tho outside, soft to 
the touch and of a good consistcneo. Tho pasru 
of anatto boeomos hard in Europe, and it loses 
Rome of its odor, which approaches near to that 
of violets. 

To Prepare Litmus. 
Tho Canary and Capo do Vcrd islands produce 
a kind of lichen or moss, which yiolils a violet 
coloring jiart when exposed to tho contact of am- 
monia (lisongagcd from urine, in a state of putre- 
faction, liy a mixture of lime. When tho processes 
are finished, it is known by tho name of litmus. 

This artiolo is prepared on a, largo scale at Lon- 
don, Paris, and Lyons. In the latter city another 
kind of lichen, which grows on the rocks like 
moss, is employed. 

Tho ammonia joins tho resinous part of tho 
plant, develops its coloring jiart, and combines 
with it. In this state the licdion forms a paste of 
a violet-red oolor, interspersed with whitish spots, 
which give it a marble ai>pearance. 

Litmus is employed in dyeing to communicate 
a violet c(dor to silk and woollen. It is used also 
for coloring the licjuor of thermometers, and as a 
tost for acids and alkalies. 

To Prepare. liaatard Saffron. 
Tho flowers of this plant contain t*o coloring 
parts: one sidublo in water, and which is thrown 
away; the other solul)le in alkaline liquors. Tho 
latter coloring part beoomos the basis of various 
oeautiful shades of cherry color, i>oneeau, rose 



color, etc. It is employed for dyeing feather*, 
and constitutes the vegetable red, or Spanish ver- 
milion, employed by ladies to heighten their com- 
plexion. 

Carthamus cannot furnish its resinous coloring 
part, provided with all its (qualities, until it has 
boon deprived of that which is s<ilublo in water. 
For this purpose the dried flowers of the cartha- 
mus are onclosod in a linen bag, and the bag is 
l)lacod in a stream of running water. A man with 
wooden shoos gets upon tbo bag every eight or ton 
hours, and trca<ls it on tho bank until the water 
expressed from it is colorless. 

These moist flowers, alter being strongly sciuoozed 
in the bag, are spread out on a piece of ejinvas e.x- 
tended on a frame, placed over a wooden box, and 
covered with 5 or fi per cent, of their weight of 
carbonate of soda. Pure water is then jioured over 
them ; and this process is repeated several times, 
that the alkali miiy have leisure to become charged 
with tho coloring part which it dissolves. The 
li(juor, when liltcred, is of a dirty red, and almost 
brown color. Tho coloring part, thus held in so- 
lution, cannot bo employed for coloring bodies 
until it is free; and, to set it at liberty, the soda 
must bo brought into contact with a body which 
has more affinity for it. It is on this precipitation, 
by an intermediate substance, that tho process for 
making Spanish vermilion is founded, as well aa 
all tho results arising from tho direct application 
of this coloring part, in the art of dyeing. 

Utility of Sheep' H Dung. 

This article is used in dyeing for the purpose 
of preparing cotton and linen to receive certain 
colors, i)articubirly the red madder and crosswort, 
which it |ierf'orni8 by iin]iregnating tho stuffs with 
an animal mucilage, of which it contains a large 
quantity, and thus assimilating them to wool and 
silk. 

To Prepare Woad. 

This is effeeteil from the leaves of tho plant so 
called, by grinding them to a. paste, of which balla 
are made, placed in heaps, ami occasionally sprin- 
kle<l with water to ])roMiote tho fermentation. 
When this is finished the woad is allowed to fall 
into a coarse powder, used as a blue dye-stuff. 

To Prepare Indigo. 

This dye is derived from the leaves and the 
young shoots of several species of indigo plants, 
by soaking them either in cold water, or still 
better, in water kept warm, and at about 100°, till 
the lic(uor becomes a deep green ; it is then drawn 
off and l)eat or ehurnecl till blue flakes appear, 
when lime-water is added, the yellow liquor drawn 
oil', and tho blue sediment dried and formed into 
lumps. 

To Dye Hats. 

Tho hats should be first strongly galled by boil- 
ing them a long time in a decoction of galls with 
a little logwood, that tho dye may penetrate the 
belter into their substance ; after which a proper 
quantity of vitriol and decoction of logwood, with 
a little verdigris, are added, and the hats oontinued 
in this mixture for a consi<leiablo time. They artt 
afterwards put into fresh liquor of logwood, galls, 
vitriol, and verdigris; and where the hats are of 
great price, or of a hair which with <lifticulty takes 
the dye, the saino process is repeated a third time. 
For obtaining tho most perfect color, tho hair or 
wool is dyed blue previously to its being formed 
into bats. 

Another Method. 

Boil TOO lbs. of logwood, 12 lbs. of gum, and 6 
lbs. of galls in a proper quantity of water for some 
hours; aftor which about 6 lbs. of verdigris and 



DYEING, STAINING, ?TC. 



825 



10 of green vitriol are added, and the liquor kept 
just siimiierin;;, or of ii boat little bolow boiiiriK- 
Ten or 12 dozen of liiita are iiniiK^diutcly jiiit in, 
eacli on its block, nnd kept down by crdKH-liarw tor 
about an bdur iind a half; they arc Ihcn taken 
out and aired, and the same number of others put 
in their ronm. The two sets of hats are tlius 
dipped and aired alternately 8 times esudi ; the 
liquor biiing refreshed each time with more of the 
ingredients, but in less quantity than at first. 

To Prove (he Colom of Dijud Shiffn. 

For crimson, scarlet, flesh-color, violet, peaeh- 
bloHsom. all shades of blue, and other colors bor- 
dering on th<!se, dissolve hiilf an oun(>e of a/iiin in 
a pint oC water, in an earthen vessel, and into this 
put the eighth of an ounce of the stuff or thread 
that is to be prove<l ; boil the whole for five min- 
utes, and wash it out in clean water. 

For all sorti< of yellow, green madder, rod cin- 
namon, and similar colors, boil a quarter of an 
ounce of Hon/) in a pint of water, put in the eighth 
of an ounce of the stufl" to be tried, and boil for 
6 minutes. 

For hair-brown, etc. powder an ounce of tar- 
tar, ami boil it in a pint of water, and boil { of 
an ounce of the atuff or thread in the solution for 
6 minutes. 



MISCELLANEOUS HKCEIPTS FOR DYEING, 
STAIN IN (;, ETC. 

To Di/e Brinllen or Friilhers Green, 
Take of verdigris and verditcr, each 1 oz.; gum- 
water, 1 pt.. Mix them well, and dip the bristles 
or feathers (they having been first soaked in hot 
water) into the said mixture. 

Blue. — Take of indigo and risse, each 1 osi., and 
a piece of alum the size of a hazelnut; put them 
into gum-water, and di]) the materials into it hot; 
hung tliem up to <lry, and clap them well that they 
nuiy open ; and, by changing the colors, the afore- 
said materials may l)e in this manner, dyed of any 
color. For purple, use lake and indig<j; for car- 
nation, vermilion and smalt. 

Ueil. — Take 1 o/,. of IJra/.il-wood in powder, i 
oz. of alum, ; oz. of vermilion, and 1 pint of vine- 
gar; boil them up to a moderate thii'kness, ami 
dip the bristles or feathers (they having been tiist 
soaked in h(/t water) into the said mixture. Feath- 
ers may \h; dyed at once, of any shade, by means 
of coal-tar ccdors (p. 318). 

To Dye or Color IIome-Hmr. 

Steep in water wherein a small quantity of tur- 
pentine has b<;en boiled for the space of two hours; 
then, having jirepareil the colors very hot, boil 
the hair therein, and any color, black excepted, 
will take, but that will only take u durk-red or 
dark-blue, etc. 

To Dye ClovcH. 

Take the color suitable for the occasion ; if 
dark take Sfianish brown and black earth; if 
lighter, yellow and whiting; and so on with oth(!r 
colors. Mix them wiili a moderate fire, daub the 
gloves over with the color wet, and let ttu^m hang 
till tliey are dry; then beat out the superfluiLy (jf 
the (U)lnr, and smoothe them over with a stretch- 
ing or sleeking stick, reducing them to their proper 
shape. 

To Dye While Gloves Purple. 

Boil 4 oz. of logwood and 2 oz. of rochc-alum in 
8 Jits, of soft water till half wasted; let the li(iuor 
stand to cool after straining. Let the gloves be 
nicely mended ; then, with a brush, rub them over, 
and when dry repeat. Twice is suthcient, unless 
the color is to bo very dark. When dry, rub off 



the loose dye with a coarse cloth. Beat up the 
white of an egg, and with a sponge rub it over 
the leather. The dye will stain the hands; but 
wetting them with vinegar, before they are washoi, 
will take it off. 

To Dye Gloves resemhlinf/ Limerick. 

Brown or tan colors are readily imparted to 
leather gloves by the following simple process. 
Steep safTron in boiling soft wat<!r fur about 12 
hours; then, having slightly sewed up the tops 
of the gloves, to prevent the dye staining the in- 
sides, wet them over with a sponge or soft brush 
dippeil into the fujuid. The tiuantily of saffron as 
well as of water will of course depend on how much 
dye may be wanted, and their relative proportions 
on the de()th of color re(|uircd. A common tea- 
cup will contain sufficient in quantity for a single 
pair of gloves. 

To Stiiin Woae or Ivory. 

They may bo stained with the ordinary dyeing 
materials. 'J"he body should first be stc(-ped ia 
th(! mordant, and then in a hot bath of coloring 
material. Bichloride of tin as a mordant will give 
red with Brazil-wood or cochineal, yellow with 
fustic, violet with logwood. Black is given bj 
nitrate of silver; gilding by immersion in a fresh 
solution of co|)|)cra8, and aftcirwards of chloride 
of gold; bleaching by a solution of sulphurous 
acid. 

To I'repnre Wood for Dyeiug. 

The wood mostly used to dye black is pear-tree, 
holly, and beach, all of which take a beautiful 
black color. Do not use wood that has been long 
cut, or aged, but let it he as fresh as possible. 
After the veneers have had 1 hour's boiling, and 
been taken out to cool, the color is always much 
stronger. When dyed, they should be dried in 
the air, and not by the fire, nor in a kiln of any 
kind, as artificial heat tends to destroy the color. 

In order to dye blue, green, red or other colors, 
take clear holly. Put the veneers into a box or 
trough, with clear wat(!r, and let them n'lnain 4 
or 6 days, changing the water once or twice as 
occasion may require. The water will clear the 
wood of slime, etc. Let them dry about 12 hours 
before they are put into the dye; by observing 
this the c<dor will strike quicker, and bo of a 
brighter hue. 

To Slain Oak a 3fohor/iiny Color. 

Boil together Brazil-wood and alum, and before 
it is applied to the wood a, little potash is to be 
added to it. A suitable varnish for wood, thus 
tinged, may be made by dissolving atnber in oil 
of turpentine, mixed with a small portion of lia- 
seed oil. 

Jiboiiy bltick. — Steep the wood for 2 or 3 days 
in lukewarm water, in which a little alum has 
been dissolved; then put a handful of logwood, 
cut small, into a pint of v/i\U-t, and boil it down 
to less than 4 a jiint. If a little indigo is ailded, 
the color will be more beautiful. Spread a layer 
of this liijuor <iuite hot on the wood with a pencil, 
which will give it a violet cidor. When it is <lry, 
spread on anotlutr layer; dry it again, anil gi»e it 
a third; then boil verdigris at discretion it its 
own vinegar, and spread a layer of it on the wood ; 
when it is dry rub it with a brush, and then with 
oiled chamois skin. This gives u fine black, and 
imitates perfectly the color of ebony. 

Another Method. 

After forming the wood into the destined figure, 

rub it with aquafortis n little diluted. Small 

threads of woimI will rise in the drying, which are 

to be rubbed off with pumicu-btoue. Kepeut this 



826 



DYEING. 



process again, and then rub the wood with the 
following composition : — Put into a glazed earthen 
vessel 1 pint of strong vinegar, 2 oz. of fine iron 
filings, and ^ lb. of pounded galls, and allow them 
to infuse for 3 or 4 hours on hot cinders. At the 
end of this time augment the fire, and potir into 
the vessel 4 oz. of coppoiaa (sulphate of iron), and 
a chopin of water having i oz. of borax and as 
Biuch indigo dissolved in it; and make the whole 
boil till a froth rises. Rub severnl layers of this 
upon the wood ; and, when it is dry, polish it with 
leather on which a little tripbli has been put. 

Another. — Pour 2 qts. of boiling water over 1 
oz. commercial extract of logwood, and when it is 
dissolved add 1 dr. of yellow chromate of potash, 
and stir well. This stain is chejip, keeps well, can 
be npplied cold with a brush without any prepa- 
ration. 

To Stain Beech-wood a Muhogany Color. 

Break 2 oz. of dragon's blood in pieces, and 
put them into a qt. of rectified spirit of wine; let 
the bottle stand in a warm place, and shake it 
frequently. When dissolved it is fit for use. 

Another Method. 
Boil 1 lb. of logwood in 4 qts. of water, and add 
a double handful of walnut-peeling. Boil it up 
again, take out the chips, add a pint of the best 
vinegar, and it will be fit for use. 

To Stain Musical Instruments. 
Crimson. — Boil 1 lb. of ground Brazil-wood in 
3 qts. of water for an hour; strain it, and add i 
an oz. of cochineal ; boil it again for J an hour 
gently, and it will be fit for use. 

Purple. — Boil 1 lb. of chip logwood in 3 qts. of 
water for an hour ; then add 4 oz. of pearlasb and 
2 oz. of indigo pounded. 

To Stain Box-wood Brown, 
Hold the work to the fire, that it may receive a 
gentle warmth; then take aquafortis, and with a 
feather pass it over the work till it changes to a 
fine brown. Then oil and polish it. 

To Bye Wood a Silver Gray. 
Let not the veneers be too dry; when put into 
the copper pour hot iron liquor (acetate of iron) 
over them, and add 1 lb. of chip logwood with 2 
oz. of bruised nut-galls. Then boil up another 
pot of iron liquor to supply the copper, keeping 
the veneers covered and boiling 2 hours a day, 
until thoroughly penetrated. 

Bright yellow. — A very small bit of aloes put 
into the varnish will make the wood of a good 
yellow color. 

Another Method. 
Reduce 4 lbs. of the roots of barberry, by saw- 
ing, into dust, which put in a copper or brass pan, 
add 4 oz. of turmeric, to which put 4 galls, of 
water, (hen put in as many holly veneers as the 
liquor will cover; boil them together for 3 hours, 
often turning them. When cool add 2 oz. of aqua- 
fortis, and the dye will strike through much 
sooner. 

Briijht green. — Proceed as before to produce a 
yellow; but instead of aquafortis add as much of 
the vitriolated indigo as will produce the desired 
color. 

Another Method. 
To 3 pts. of the strongest vinegar add 4 oz. of 
the best verdigris, ground fine, i oz. of sap-green, 
and i oz. of indigo. Proceed in straining as 
before. 

Bright red. — To 2 lbs. of genuine Brazil-dust 
add 4 galls, of water, put in as many veneers as 
the liquor will well cover, boil them for 3 hours, 
and let them cool ; then add 2 oz. each or' alum 



and aquafortis, and keep it lukewarm until it has 
struck through. 

Purple. — To 2 lbs. of chip logwood and J lb. of 
Brazil-dust add 4 galls, of water. Put in the ve- 
neers, and boil thetn well ; then add 6 oz. of pearl- 
ash and 2 oz. of alum ; let them boil 2 or 3 houra 
every day, till the color has struck through. 

Fine blue. — Into 1 Ih. of oil of vitriol in a glass 
bottle put 4 oz. of indigo, and proceed as before 
directed. 

To Stain Paper or Parchment. 

Yellow. — Paper may be stained a beautiful yel- 
low by the tincture of turmeric formed by infusing 
an oz. or more of the root, powdered, in a pint of 
spirit of wine. This may be made to give any 
tint of yellow, from the lightest straw to the full 
color, called French yellow, and will be equal in 
brightness even to the best dyed silks. If yellow 
be wanted of a warmer or redder east, anatto or 
dragon's blood must be added. The best manner 
of using these, and the following tinctures, is to 
spread them even on the paper or parchment, by 
means of a broad brush, in the manner of varnish. 

Crimson. — A very fine crimson stain maybe 
given to paper by a tincture of the Indian lake, 
which may be made by infusing the lake some 
days in spirit of wine, and then pouring ofiF the 
tincture from the dregs. It may be stained red 
by red ink. It may also be stained of a scarlet 
hue by the tincture of dragon's blood in spirit of 
wine, but this will not be bright. 

Green. — Paper or parchment may be stained 
green by the solution of verdigris in vinegar, or 
by the crystals of verdigris dissolved in water. 

Orange. — Stain the paper or parchment first of 
a full yellow by means of the tincture of turmeric, 
then brush it over with a solution of fixed alka- 
line salt, made by dissolving J an oz. of pearlash, 
or salt of tartar, in a quart of water, and filtering 
the solution. 

Purple. — Paper or parchment may be stained 
purple by archil, or by the tincture of logwood. 
The juice of ripe privet-berries expressed will 
likewise give a purple dye. 

The coal-tar colors are especially adapted to 
coloring paper. 

To Marble the Edges of Boohs or Paper. 

Dissolve 4 oz. of gum arable in 2 qts. of clear 
water; then provide several colors mixed with 
water in pots or shells, and with pencils peculiar 
to each color, sprinkle them by way of intermix- 
ture upon the gum-water, which must be put into 
a trough, or some broad vessel, then with a stick 
curl them or draw them out in streaks to as much 
variety as required. Having done this, hold tho 
book or books close together, and only dip the 
edges in on the top of the water and colors very 
lightly ; which done, take them off, and the plain 
impression of the colors in mixture will be upon 
the leaves; doing as well the end as the front of 
the books in the same manner. 

To Marble the Covers of Books. 

This is performed by forming clouds with aqua- 
fortis, or oil of vitriol, mixed with ink, and after- 
wards glazing the covers. 

To Color Vellum Green. 

Take i pt. of the best white wine vinegar, 1 oz. 
of verdigris, and li oz. of sap-green; dissolve 
them in the vinegar for a few da3's, having been 
heated by the fire. Shake the bottle frequently 
before it is used. 

AVash the vellum over with weak potash water, 
and when dry color it with the green 3 or 4 times, 
till it has a good color ; when dry wash it over with 
thin paste water to give the vellum a gloss. 



HOUSE PAINTING. 



327 



To Blade the Edges of Paper. 

Mix black lead with ink, and when the paper is 
cut, color it thinly over with black ink, with a 
piece of fine cloth; rub on the black lead, covering 
every part; take the dog's-tooth and burnish the 
edge till it becomes well polished. 

When the edge of the paper, after cutting, ap- 
pears rather rough, scrape it over with a piece of 
glass or an iron scraper with a flat edge. 

To Sprinkle the Edges of Books, etc. 

The brushes used for book-edges must be made 
of Russia hugs' bristles, of good thickness, tied 
round with cord, glued at the thick end, and half 
covered with a piece of leather; when dry tie the 
brush again with waxed cord, within half an inch 
of the soft part of it, and cut it very smooth and 
even. Brushes made after this manner are pre- 
ferable to those with a handle. 

Prepare the color in a cup ; dip in the brush 
till it is charged, and then press it out till it will 
drop no longer. The book must be screwed tight 
in the cutting press; hold the brush in the left 
hand, and, with a folding-stick in the right, rub 
it over the brush, which will cause the color to 
sprinkle finely on the edges. The brush must be 
moved up and down over the edge, as you sprinkle, 
to have it regular on every part. After the sprink- 
ling is done, the brushes should be carefully washed 
in water, particularly after sprinkling blue, which 
will otherwise soon destroy the brush. 

To Dye or Stain Horn Tortoise-shell Color. 
The horn to be dyed must be first pressed into 
proper plates, scales, or other flat form, and the 
following mixture prepared; Take of quicklime 
two parts, and litharge one part, temper them to- 
gether to the consistence of a soft paste, with soap 
lye. Put this paste over all tbe parts of the born, 
except such as are proper to be left transparent, 
in order to give it a near resemblance to the tor- 
toise-shell. The horn must remain in this manner, 
covered with the paste till it is thoroughly dry ; 
when, the paste being brushed oif, the horn will 
be found partly opaque and partly transparent, in 



the manner of tortoise-shell, and when put over a 
foil of the kind of lattern called orsedue, will bo 
scarcely distinguishable from it. It requires soma 
degree of fancy and judgment to dispose of tha 
paste in such a manner as to form a variety of 
transparent parts, of difierent magnitudes and 
figures, to look like the effect of nature; and it 
will be an improvement to add semi-transparent 
parts, which may be done by mixing whiting with 
some of the paste, to weaken its operation in par- 
ticular places, by which spots of a reddish-brown 
will be produced, which, if properly interspersed, 
especially on the edges of the dark parts, will 
gre;itly increase the beauty of the work, and its 
similitude to real tortoise-shell. 

Another Method. 
Take an equal quantity of quicklime and red- 
lead, and mix it up with strong soap lees. Lay it 
on the horn with a small brush, like the mottle in 
tortoise-shell. When dry repeat the same two or 
three times. 

To Dye Horns of different Colors. 

Black is performed by steeping brass in aqua- 
fortis till it is turned green ; with this the horn is 
to be washed once or twice, and then put into a 
warmed decoction of logwood and water. 

Green is begun by boiling it, etc., in alum-water, 
then with verdigris, ammoniac, and white wine 
vinegar, keeping it hot therein till sufficiently 
green. 

lied is besjun by boiling it in alum-water, then 
with verdi ;ris, ammoniac, and finished by decoc- 
tion in a liquor compounded of quicklime steeped 
in rain-water, strained, and toeveiy pint an ounce 
of Brazil-wood added. In this decoction the horns 
are to be boiled till sufficiently red. 

Horns receive a deep black stain from solution 
of nitrate of silver. It ought to be diluted to such 
a degree as not sensibly to corrode the substance, 
and applied 2 or 3 times if necessary, at consider- 
able intervals, the matter being exposed as much 
as possible to the sun, to hasten the appearance 
and deepening of the color. 



Pi^INTS and OOLOHS. 



HOUSE PAINTING. 
To Mix the Colors for House Painting. 

All simple or compound colors, and all the 
» shades of color which nature or art can produce, 
and which might be thought proper for the differ- 
ent kinds of painting, would form a very exten- 
sive catalogue, were we to take into consideration 
only certain external characters, or the intensity 
of their tint. But art, founded on the experience 
of several centuries, has prescribed bounds to the 
eonsumption of coloring substances, and to the 
application of them to particular purposes. To 
cause a substance to be admitted into the class of 
coloring bodies employed by painters, it is not 
Suflicient for it to contain a color; to brightness 
and splendor it must also unite durability in the 
Unt or color which it communicates. 
To make Black Paint. 

Usage requires attention in the choice of the 
matters destined for black. The following are 
their properties: 

Ijlack from peach-stones is dull. 



Ivory -black is strong and beautiful when it has 
been well attenuated under the muller. 

Black from the charcoal of beech- wood, ground 
on porphyry, has a bluish tone. 

Lampblack may be rendered mellower by mak- 
ing it with black which has been kept an hour 
in a state of redness in a close crucible. It then 
loses the fat matter which accompanies this kJKd 
of soot. 

Black furnished by the charcoal of vine-twigs, 
ground on porphyry, is weaker, and of a dirty 
gray color when coarse and alone, but it becomes 
blacker the more the charcoal has been divided. 
It then forms a black very much sought after, and 
which goes a great way. 

To make Paints from Lampblack. 
T'ne consumption of lampblack is very exten- 
sive in common painting. It stTvcs to modify the 
brightness of the tones of the other colors, or to 
facilitate the composition of secondary colors. 
The oil paint applied to iron grates and railing, 
and the paint applied to paper snuff-boxes, to 



328 



PAINTS AND COLORS. 



those made of tin-plate, and to other articles with 
dark grounds, consume a very large quantity of 
this black. Great solidity may be given to works 
of this kind by covering them with several coat- 
ings of the fat turpentine, or golden varnish, which 
has been mixed with lampblack, washed in water, 
to separate the foreign bodies introduced into it 
by the negligence of the workmen who prepare it. 

After the varnish is applied the articles are dried 
in a stove by exposing them to a heat somewhat 
greater than that employed for articles of paper. 
Naples yellow, which enters into the composition 
of black varnish, is the basis of the dark brown 
observed on tobacco-boxes of plate-iron, because 
this color changes to brown when dried with the 
Tarnish. 

To make a Superior LampblacJc. 

Suspend over a lamp a funnel of tin plate, 
having above it a pipe to convey from the apart- 
ment the smoke which escapes from the lamp. 
Large mushrooms, of a very black, carbonaceous 
matter, and exi-eedingly light, will he formed at 
the summit of the cone. This carbonaceous part 
is carried to such a state of division as cannot be 
given to any other matter, by grinding it on a 
piece of porphyry. 

This black goes a great way in every kind of 
painting. It may be rendered drier by calcina- 
tion in close vessels. 

Tiie funnel ought to be united to the pipe, 
■which conveys off the smoke, by me.ans of wire, 
because solder would be melted by the flame of 
the lamp. 

To make Black from Ground Pilvri?. 

The best for this purpose is that which has a 
shining fracture. It affords, perhaps, the most 
useful brown the artist can place on his palet, 
being remarkably clear, not so warm as Vandyke 
brown, and serving as a shadow for blues, reds, 
or yellows, when glazed over them. It seems 
almost certain that Titian made large use of this 
material. Coal, when burnt to a white heat, then 
quenched in water, and ground down, gives an 
excellent blue black. This belongs to artists' 
colors. 

To make Black from Wine-leea. 

This black results from the calcination of wine- 
lees and tartar, and is manufactured on a large 
scale in some districts of Germany, in the environs 
of Mentz, and even in France. This operation is 
performed in large cylindric vessels, or jn pots, 
having an aperture in the cover to afford a pas- 
sage to the smoke, and to the acid and alkaline 
vapors which escape during the process. When 
no more smoke is observed, the operation is fin- 
ished. The remaining matter, which is merely 
a mixture of salts and a carbonaceous part very 
much attenuated, is then washed several times in 
boiling water, and it is reduced to the proper de- 
gree of fineness by grinding it on porphyry. 

If this black be extracted from dry lees, it is 
coarser than that obtained from tartar, because 
the lees contain earthy matters which are con- 
founded with the carbonaceous part. 

This black goes a great way, and has a velvety 
appearance. It is used chiefly by copper-plate 
printers. 

Another. — Peach-stones, burnt in a close ves- 
sel, produce a charcoal, whi(di, when ground on 
porphyry, is employed in painting to give an old 

gray- 

Another. — Vine twigs reduced to charcoal give 
a bluish black, which goes a great wny. When 
mixed with white it produces a silver white, 
which is not produced by other blacks ; it has a 
pretty near resemblance to the black of peach 



stones, but to bring this color to the utmost degrea 
of perfection, it must be carefully ground on por- 
phyry. 

To make Ivory and Bouehlack. 
Put into a crucible surrounded by burning coals, 
fragments or turnings of ivor}', or of the osseous 
parts of animals, and cover it closely. The ivory 
or bones, by exposure to the heat, will be reduced 
to charcoal. When no more smoke is seen to pass 
through the joining of the cover, leave the cruci- 
ble over the tire for half an hour or longer, or until 
it has completely cooled. There will then be found 
in it a hard carbonaceous matter, which, when 
pounded and ground on porphyry with water, is 
washed on a filter with warm water and then dried. 
Before it is used it must be again subjected to the 
matter. 

Black furnished by bones is reddish. Thatpro- 
duced by ivory is more beautiful. It is brighter 
than black obtained from peach-stones. When 
mixed in a proper dose with white oxide of lead, 
it forms a beautiful pearl gray. Ivory-black is 
richer. The Cologne and Cassel-black are formed 
from ivory. 

Fine Black Color. 

Take some camphor and set it on fire ; from the 
flame will arise a very dense smoke, which may be 
collected on a common saucer by holding it over 
the flame. This black, mixed with gum arable, is 
far superior to most India-ink. 

Miniature painters, who use colors in small quan- 
tities, sometimes obtain a most beautiful and per- 
fect black by using the buttons which form on the 
snuff of aeandle when allowed to burn undisturbed. 
These are made to fall into a small thimble, or any 
other convenient vessel which can be immediately 
covered with the thumb, to exclude the air. This 
is found to be perfectly free from grease, and to 
possess every desirable quality. 

To Paint in White Distemper. 

Grind fine in water Bougival white, a kind of 
marl or chalky clay, and mix it with size. It may 
be brightened by a small quantity of indigo, or 
charcoal-black. 

To make White Paint. 

The White destined for varnish or oil requires a 
metallic oxide, which gives more body to the color. 
Take ceruse, reduced to powder, and grind it with 
oil of pinks and J oz. of sulphate of zinc for each 
pound of oil. Apply the second coating without 
the sulphate of zinc, and sufi'er it to dry. Cover 
the whole with a stratum of sandarach varnish. 
This color is durable, brilliant and agreeable to 
the eye. 

Boiled linseed oil might be employed instead of 
oil of pinks, but the color of it would in some de- 
gree injure the purity of the white. 

Another. — AVhite is prepared also with pure 
white oxide of lead, ground with a little essence, 
added to oil of pinks and mixed with gallipot var- 
nish. The color may be mixed also with essence 
diluted with oil, and without varnish, which is re- 
served for the two last coatings. If for a lively 
white, the color is heightened with a little Prus- 
sian blue or indigo, or with a little prepared black. 
The latter gives it a gray cast. But pure white 
lead, the price of which is much higher than ce- 
ruse, is reserved for valuable articles. In this 
particular case, if a very fine durable white be re- 
quired, grind it with a little essence, and mix it 
with sandarach or varnish. 

To Paint in Lij/ht Gray and Distemper. 
Ceruse, mixed with a small quantity of lamp- 
black, composes a gray, more or less charged, ao 
cording to the quantity of black. With this mat 



■ 



MIXING PAINTS. 



S29 



tet, therefore, mixed with Waok in different doses, 
It great variety of shides mny be formed, from the 
ligiitest to the darkest gray. 

If this color be destined for distemper, it is 
mixed with water; if intended for oil painting, it 
is ground with nut-oil, or oil of pinks; and with 
essence added to oil, if designed for varnish. This 
color is durable anil very pure, if mixed with cam- 
phorated mastic varnish ; the gallipot varnish ren- 
ders it so solid ihat it can bear to be struck with 
a hammer, if, after the first stratum it has been 
applied with varnish, and witliout size. For the 
last coating sandarach varnish, and camphorated 
varnish are proper; ami for the darkest gray, 
Bpirituous sandarac varnish. 

To make Flaxen Gray. 

Ceruse, or white lead, still predominates in this 
color, which is treated as the other grays, but 
■with this difference, that it admits a mixture of 
lake instead of black. Take the quantity, there- 
fore, of cernse necessary, and grind it separately. 
Then rai.x it up, and add the lake and Prussian 
blue, also ground separately. The quantities of 
the last two colors ought to be proportioned to the 
tone of color required. 

This color is proper for distemper, varnish, and 
oil painting. For varnish, grind it with mastic 
gallipot varnish, to which a little oil of pinks has 
been added, and then mix it up with common gal- 
lipot varnish. For oil painting, grind with un- 
prepared oil of pinks, and mix up with resinous 
drying nut-oil. The painting is brilliant and 
solid. 

When the artist piques himself upon carefully 
preparing those colors which have splendor, it 
will be proper, before he commences his labor, to 
8toi up the holes formed by the heads of the 
nails in wainscoting with putty. 

Every kind of sizing which, according to usual 
custom, precedes the application of varnish, ought 
to be prescribed as highly prejudicial, when the 
wainscoting consists of fir-wood. Sizing may be 
admitted for plaster, but without any mixture. A 
plain stratum of strong glue and water spread over 
it, is sufficient to fill up the pores to prevent any 
unnecesfiary consumption of the varnish. 

The first stratum of color is ceruse without any 
mixture, ground with essence added to a little oil 
of pinks, and mixed up with essence. If any of 
the traces are uneven, rub it lightly, when dry, 
with pumice-stone. This operation contributes 
greatly to the beauty and elegance of the polish 
when the varnish is applied. 

The second stratum is composed of ceruse 
changed to flaxen gray by the mixture of a little 
Cologne earth, as much English red or lake, and 
a particle of Prussian blue. First, so make the 
mixture with a small quantity of ceruse, that the 
result shall be a smoky gray, by the addition of 
the Colojine earth. The red, which is added, 
makes it incline to flesh-color, and the Prussian 
blue destroys the latter to form a dark flaxen gray. 
The addition of ceruse brightens the tone. This 
stratum and the next are ground, and mixed up 
with varnish as before. 

This mixture of colors, which produces flaxen 
gray, has the advantage over pearl gray, as it de- 
fends the ceruse from the impression of the air 
and light, which makes it assume a yellowish 
tint. Flaxen gray, composed in this manner, is 
unalterable. Besides, the essence which forms 
the vehicle of the first stratum contributes to 
bring forth a color, the tone of which decreases a 
little by the effect of drying. This ob-ervation 
ought to serve as a guide to the artist, in regard 
to the tint, which is always stronger in a liquid 



mixture than when the matter composing it is ex- 
tended in a thin stratum, or when it ia dry. 
Tn make Oak-wood Color. 

The basis of this color is still formed of ceruse. 
Three-fourths of this oxide, and a fourth of ochre 
de rue, umber earth, and yellow de Berri ; the last 
three ingredients being employed in proportions 
which lead to the required tint, give a matter 
equally proper for distemper, varnish, and oil. 
To make Wahiut-wood Color. 

A given quantity of ceruse, half that quantity 
of ochre de rue, a little umber earth, red ochre, 
and yellow ochre de Berri; compose this color 
proper for distemper, varnish, and oil. 

For varnish, grind with a little drying nut-oil, 
and mix up with the gallipot varnish. 

For oil painting, grind with fat oil of pinks 
added to drying oil or essence, and mix up with 
plain drying oil, or with resinous drying oil. 

To make Naples and Montpellier Yelloio. 
The composition of these is simple, yellow ochre 
mixed with ceruse, ground with water, if destined 
for distemper; or drying nut-oil and essence, in 
equal parts, if intended for varnish ; and mixed 
up with camphorated mastic varnish; if for deli- 
cate objects, or with gallipot varnish, give a very 
fine color, the splendor of which depends on the 
doses of the ceruse; which must be varied accord- 
ing to the particular nature of the coloring matter 
employed. If the ground of the color is fur- 
nished by ochre, and if oil painting be intended, 
the grinding with oil added to essence may be 
omitted, as essence alone will be sufficient. Oil, 
however, gives more pliability and more body. 

To make Joiir/iiil. 

This is employed only in distemper. It may, 
however, be used with varnish. A vegetable color 
serves as its base. It is made with Dutch pink 
and ceruse, and ground with mastic gallipot var- 
nish, and mixed up with gallipot varnish. 
To make Golden Yellow Color. 

Cases often occur when it is necessary to pro- 
duce a gold color without employing a metallic 
substance. A color capable of forming an illusion 
is then given to the composition, the greater part 
of which consists of yellow. This is accomplished 
by Naples or Montpellier yellow, brightened by 
Spanish white, or by white of Morat, mixed with 
oi-hre de Berri and realgar. The last substance, 
even in small quantity, gives to the mixture a 
color imitating gold, and which may be employed 
in distemper, varnish, or oil. When destined for 
oil, it is ground with dryitig or pure nut-oil, added 
to essence or mixed with drying oil. 

To make Chamois and Buff Color. 

Yellow is the foundation of chamois color, which 
is modified by a particle of minium, or what ia 
better, cinnabar and ceruse in small quantity. 
This color may be employed in distemper, varnish, 
and oil. For varnish, it is ground with ^ common 
oil of pinks, and i of mastic gallipot varnish. It 
is mixed with common gallipot varnish. For oil 
painting, it is ground an* mixed up with drying 
oil. 

To make Olive Color for Oil and Varnish. 

Olive c<dor is a composition the shades of which 
may be diversified. Black and a little blue, mixed 
with yellow, will produce an olive color. Yellow 
de Berri, or d'Auvergne, with a little verdigris 
and charcoal, will also form this color. 

It is ground and mixed up with mastic gallipot, 
and common gallipot varnishes. For oil painting, 
it is ground with oil added to essence, and mixed 
up with drying oil. 



830 



PAINTS AND COLORS. 



To mahe Olive Color for Distemper. 
When intended for distemper, it will he neces- 
garj' to iniike a change in the composition. The 
yellow above-mentioned, indigo, and ceruse, or 
Spanish white, are the new ingredients which 
must be employed. 

To moke Blue Colors. 

Blue belongs to the order of vegetable substan- 
ces, like indigo ; or to that of metallic substances, 
like Prussian blue; or to that of stDny mineral 
substances, as ultramarine; or to that of vitreous 
»ubsta.nces colored by a metallic oxide, as Saxon 
blue. Ultraurarine is more particularly reserved 
for pictures. The same may, in some degree, be 
eaid of Saxon blue. 

V^hen prussiate of iron or indigo is employed 
without mixture, the color produced is too dark. 
It has no splendor, and very often the light makes 
it appear black ; it is., therefore, usual to soften it 
with white. 

To make Blue Distemper, 

Grind with water as much ceruse as may be 
thought necessary for the whole of the intended 
work ; and afterwards mix it with indigo, or Prus- 
sian blue. 

This color produces very little effect in distem- 
per; it is not very favorable to the play of the 
light; but it soon acquires brilliancy and splemlor 
beneath the vitreous lamina of the varnish. Paint- 
ing in distemper, when carefully varnished, pro- 
duces a fine effect. 

To make Prussian Blue Paint. 

The ceruse is ground with oil, if for varnish, 
made with essence, or merely with essence, which 
is equally proper for oil painting; and a quantity 
of either of these blues sufficient to produce the 
required tone is added. 
' For varnish, the ceruse is generally ground with 
oil of pinks added to a little essence, and is mixed 
up with camphorated mastic varnish, if the color 
is destined for delicate objects ; or with gallipot 
varnish if for wainscotirig. This color, when 
ground and mixed up with drying oil, produces a 
fine etfect, if covered by a solid varnish made with 
alcohol or essence. 

If this oil color be destined for expensive arti- 
cles, such as valuable furniture subject to friction, 
it may be glazed with the turpentine copal varnish. 

Ultramarine. 

A vitreous matter colored by oxide of cobalt, 
gives a tone of color different from that of the 
prussiate of iron and indigo. It is employed for 
sky-blues. The case is the same with blue ver- 
diter, a preparation made from oxide of copper and 
lime. Both these blues stand well in distemper, 
in varnish, and in oil, 

Saxon blue requires to be ground with drying 
oil, and to be mixed with gallipot varnish. If in- 
tended for oil painting, it is to be mixed up with 
resinous drying oil, which gives body to this vitre- 
ous matter. 

Blue Verdiier 
May be ground with pure alcoholic varnish added 
to a little essence; and may be mixed up with 
compound mastic varnish if the color is to be ap- 
plied to delicate articles. Or mastic gallipot 
varnish, added to a little drying oil, may be used 
for grinding, and common gallipot varnish for 
mixing up, if the painting is intended for ceilings. 
Wainscoting, etc. This color is soft and dull, and 
requires a varnish to heighten the tone of it, and 
give it play. Turpentine copal varnish is proper 
for this purpose, if the article has need of a dur- 
able varnish. 



To make Green Color. 

Every green color, simple or compound, when 
mixed up with a white ground, becomes soft, and 
gives a sea-green of greater or le.''^ strength, and 
more or less delicate, in the ratio of the respective 
quantities of the principal colors. Thus, green 
oxides of copper, such as chrome green, verdigris, 
dry crystallized acetate of copper, green com- 
posed with blue verditer, and the Dutch pink of 
Troyes, or any other yellow, will form, with a base 
of a white color, a sea-green, the intensity of which 
may be easily changed or modified. The white 
ground for painting in distemper is generally com- 
posed of Bougival white (white marl), or white of 
Troyes (chalk), or Spanish white (pure clay); but 
for varnish or oil painting, it is sought for in a 
metallic oxide. In this case, ceruse or pure white 
oxide of lead is employed. 

To make Sea-Green for Dist'tmper. 

Grind separately with water, mountain-green 
and ceruse; and mix up with parchment size and 
water, adr'ing ceruse in sufBcient quantity to pro- 
duce the degree of intensity required in the color. 
Watin recommends the use of Dutch pink of Troyes 
and white oxide of lead, in proportions pointed 
out by experience ; because the color thence result- 
ing is more durable. 

In the case of a triple composition, begin to 
make the green by mixing Dutch pink with blue 
verditer, and then lower the color to sea-green, by 
the addition of ceruse ground with water. 

To make Sea-Green for Varnish and Oils. 

Varnish requires that this color should possess 
more body than it has in distemper ; and this it ac- 
quires from the oil which is mixed with it. This 
addition gives it even more splendor. Besides, a 
green of a metallic nature is substituted for the 
green of the Dutch pink, which is of a vegetable 
nature. 

A certain quantity of verdigris, pounded and 
sifted through a silk sieve, is ground separately 
with nut-oil, half drying and half fat; and if the 
color is intended for metallic surfaces, it must be 
diluted with camphorated mastic, or gallipot var- 
nish. 

On the other hand, the ceruse is ground with 
essence, or with oils to which i of essence has 
been added, and the two colors are mixed in propor- 
tions relative to the degree of intensity intended 
to be given to the mixture. It may readily be 
conceived that the principal part of this compo- 
sition consists of ceruse. 

If this color be destined for articles of a certain 
value, crystallized verdigris, dried and pulverized, 
ought to be substituted for common verdigris, and 
the painting must be covered with a stratum of 
the transparent or turpentine copal varnish. 

The sea-greens, which admit into their composi- 
tion metallic coloring parts, are durable and do 
not change. 

The last compositions may be employed for 
sea-green in oil painting; but it will be proper 
to brighten the tone a little more than when var- 
nish is used, because this color becomes darker by 
the addition of yellow, which the oil developes in 
the course of time. 

To make Bright Red. 
A mixture of lake with vermilion gives that 
beautiful bright red which painters employ for 
sanguine parts. This red is sometimes imitated 
for varnishing small appendages of the toilette. 
It ought to be ground with varnish and mixed 
up with the same, after which it is glazed and 
polished. The mastic gallipot varnish is used for 
grinding; gallipot varnish for mixing up, and 
camphorated mastic varuisih for glazing. 



DKIEES, FRESCO, ETC. 



331 



To mnJce Crimson, or Rone-calor. 
" Carminated lake — that which is composed of 
alum charged with the coloring part of cochineal, 
ceruse, and carmine — forms !i beautiful crimson. 
It roquires a particle of vermilion and of white 
lead. 

The use of this varnish is confined to valuable 
articles. 

To make Violet-color. 

Violet is made indifferently with red and black, 
or red and blue; and to render it more splendid, 
with red, white, and blue. To compose violet, 
therefore, applicable to varnish, take minium, or 
what is still better, vermilion, and prind it with 
the camphorated mastic varnish to which a fourth 
part of boiled oil and a little ceruse have been 
added ; then add a little Prussian blue ground in 
oil. The proportions requisite for the degree of 
intensity to be given to the color will sovn be 
found by experience. The white brightens the 
tint. The vermilion and Prussian blue, separated 
or mi.\ed, give hard tones, which must be softened 
by an intermediate sul)stance that modifies, to 
their advantage, the reflections of the light. 

To make Cfieatnut-color, 

This color is composed of red, yellow and black. 
The English red, or red ochre of Auvergne, ochre 
de rue and a little black, form a dark chestnut 
color. It is proper for painting of every kind. 
If English red, which is dryer than that of Au- 
vergne, be employed, it will be proper, when the 
color is intended for varnish, to grind it with dry- 
ing nut-oil. The ochre of Auvergne may be ground 
with the mastic gallipot, and mixed up with galli- 
pot varnish. 

The most experienced artists grind dark colors 
with linseed oil, when the situation will admit of 
its being used, because it is more drying. For 
articles without doors nut-oil is preferal)le. The 
colors of oak-wood, walnut-tree, chestnut, olive, 
and yellow, require the addition of a little litharge 
ground on porphyry: it hastens the desiccation 
of the color, and gives it body. 

But if it is intended to cover these colors with 
varnish, as is generally done in wainscoting, they 
must be mixed up with essence, to which a little 
oil has been added. The color is then much better 
disposed to receive the varnish, under which it 
exhibits all the splendor it can derive from the 
reflection of the light. 

To make a Dryer for Painting. 

Vitreous oxide of lead (litharge), is of no other 
use in painting than to free oils from their greasy 
particles, for the purpose of communicating to 
them a drying quality. Red litharge, however, 
ought to be preferred to the greenish j'ellow ; it 
is not so hard, and answers better for the purpose 
to which it is destined. 

When painters wish to obtain a common color 
of the ochrey kind, and have no boiled oil by 
them, they may paint with linseed oil, not freed 
from its greasy particles, by mixing with the color 
about 2 or 3 parts of litharge, ground on a piece 
of porphyry with water, dried, and reduced to 
fine powder, for 16 parts of oil. The color has 
a great deal of body, and dries as speedily as if 
mixed with drying oil. 

Siccitive Oil. 
Boil together for 2 hours on a slow and equal 
fire, i oz. of litharge, as much calcined ceruse, and 
the same of terre d'ombre and talc, with 1 lb. of 
linseed oil, carefully stirring the whole time. It 
must be carefully skimmed and clarified. The 
older it grows the better it is. A quarter of a pint 
of this dryer is required to every pound of color. 



To Paint in Fresco. 

Ii is performed with water-colors on fresh plast- 
er, or a wall laid with mortar not dry. This sort 
of painting has a great advantage by its incor- 
porating with the mortar, and drying along with 
it becomes very durable. 

The ancients painted on stucco, and we maj 
remark in Vitruvius what infinite care they took 
in making the plastering of their ouiMings, tu 
render them beautiful and lasting, though th« 
modern painters find a plaster of lime and sand 
preferable to it. 

To Paint Fire-Places and. Hearths. 

The Genevese employ a kind of stone, known 
under the name of molasse, for constructing fire- 
places and stoves, after the German manner. This 
stone is brought from Saura, a village of Savoy, 
near Geneva. It has a greyish color, inclining to 
blue, which is very agreeable to the eye. This 
tint is similar to that communicated to commoD 
white-washing with lime, chalk, or gypsum, the 
dullness of which is corrected by a particle of 
blu'j extract of indigo, or by charcoal black. 
To make Red Distemper for Tiles. 

Dip a brush in water from a common lye, or in 
soapy water, or in water charged with a 20th 
part of the carbonate of potash (pearlash), and 
draw it over the tiles. This washing thoroughly 
cleanses them, and disposes all the parts of the 
pavement to receive the distemper. 

When dry, dissolve in 8 pts. of water J lb. of 
Flanders glue; and while the mixture is boiling, 
add 2 lbs. of red ochre; mix the whole with great 
care. Then apply a stratum of this mixture ta 
the pavement, and when dry apply a seiiond stra- 
tum with drying linseed oil, and a third with the 
same red mixed up with size. When the whole ia 
dry, rub it with wax. 

To Distemper in Badigeon. 

Badigeon is employed for giving an uniform 
tint to houses rendered brown by time, and to 
churches. Badigeon, in general, has a yellow 
tint. That which succeeds best is composed of 
the saw-dust or powder of the same kind of stone 
and slacked lime, mixed up in a bucket of water 
holding in solution 1 lb. of the sulphate of alumina 
(alum). It is applied with a brush. 

At Paris, and in other parts of France, where 
the large edifices are constructed of a soft kind 
of stone, which is yellow, and sometimes white 
when it comes from the quarry, but which in time 
becomes brown, a little ochre de rue is substituted 
for the powder of the stone itself, and restores to 
the edifice its original tint. 

To make a Composition for rendering Canvas, 
Linen, and Cloth durable, Pliable, and Water- 
proof. 

To make it Black. 

First, the canvas, linen, or cloth is to be washed 
with hot or cold water, the former preferable, so 
as to discharge the stiffening which all new can- 
vas, linen, or cloth contains; when the stiffening 
is perfectly discharged, hang the canvas, linen, or 
cloth up to dry ; when perfectly so, it must be con- 
stantly rubbed by the hand until it becomes sup- 
ple ; it must then be stretched in a hollow frame 
very tight, and the following ingredients are to 
be laid on with a brush for the first coat, viz., 8" 
qts. of boiled linseed oil, i oz. of burnt umber, J , 
oz. of sugar of lead, i oz. of white vitriol, i oz. of 
white lead. 

The above ingredients, except the white lead, 
must be ground fine with a small quantity of the 
above-mentioned oil, on a stone and muller ; then 
mix all the ingredients up with the oil, and add 8 



382 



PAINTS AND COLORS. 



07,. of liimpblack, which must bo put over a slow 
fire in iiti iron broad vessel, and kept stirred until 
till) grease disajipears. In cdnscqucnco of the 
cimviis being washed and then rui)bed, it will ap- 
peiir rough Hndnap|)y; the lollnwing incthod must 
be taken with the seonnd coat, viz., the siinie in- 
greilieiits as before, exeept the white load; this 
coat' will set in a few hours, according to the 
weather; when set take a dry jiaint-brush and 
work it very hard with tlio grMiii of the canvas; 
this will cause the nap to lie .suumth. 

The third and last oat makes a complete jet- 
blaeli, wliii h continues its color: 'J'akc 3 galls, of 
boiled linseed oil, an ounce of burnt umber, i or,, 
of sugar of load, i oz. of white vitriol, J oz. of 
Prussian blue, ami i o/,. of verdigris; this must bo 
all ground very fine in a snuill quantity of the 
above oil, then add 4 oz. of lanipbbu'k, put through 
the same process of fire as the first coat. The 
above are to be laid on and used at discretion, in 
a similar way to paint. To make leiul color, the 
sain(! ingredients as before in making the black, 
with the addition of white lead in proportion to 
the color you wish to have, light or dark. 

To make it Green. 
Yellow ochre, 4 oz. ; Prussian blue, 5 oz. ; white 
lend, ;i oz. ; white vitriol, i oz. ; sugar of lead i oz. ; 
good boiled linseed oil sutHcient to make it of a 
thin quality, so as to go through the canvas. 

Ti> make it Yellow. 
Yellow ochre, 4 oz. ; burnt umber, J oz.; white 
lead, 6 or 7 oz. ; white vitriol, i oz. ; sugar of lead, 
i oz. ; boiled linseed oil, as in green. 

To make it lied. 
Red lead, 4 oz. ; vermilion 2 oz. ; white vitriol, 
J oz. ; sugar of load i oz. ; boiled linseed oil as 
before. 

To make it Gray. 
Take white load, a little Prussi.in blue, according 
to the quality you want, which will turn it to a 
pray color; a proportion of sugar of lead and 
white vitriid, as mentioned in the other colors, 
boiled linseed oil sutticient to make it of a thin 
quality. 

To make it White. 

White lend, 4 lbs. ; spirits of turpentine, } pt. ; 
while vitriol, i oz. : sugar of lead, i oz.; boiled oil 
luflioient to make it of a thin (piality. 

Tlio above ingredients, of dill'erent colors, are 
calculated as near as possible; but, as one article 
may be stronger than anollier, which will soon bo 
discovered in using, in that case the person work- 
ing, the color m.ay add a little, or diminish, as be 
nuiy find necessary. 

The same i)reparation for wood or iron, only re- 
ducing the oil about .3 qt. out of 8, and to be ap- 
plied in the same manner as paint or varnish, with 
a brush. 



ARTISTS' OIL COLORS. 
On Coloring Materials. 
The composition of cidors as respects those 
leading tests of c.\eellenco, preservation of general 
tints, and permanency of brilliant hues, during 
their exposure for many centuries to the impair- 
ing assaults of the atmosphere, is a jiroparation 
in which the ancient preparers of these oily coin- 
pounds, have very much excelled, in their skilful- 
ness, the moderns. It is a fact, that the ancient 
painted walls, to bo seen at Dcudaras, although 
«.\posed for many ages to the open air, without 
u,\\y covering or protection, still possess a perfect 
hrilli:nicy of color, as vivid as when painted, per- 
haps 2000 years ago. Tho iigyptiuus mixed their 



colors with some gummy substance, and applied 
theui detached from each other, without any blend- 
ing or mi.xturo. They appcaro<l to have used six 
colors, viz., white, black, blue, red, yellow, and 
green; they first covered the canvas entirely with 
white, upon which they traced the de.si-n in black, 
leaving out the lights of the ground color. They 
used minium for red, and generally of a dark 
tinge. Pliny mentions some painted ceilings in 
his day in the town of Ardea, which had been 
executed at a date prior to the fbundation of Rome, 
lie expresses great suriirise and admiration at 
their freshness, after the lapse of so many cen- 
turies. These are, undoubtedly, evidences of the 
excellence of the ancients in their art of prepar- 
ing colors. In the number of them there is, pro- 
bably, not much dilferonce between the ancient 
aiul modern knowledge. The ancients seem to 
have been possessed of siune colors of which we 
are ignorant, while they were unacquainted, them- 
selves, with some of those more recently discovered. 
The improvements of chemistry have, certainly, 
in later times, enriched painting with a profusion 
of tints, to which, in point of brilliancy at least, no 
c<)ml)inatiou of i)rimitivo cidors known to the an- 
cients could lu-etcnd; but the rajiid fading in the 
colors of some of the most esteemed masters of the 
Modern School, proves at least there is something 
del'ective in their bases, or mode of preparing 
them. This fault is peculiarly evident in many of 
the ]iroduetions from our esteemed master. Sir 
.loshua Reynolds, which, although they have not 
issuoil from his pallet nioro than 40 years, carry 
an impoverishment of surface, from the premature 
fading of their colors, so as alnu)st to lose, in 
many instances, the identity of the subjects they 
represent. On this head (and a most important 
one it is), the superiority of the ancient compound- 
ers completely carries away the palm of merit. 
To Prepare Ultramarine. 

Separate from the stone the most apparent 
parts of the ultramarine; reduce them to the size 
of a pea, and, having brought them to a red hciit 
in a crucible, throw them in that state into the 
strongest distilled vinegar. Then grind them with 
the vinegar, and reduce them to an impalpable 
powder; next take of wax, red colopbonium, and 
lapis lazuli, an eijual (puintity, say i oz. of each 
of these three substances; melt the wax and the 
coliiphonium in a proper vessel, and add the pow- 
der to the melted matter, then pour the mas.s into 
cold water, and let it rest eight days. Next take 
two glass vessels filled with water, as hot as the 
hand can bear, knead the mass in the water, and 
when the purest part of the ultramarine has 
been extracted remove the resinous mass into the 
other vessels, where finish the kneading to sepa- 
rate the remainder ; if the latter portion appears to 
bo much inferior, and j)a!er than the former, let it 
rest for 4 days, to facilitate the precipitation of 
the ultramariiui, which extract by dccantation, 
anil wash it in fair water. 

Ultramarine of four qualities may bo separated 
by this ])rocess. The first separation gives the 
finest, and as the operation is repeated, the beauty 
of the powder decreases. 

KincUel considers iiiunersion in vinegar as tte 
essential part of the o])eration. It facilitates the 
division, aiul oven the solution of the zoolitio and 
earthy particles soluble in that acid. 
Another Method. 

Separate the blue parts, and reduce thorn, on a 
piece of porphyry, to an imjialpable powder, which 
besprinkle with linseed oil, then make a paste with 
equal parts of yellow wax, pine resin, and colo- 
pbonium, say, 8 oz. of each; and add to this 



artists' oil colors. 



333 



paste i oz. of linseed oil, 2 oz. of oil of turpentine, 
and as much more mastic. 

Then take 4 parts of this mixture, and 1 of la- 
pis lazuli, ground with oil on a piece of porphyry, 
mix the whole warm, and suffer it to digest for a 
month, lit the end of which knead the mixture 
thorougiily in warm water, till the blue part sepa- 
rates from it, and at the end of some days decant 
the liquor. This ultramarine is exceedingly 
beautiful. 

These two processes are nearly similar, if we 
except the preliminary preparation of Kinckel, 
which consists in bringing the hipis lazuli to a red 
heat and immersing it in vinegar. It may be 
readily seen, liy the judicious observations of Mor- 
grafi' on the nature of this coloring part, that this 
calcination may be hurtful to certain kinds of 
azure stone. This preliminary operation, however, 
is a test which ascertains the purity of the ultra- 
marine. 

To Extract the Remainder of Ultramarine. 
As this matter is valuable, some portions of ul- 
tramarine may be extracted from the paste which 
has been kneaded in water; nothing is necessary 
but to mix it with four times its weight of linseed 
oil, to pour the matter into a glass of conical form, 
and to expose the vessel in the balneum mariae of 
an alembic. The water of which must be kept in 
a state of ebullition for several hours. The liquid- 
ity of the mixture allows the ultramarine to sepa- 
rate itself, and the supernatant oil is decanted. 
The same immersion of the coloring matter in oil 
is repeated, to separate the resinous parts which 
still adhere to it ; and the operation is finished 
by boiling it in water to separate the oil. The 
deposit is ultramarine ; but it is inferior to that 
separated by the first washing. 

To Ascertain whether Ultramarine be Adulterated. 

As the price of ultramarine, which is already 
very high, may become more so on account of the 
difficulty of obtaining lapis lazuli, it is of great 
importance that painters should be able to detect 
adulteration. Ultramarine is pure if, when brought 
to a red heat in a crucible, it stands that tiial 
without changing its color; as small quantities 
only are subjected to this test, a comparison may 
be made, at very little expense, with the part 
which has not been exposed to the fire. If adul- 
terated, it becomes blackish or paler. 

This proof, however, may not always be con- 
clusive. When ultramarine of the lowest quality 
is mixed with azure, it exhibits no more body 
than sand ground on porphyry would do ; ultra- 
marine treated with oil assumes a brown tint. 

Another Method. 

Ultramarine is extracted from lapis lazuli, or 
aiure stone, a kind of heavy zeolite, which is so 
hard as to strike fire with steel, to cut glass, and 
to be susceptible of a fine polish. It is of a bright 
blue color, variegated with white or yellow veins, 
enriched with ^mall metallic glands, and even 
veins of a gold color, which are only sulphurets 
of iron (martial pyrites); it breaks irregularly. 
The specimens most esteemed are those charged 
with the greatest quantity of blue. 

Several artists have exercised their ingenuity on 
processes capable of extracting ultramarine in its 
greatest purity; some, however, are contented 
with separating the uncolored portions of the 
Stone, reducing the colored part to an impalpable 
powder, and then grinding it for a long time with 
oil of poppies. But it is certain that, in conse- 
quence of this ineffectual method, the beauty of 
the color is injured by parts which are foreign to 
It j and that it does not produce the whole effect 



which ought to be expected from pure ultrama- 
rine. 

It may be readily conceived that the eminent 
qualities of ultramarine must have induced those 
first acquainted with the jiroresses proper for in- 
creasing the merit and value of it, to keep them a 
profound secret. This was indeed the-case; ul- 
tramiirine was prepared long before any account 
of the method of extracting and purifying it was 
known. 

Artificial Ultramarine. 

Sulphur, 2 parts ; dry carbonate of soda, 1 part. 
Put them into a Hessian crucible, cover it up, and 
apply heat until the mass fuses; then sprinkle 
into it gradually a mixture of silicate of soda and 
aluminate of soda (the first containing 72 piirts of 
silica, the second, 70 parts of alumina); lastly, 
calcine for 1 hour, and wash in pure water. 

To Prepare Cobalt Blue.— Bleu de Thenard. 

Having reduced the ore to powder, calcine it in 
a reverberatory furnace, stirring it frequently. 
The chimney of the furnace should have a strong 
draught, in order that the calcination may be 
perfect, and the arsenical and sul|)huroiis acid 
vapors may be carried off. The cak'inati(m is to 
be continued until these vapors cease to be disen- 
gaged, which is easily ascertained by collecting in 
a ladle a little of the gas in the furnace; the pres- 
ence or absence of the garlic odor determines the 
fact. When calcined, boil the result slightly in an 
excess of weak nitric acid, in a glass matrass, 
decant the supernatant liquor, and evaporate the 
solution thus obtained, nearly to dryness, in a 
capsule of platina or porcelain. This residuum is 
to be thrown into boiling water and filtered, and a 
solution of the subphosphate of soda to be ])ourcd 
into the clear liquor, which precii>itates an insolu- 
ble phosphate of cobalt. After washing it well on 
a filter, collect it while yet in a gelatincuis form, 
and mix it intimately, with eight times its weight 
of alumina, in the same state — if properly done, 
the paste will have a uniform tint, through its 
whole mass. This mixture is now to be spread on 
smooth plates and put into a stove; when dry and 
brittle, pound it in a mortar, enclosed in a covered 
earthen crucible, and heat it to a clierry-red for 
half an hour. On opening the crucible, if the 
operation has been carefully conducted, the beau- 
tiful and desired product will be found. Care 
should be taken that the alumina in the gelatinous 
form be precipitated from the alum by a sufficient 
excess of ammonia, and that it is completely puri- 
fied by washing with water filtered through char- 
coal. 

To make Artificial Saxon Blue. 

Sa.xon blue may be successfully imitated by 
mi.xing with a divided earth prussiate of iron at 
the moment of its formation and precipitation. 

Into a solution of 114 grs. of sulphate of iron 
pour a solution of yellow prussiate of potash. 

At the time of the formation of iron add. in the 
satue vessel, a solution of 2 oz. of alum, and pour 
in with it the solution of potash, just sufficient to 
decompose the sulphate of alumina, for a dose of 
alkali superabundant to the decomposition of 
that salt might alter the prussiate of iron. It 
will, therefore, be much better to leave a little 
alum, which may afterwards bo carried off by 
washing. 

As soon as the alkaline liquor is added, the alu- 
mina precipitated becomes exactly mixed with the 
prussiate of iron, the intensity of which it lessens 
by bringing it to the tone of common Saxon blue. 
The matter is then thrown on a filter, and, after 
being washed in clean water, is dried. This sub- 
stance is a kind of blue verditer, thu intensity of 



334 



PAINTS AND COLORS. 



which may vary accnrding to the greater or less 
quantity of the sulphate of alumina dccoinposed. 
It may be used for painting in di!<temper. 

To moke Blue Verdiler. 

Dissolve the copper, cold, in nitric acid (aqua- 
fortis), and produce a precipitation of it by means 
of quicklime, employed in such doses that it will 
be absorlied by the acid, in order that the precipi- 
tate may be pure oxide of copper, that is, without 
any mixture. When the liquor has been decanted, 
wash the precipitate and sjiread it out on a i)iece 
of linen cloth to drain. If a fiortion of this pre- 
cipitate, which is green, be placed on a grinding- 
stonc, and if a little quicklime, in powder, be 
added, the green color will be immediately changed 
into a beautiful blue. The proportion of the lime 
added is from 7 to ]0 parts in 100. When the 
whole matter ac<iuires the consistence of paste, 
desiccation soon takes place. 

IJlue vcrditer is proper for distemper, and for 
varnish, but it is not for oil painting, as the oil 
renders it very dark. If used it ought to be 
brightened with a great deal of white. 

Chrome Yellow. 
To a solution of bichromate of potassa add a 
solution of nitrate of lead as long as a precipitate 
falls. Wash and dry it. 

Cod III mm Yellow 
Is a compound of cadmium and sulphur. It is 
obtained by precipitation from a salt of cadmium 
by a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, or by 
an alkaline sulphide. 

Lemon Yellow {Steinbiihl Yellow) 
Is a chromate of baryta, made by mixing hot 
saturated solutions of bichromate of potassa and 
nitrate of baryta. Wash and dry the precipitates. 
It is considered superior to chrome yellow. 
To make Naples Yellow. 

Twelve 07,. of ceruse, 2 oz,. of the sulphurct of 
antimony, i oi.. of calcined alum, 1 ox. of sal am- 
moniac. Pulverize these ingredients, and having 
mixed them thoroughly, put them into a capsule 
or crucible of earth, and place over it a covering 
of the same substance. Expose it at first to a 
gentle heat, which must be gradually increased till 
the capsule is moderately red. The oxidation 
arising from this process reciuires, at least, 3 hours' 
exposure to heat before it is completed. The re- 
sult of this calcination is Naples yellow, which is 
ground in water on a porphyry slab, with an ivory 
spatula, as iron alters the color. The paste is then 
dried and preserved for use. It is a yellow oxide 
of lead and antimony. 

There is no necessity of adhering so strictly to 
the doses as to prevent their being varied. If a 
golden color be required in the yellow, the pro- 
portions of the sulphuretof antimony and muriate 
of ammonia must be increased. In like manner, 
if you wish it to be more fusible, increase the quan- 
tities of sulphurct of antimony and calcined sul- 
phate of alumina. 

To moke Montpellier Yellow. 

Take 4 lbs. of litharge, well sifted, divide it into 
4 equal portions, and put it into as many glazed 
earthen vessels. Dissolve also 1 lb. of sea-salt in 
alxmt 4 lbs. of water. I'oyr a fourth part of this 
solution into each of the 4 earthen vessels, to form 
a light paste ; let the whole rest for some hours, 
and when the surface begins to grow white stir 
the mass with a strong wooden spatula. Without 
this motion it would acquire too great hardness, 
and a part of the salt would escape decomposition. 
As the consistence increases dilute the matter 



with a new quantity of the .solution, and if this is 
TMi sufficient recourse must be had to simple wa- 
ter to maintain the same consistence. The paste 
will then be very white, and in the course of 24 
hours becomes uniform and free from lumps; let 
it remain for the same si)ace of time, but stir it at 
intervals to complete the decomposition of the 
salt. The paste is then well washed, to carry off 
the caustic soda (soda deprived of carbonic acid) 
which adheres to it; the mass is put into strong 
linen cloth and subjected to a press. The remain- 
ing paste is distiibutc<l in flat vessels, and these 
vessels are exjuised to heat, in order to efl'ect a 
proper oxidation (calcination), which converts it 
into a solid, yellow, briUiatit matter, sometimes 
crystallized in transverse striae. 

This is Montpellier yellow, which may be ap- 
plied to the same purposes as Naples yellow. 
To jirejxire Carmine. 

This kind of fecula, so fertile in gradation of 
tone by the effect of mixtures, and so grateful to 
the eye in all its shades, so useful to the i)ainter, 
and so agreeable to the delicate beauty, is only 
the coloring part of a kind of dried insect known 
under the name of cochineal. 

A mixture of ;{6 grs. of chosen seed, 18 grs. of 
autour bark, and as much alum thrown into a 
decoction of 6 grs. of pulverized cochineal, and 
6 lbs. of water, gives, at the end of from 6 to 10 
days, a red fecula, which, when dried, weighs 
from 40 to 48 grs. This fecula. is carmine. The 
remaining dec<iction, which is still highly col- 
ored, is reserved for the preparation of carminatod 
lakes. 

Super fitie Carmine of Amnterdam. 

Heat 6 buckets of rain-water, and when it com- 
mences to boil throw in 2 lbs. of finely-|)owdered 
cochineal; continue boiling 2 hours, and then add 

3 oz. of pure water, and immediately afterwards 

4 oz. of binoxalate of potash. Boil again 1 min- 
ute, then remove the vessel from the fire, and let 
the decoction stand 4 hours. Draw off the su- 
{lornatant liquid with a syphon into numerous ba- 
sins, and put them aside upon a shelf for about 9 
weeks, at the end of which time a mouldy pelli- 
cle will be formed, which is to be carefully removed 
with a whalebone, or by means of a small sjionge 
attached to the end of a stick. The water is then 
run off through a syphon, which must reach to 
the bottom of the pans, the carmine being so com- 
pact that it adheres. This carmine is dried in 
the shade, and is of an intensely brilliant hue. 

To prepare Dutch Pink from Woad. 

Boil the steins of woad in alum-water, and then 
mix the liquor with clay, marl or chalk, which 
will become charged with the color of the decoc- 
tion. When the earthy matter has ac(iuired con- 
sistence, form it into small cakes and expose them 
to dry. It is under this form that the Dutch pinks 
are sold in tlie color shops. 

Duteh. Pink from Yellow Berrien. 

The small blackthorn produces a fruit which, 
when collected green, is called yellow berries. 
These seeds, when boiled in alum-water, form a 
Dutch pink superior to the former. A certain 
quantity of clay, or marl, is mixed with the de- 
coction, by which means the coloring part of the 
berries unites with the earthy matter and commu- 
nicates to it a beautiful yellow color. 

Brownish Yellow Dutch Pink. 

Boil for an hour in 12 lbs. of water 1 lb. of yel- 
low beries, i lb. of the shavings of the wood of • 
the Barberry shrub, and 1 lb. of wood-ashes. 
The decoction is strained through a piece of linen 
cloth. Pour into this mixture, warm, and at dif- 



ARTISTS OIL COLORS. 



835 



ferent times, a solution jf 2 lbs. of the sulphate 
of iiiumiiia in 5 Ihs. of water; a slight efferves- 
cence w 11 take ))l:ioe, and the sulphate being de- 
composed, the alumina which is precipitated will 
eeize on the c<doring part. The liquor must then 
be filtered through a piece of close linen, and the 
paste which remains on the cloth, when divided 
into s(|uare pieces, is exposed on boards to dry. 
This is brown Dutch pink, because the clay in it 
is pure. The intensity of the color shows the 
quality of the jiink, which is superior to that of 
the other compositions. 

Datch Pink for Oil Pointing. 

By substituting for clay a substaiiGe which pre- 
sents a mixture of that earth and metallic oxide, 
the result will be Dutch pink of a very superior 
kind. 

Boil separately 1 lb. of yellow-berries and 3 oz. 
of the sulphate of alumina in 12 lbs. of water, 
which must be reduced to 4 lbs. Strain the de- 
coction through a piece of linen, and squeeze it 
strongly. Then mix up with it 2 lbs. of ceruse, 
finely ground on porphyry, and 1 lb. of pulverized 
Spanish white. Evaporate the mixture till the 
mass acquires the consistence of a paste; and, 
having formed it into small cakes, dry them in 
the shade. 

When these cakes are dry, reduce them to pow- 
der, and mix them with a new decoction of yel- 
low-berries. By repeating this process a third 
time a brown Dutch pink will be obtained. 

In general the decoctions must be warm when 
mi.'^eii with the earth. They ought not to be long 
kept, as their color is speedily altered by the fer- 
mentation. Care must be taken also to use a 
wooden spatula for stirring the mixture. 

When only one decoction of wood or yellow- 
berries is employed to color a given quantity of 
earth, the Dutch pink resulting from it is of a 
bright-j-ellow color, and is easily mixed for use. 
When the coloring part of several decoctions is 
absorbed the composition becomes brown, and is 
mixed with more difficulty, especially if the paste 
be argillaceous; for it is the property of this earth 
to unite with oily and resinous parts, adhere 
strongly to them, and incorporate with them. In 
the latter case the artist must not be satisfied with 
mixing the color; it ought to be ground, an ope- 
ration equally proper for every kind of Dutch 
pink, and even the softest, when destined for oil 
painting. 

To make Lake from Brazil-wood. 

Boil 4 oz. of the raspings of Brazil-wood in 15 
pts. of pure water til! the liquor is reduced to 2 
pts. It will be of a dark-red color, inclining to 
violet; but the addition of 4 or 5 oz. of alum will 
give it a hue inclining to rose-color. When the 
liquor has been strained through a piece of linen 
cloth, if 4 oz. of the carbonate of soda be added 
with caution, on account of the effervescence 
which takes place, the color, which by this addi- 
tion is deprived of its mordant, will resume its 
former tint, and deposit a lake, which, when 
washed and properly dried, has an exceedingly 
rich and mellow violet-red color. 

Another. — If on^y one-half of the dose of mineral 
alkali be employed for this precipitation, the tint 
of the lake becomes clearer, because the bath still 
retains the undecomposed aluminous mordant. 

Another. — If the method employed for Dutch 
pinks be followed by mi.xing the aluminous decoc- 
tion of Brazil-wood with pure clay, such as Span- 
ish white and white of Morat, and if the mixture 
be deposited on a filter to receive the necessary 
washing, a lake of a Tery bright-dark rose-color 
will be obtained from the driers. 



Lakes from other Coloring Suhslances. 
By the same process a very beautiful lake may 
be extracted from a decoction of logwood. In 
general, lakes of all colors, and of all the shades 
of these colors, may be extracted from the 
substances which give up their coloring part to 
boiling water; because it is afterw.ards communi- 
cated by decomposition to the alumina precipi- 
tated from sulphate of alumina, by means of an 
alkali; or the tincture may be mixed with a pure 
and exceedingly white argillaceous substance, such 
as real Spanish white, or white of Morat. 

To prepare Rouge. 

Carmine united to talc, in different proportions, 
forms rouge employed for the toilette. Talc is 
distinguished also by the name of Briancon chalk. 
It is a substance composed in a great measure of 
clay, combined naturally with silcx. 

Carmine, as well as carminated lakes, the color- 
ing part of which is borrowed from cochineal, is 
the most esteemed of all the compositions of this 
kind, because their coloring part maintains itself 
without degradation. There are even cases where 
the addition of caustic ammonia, which alters so 
many coloring matters, is employed to heighten 
its color. It is for this purpose that those who 
color prints employ it. 

Pink Saucers 
Ave made with extract of safilower (earthamus), 
obtained by digesting it, after washing with cold 
water, in a solution of carbonate of soda, and pre- 
cipitating by citric acid. It dyes silk and wool 
without a mordant. The extract is evaporated 
upon saucers as a dye-stuff, and, mixed with pow- 
dered talc, forms a variety of rouge. 

Carminated Lake from Madder. 
Boil 1 part of madder in from 12 to Ih pints of 
water, and continue the ebullition till it be reduced 
to about 2 lbs. Then strain the decoction through 
a piece of strong linen cloth, which must be well 
squeezed; and add to the decoction 4 oz. of alum. 
The tint will be a beautiful bright-red, which the 
matter will retain if it be mixed with proper clay. 
In this case, expose the thick liquor which is thus 
produced on a linen filter, and subject it to one 
washing, to remove the alum. The lake, when 
taken from the driers, will retain this bright prim- 
itive color given by the alum. 

Another Method. 

If, in the process for making this lake, decom- 
position be employed, by mixing with the bath an 
alkaline liquor, the alum, which is decomposed, 
deprives the bath of its mordant, and the lake, 
obtained after the subsequent washings, appears 
of the color of the madder bath, without any ad- 
dition : it is of a reddish brown. In this opera- 
tion 7 or 8 oz. of alum ought to be employed for 
each pound of madder. 

This kind of lake is exceedingly fine, but a 
brighter red color may be given to it, by mixing 
the washed precipitate with alum-water, before 
drying. 

Improvement on the above. 

If the aluminated madder bath bo sharpened 
with acetate of lead, or with arseniate of potash, 
the operator still obtains, by the addition of car- 
bonate of soda, a rose-colored lake of greater or 
less strength. 

To make Dark- Red. 

Dragon's blood, infused warm in varnish, gives 
reds, more or less dark, according to the quantity 
of the coloring resin which combines with the 
varnish. The artist, therefore, has it in his power 
to vary the tones at pleasure. 



S36 



PAINTS AND COLORS. 



Though cochineal, in a state of division, gives 
to essence very little color in comparison with 
thiit which it communicates to water, carmine 
may be iiUrodiiceil into the composition of varnish 
colored by dragon's blood. The result will be a 
purple red, from which various shades may be 
easily formed. 

To Prepare Violet. 
A mixture of carminated varnish and dragon's 
blood, added to that colored by prussiate of iron, 
produces violet. 

To make a Fine Red Lalee. 
Boil stick-lac in water, filter the decoction, and 
evaporate the clear liquor to dryness over a gentle 
fire. The occasion of this easy separation is, that 
the beautiful red color here separated adheres 
only slightly to the outsides of the sticks broken 
off the trees along with the gum-lac, and readily 
communicates itself to boiling water. Some of 
this sticking matter also adhering to the gum 
itself, it is proper to boil the whole together; for 
the gum does not at all prejudice the color, nor 
dissolve in boiling water; so that after this opera- 
tion the gum is as fit for making sealing-wax as 
before, and for all other uses which do not require 
its color. 

To make a Beautiful Red Lake. 
Take any quantity of cochineal, on which pour 
twice its weight of alcohol, and as much distilled 
water. Infuse for some days near a gentle fire, 
and then filter. To the filtered liquor add a few 
drops of the solution of tin, and a fine red pre- 
cipitate will be formed. Continue to add a little 
solution of tin every 2 hours, till the whole of the 
coloring matter is precipitated. Lastly, edulco- 
rate the precipitate by washing it in a large quan- 
tity of distilled water and then dry it. 
To Prepare Florentine Lake. 
The sediment of cochineal that remains in the 
bottom of the kettle in which carmine is made, 
may be boiled with about 4 qts. of water, and the 
red liquor left after the preparation of the carmine 
mixed with it, and the whole precipitated with the 
solution of tin. The red precipitate must be fre- 
quently washed over with water. Exclusively of 
this, 2 oz. of fresh cochineal, and 1 of crystals of 
tartar, are to be boiled with a sufficient quantity 
of water, poured off clear, and precipitated with 
the solution of tin, and the precipitate washed. 
At the same time 2 lbs. of alum are also to be dis- 
solved in water, precipitated with a lixivium of 
potash, and the white earth repeatedly washed 
with boiling water. Finally, both precipitates 
are to be mixed together in their liquid state, put 
upon a filter and dried. For the preparation of a 
cheaper sort, instead of cochineal, 1 lb. of Brazil- 
wood may be employed in the preceding manner. 
To make a Lake from. Madder. 
Inclose 2 oz. troy of the finest Dutch madder 
in a bag of fine and strong calico, large enough 
to hold three or four times as much. Put it into 
a large marble or porcelain mortar, and pour on 
it a pint of clear soft water cold. Press the bag 
in every direction, and pound and rub it about 
with a pestle, as much as can be done without 
tearing it, and when the water is loaded with color 
pour it off, Repeat this process till the water 
comes off but slightly tinged, for which about 5 
pts. will be sufficient. Heat all the liquor in an 
earthen or silver vessel till it is near boiling, and 
then pour it into a large basin, into which 1 oz. 
•>f alum, dissolved in 1 pt. of boiling soft water, 
has been previously put : stir the mixture together, 
and while stirring pour in gently about H oz. of 
a saluratod solution of subcarbonate of potash; 



let it stand till cold to settle; pour off the clear 
yellow liquor; add to the precipitate a quart of 
boiling soft water, stirring it well ; and when cold 
separate by filtration the lake, which should weigh 
i an oz. Fresh madder-root is superior to the 
dry. 

To give Varions Tones to Lake. 

A beautiful tone of violet, red, and even of pur- 
ple-red, may be cnmmunicated to the coloring 
part of cochineal by adding to the colored bath a 
solution of chloride of tin. 

Another. — The addition of arseniate of potash 
(neutral arsenical salt), gives shades which would 
be sought for in vain with sulphate of alumina 
(alum). 

To make a Carminated Lake hy Extracting the 
Coloring Part from Scarlet Cloth. 

To prepare a carminated lake without employ- 
ing cochineal in a direct manner, by extracting 
the coloring matter from any substance impreg- 
nated with it, such as the shearings of scarlet 
cloth. 

Put into a kettle 1 lb. of fine wood-ashes, with 
40 lbs. of water, and subject the water to ebullition 
for i of an hour; then filter the solution through 
a piece of linen cloth till the liquor passes through 
clear. 

Place it on the fire ; and having brought it to a 
state of ebullition, add 2 lbs. of the shearings or 
shreds of scarlet cloth, dyed with cochineal, which 
must be boiled till they become white; then filter 
the liquor again, and press the shreds to squeeze 
out all the coloring part. 

Put the filtered liquor into a clean kettle, and 
place it over the fire. When it boils pour in a 
solution of 10 or 12 oz. of alum in 2 lbs. of filtered 
spring-water. Stir the whole with a wooden spat- 
ula till the froth that is formed is dissipated; and 
having mixed with it 2 lbs. of a strong decoction 
of Brazil-wood, pour it upon a filter. Afterwards 
wash the sediment with spring-water, and remove 
the cloth filter charged with it to plaster dryers, 
or to a bed of dry bricks. The result of this op- 
eration will be a beautiful lake, but it has not the 
soft velvety appearance of that obtained by the 
first method. Besides, the coloring part of the 
Brazil-wood which unites to that of the cochineal 
in the shreds of scarlet cloth, lessens in a relative 
proportion the unalterability of the coloring part 
of the cochineal. For this reason purified potash 
ought to be substituted for the wood-ashes. 

To make a Red Lake. 
Dissolve 1 lb. of the best pearlash in 2 qts. of 
water, and filter the liquor through paper; next 
add 2 more qts. of water and 1 lb. of clean scarlet 
shreds, boil them in a pewter boiler till the shreds 
have lost their scarlet color; take out the shreds 
and press them, and put the colored water yielded 
by them to the other. In the same solution boil 
another lb. of the shreds, proceeding in the samo 
manner; and likewise a third and fourth pound. 
Whilst this is doing, dissolve li lbs. of cuttle-fish 
bone in 1 lb. of strong aquafortis in a glass re- 
ceiver; add more of the bone if it appear to pro- 
duce any ebullition in the aquafortis, and pour 
this strained solution gradually into the other; 
but if any ebullition be occasioned, more of the 
cuttle-fish bone must be dissolved as before, and 
added till no ebullition appears in the mixture. 
The crimson sediment deposited by this liquor is 
the lake: pour off the water, and stir the lake in 
2 galls, of hard spring-water, and mix the sedi- 
ment in 2 galls, of fresh water ; let this method 
be repeated 4 or 6 times. If no hard water can 
be procured, or the lake appears too purple, i an 



ARTISTS OIL COLORS. 



337 



oz. of alum should be added to each quantity of 
water before it is used. Having thus sufficiently 
freed the latter from the salts, drain off the water 
through a filter, covered with a worn linen cloth. 
When it has been drained to a proper dryness, let 
it be dropped through a proper funnel on clean 
boards, and the drops will become small cones or 
pyramids, in which form the lake must be dried, 
and the preparation is completed. 
Another Method. 

Boil 2 oz. of cochineal in 1 pt. of water; filter 
the solution through paper, and add 2 oz. of penrl- 
ash dissolved in i pint of warm water and fil- 
tered through paper. Make a solution of cuttle- 
bone, as in the former process, and to 1 pt. of it 
add 2 oz. of alum dissolved in ^ pt. of water. Put 
this mi.\ture graduiilly to the cochineal and pearl- 
ash US long as any ebullition arises, and proceed 
as above. 

A beautiful lake may be prepared from Brazil- 
wood, by boiling 3 lbs. of it for an hour in a solu- 
tion of 3 lbs. of common salt in 3 galls, of water, 
and filtering the hot fluid through paper; add to 
this a solution of 5 lbs. of alum in 3 galls, of water. 
Dissolve 3 lbs. of the best pearlash in 1^ galls, of 
water, and purify it by filtering; put this grad- 
naliy to the other till the whole of the color appenrs 
to be precipitated and the fluid is left clear and 
colorless. But if any appearance of purple be 
seen, add a fresh quantity of the solution of alum 
by degrees, till a scarlet hue is produced. Then 
pursue the directions given in the first process 
with regard to the sediment. If ^ lb. of seed-lac 
be added to the solution of pearlash, and dissolved 
iu it before its purification by the filter, and 2 lbs. 
of the wood and a proportional quantity of com- 
mon salt and water be used in the culored solu- 
tion, a lake will be produced that will stand well 
in oil or water; but it is not so transparent in oil 
as without the seed-lac. The lake with Brazil- 
wood may be also made by adding J oz. of anatto 
to each pound of the wood; but the anatto must 
be dissolved in the solution of pearlash. 

After the operation, the dryers of plaster, oj" the 
bricks, which have extracted the moisture from the 
precipitate, are exposed to the sun, that they may 
be fitted for another operation. 

To make Prussian Blue. 

Dissolve sulphate of iron (copperas, green vi- 
triol) in water; boil the solution. Add nitric acid 
until red fumes cease to come off, and enough 
sulphuric acid to render the liquor clear. This 
is the persulphate of iron. To this add a solution 
of ferrocyanide of potassium (yellow prussiate 
of potash), as long as any precipitate is produced. 
Wash this precipitate thoroughly with water acid- 
ulated with sulphuric acid, and dry in a warm 
place. 

Sohtble Pruistan Blue. 

Add ferrocyanide of potassium to a solution 
freshly made of green vitriol in water. The white 
precipitate which falls, becomes blue on exposure 
to the air, and is soluble in water. 

Chrome Bed. 
Melt saltpetre in a crucible heated to dull red- 
ness, and throw in gradually chrome yellow until 
no more red fumes arise. Allow the mixture to settle ; 
pour off the liquid portion, and wash rapidly the 
sediment. The liquid portion contains chromate 
of potash, and may be used to make chrome yellow. 
To make Blue. 
A diluted solution of sulphate of indigo. 

To make Pink. 
Cochineal boiled with bitartrate of potash and 



sulphate alumina, or a decoction of Brazil-wood 
with sulphate alumina; the color may b« T^ried 
by the addition of carbonate poUish. 

To make Purple 

A decoction of Brazil-wood and logwood affords^ 
with carbonate of potash, a permanent purple. 
To make Orange Lake. 

Boil 4 oz. of the best anatto and 1 lb. of pearl- 
ash, i an hour, in 1 gall, of water, and strain th« 
solution through paper. Mix gradually with this 
H lbs. of alum, in another gallon of water, desist- 
ing when no ebullition attends the commixture. 
Treat the sediment in the manner already directed 
for other kinds of lake, and dry it iu square bits 
or lozenges. 

To make a Yellow Lake. 

Take 1 lb. of turmeric-root, in fine powder, 3 
pt. of water, and 1 oz. of salt of tartar ; put nil into 
a glazed earthen vessel, and boil them together 
over a clear gentle fire, till the water appears 
highly impregnated and stains a paper to a beau- 
tiful yellow. Filter this liquor, and gradually 
add to it a strong solution of alum, in water, till 
the yellow matter is all curdled and precipitated. 
After this, pour the whole into a filter of paper, 
and the water will run off, and leave the yellow 
matter behind. Wash it with fresh water till the 
water comes off insipid, and then is obtained tho 
besutiful yellow called lacqne of turmeric. 

In this manner make a lake of any of the sub- 
stances that are of a strong texture, as madder, 
logwood, etc., but it will not succeed in the more 
tender species, as the flowers of roses, violets, etc., 
as it destroys the nice arrangement of parts in 
those subjects on which the color depends. 

To make another Yellow Lake. 
Make a lye of potash and lime suflBciently 
strong; in this boil, gently, fresh broom-flowers 
till they are white; then take out the flowers, and 
put the lye to boil in earthen vessels over the fire; 
add as much alum as the liquor will dissolve; then 
empty this lye into a vessel of clean water, and it 
will give a yellow color at the bottom. Settle, 
and decant off the clear liquor. Wash this powder, 
which is found at the bottom, with more water, 
till all the salts of the lye are washed off; then 
separate the yellow matter, and dry it in the shada. 
To Make a YelloiB. 
Gum guttae and terra merita give very beautiful 
yellows, and readily communicate their color to 
copal varnish made with turpentine. Aloes giro 
a varied and orange tint. 

Chloride of lead tinges vitreouS matters of a yel- 
low color. Hence the beautiful glazing given to 
Queen's ware. It is composed of 80 lbs. of chlo- 
ride of lead, and 20 lbs. of flints ground together 
very fine, and mixed with water till the whole 
becomes as thick as cream. The vessels to be 
glazed are dipped in the glaze and suffered to dry. 
To make Chinese Yellow. 
The acacia, an Egyptian thorn, is a species of 
mimosa, from which the Chinese make that yel- 
low which bears washing in their silks and stuffs,' 
and appears with so much elegance in their paint- 
ing on paper. The flowers are gathered before 
they are fully opened, and put into an earthen 
vessel over a gentle heat, being stirred continually 
until they are nearly dry, and of a yellow color: 
then to i lb. of the flowers a sufficient quantity 
of rain-water is added, to hold the flowers incor- 
porated together. It is then to be boiled until it 
becomes thick, when it must be strained. To the 
liquor is added i oz. of common alum, and 1 oi. 
of calcined oyster-shells, reduced to a fine powder. 



3S8 



PAINTS AND COLORS. 



All these are mixed together into a mass. An 
addition of a proportion of the ripe seeds to the 
flowers renders the colors somewhat deeper. For 
making the deepest yellow add a small quantity 
ef Brazil-wood. 

Tunic White, 
Largely used as a substitute for white lead, 
may be made by burning zinc, or by precipitating 
from a solution by caustic alkali. It is the oxide 
of the metal, and is nut blackened by sulphuretted 
hydrogen. 

To make a Pearl White. 

Pour some distilled water into a solution of 
nitrate of bismuth as long as preoijiifation takes 
place; filter the solution, and wash the precipitate 
with dintilled water as it lies on the filter. When 
properly dried, by a gentle boat, this powder is 
what is generally termed pearl white. 
Chrome Green. 

Mix bichromate of potash with half its weight 
of muriate of ammonia; heat the mixture to red- 
ness, and wash the mass with |>leiity of boiling 
water. Dry the residue thoroughly. It is a ses- 
quioxide of chromium, and is the basis of the 
green ink used in bank-note jirinting. 

Another. — Mix chrome yellow and Prussian 
blue. 

Onignet'a Chrome Qreen. 

Mix 3 parts of boracioacid and 1 part of bichro- 
mate of potassa, heat to about redness. Oxygen 
gas and water are given oti'. The resulting salt 
when thrown into water is decomposed. The pre- 
•ipitato is collected and washed. This is a remark- 
ably fine color, solid and brilliant even by arti- 
ficial light. 

To make Scheele'a Oreen. 

Dissolve 2 lbs. of blue vitriol in 6 lbs. of water 
in a copper vessel ; and in another vessel dissolve 
2 lbs. of dry while potash, and 1 1 oz. of white 
arsenic in 2 lbs. of water. When the solutions are 
perfect pour the arsenical lye into the other gradu- 
ally, and about 1 lb. 6 oz. of good green precipi- 
tate will bo obtained. 

To make Oreen. 

The acetic copper (verdigris) dissolved in acetic 
aeid, forms an elegant green. 

lirnnswick Green. 

This is obtained from the solution of a precipi- 
tate of copper in tartar and water, which, by eva- 
poration, yields a transparent cupreous tartar, 
which is similar to the superfine Brunswick green. 
Schweiit/iirth or Emerald Green Color. 

Dissolve in a small quantity of hot water, 6 
parts of sulphate of copper ; in another part, boil 
6 parts of oxide of arsenic with 8 parts of potash, 
until it throws out no more carbonic acid; mix by 
degrees this hot solution with the first, agitating 
continually until the effervescence has entirely 
ceased; these then form a precipitate of a dirty 
greenish yellow, very abundant; add to it about 
3 parts of acetic acid, or such a quantity that 
there may be a slight excess perceptible to the 
smell after the mixture; by degrees the precipi- 
tate diminishes the bulk, and in a few hours there 
deposes spontaneously at the bottom of the liquor, 
entirely discolored, a powder of a contexture 
slightly crystalline, and of a very beautiful green ; 
afterwards the floating liquor is separated. 
Oreen Colors free from Argenic. 
Some green colors free from the objections 
which apply to the arsenical greens, are described 
by Eisner. The first, called '' Eisner Green," is 
made by adding to a solution of sulphate of cop- 
per a decoction of fustic, previously clarified by a 



solution of gelatine; to this mixture is then ad- 
ded 10 or 11 per cent, of protochlorido of tin, and 
lastly an excess of caustic potash soda. The pre- 
cipitate is then washed and dried, whereupon it 
assumes a green color, with a tint of blue. 

The "Tin-copper (Jrecn " is a stannnte of cop- 
per, and po.^sesses a color which Geiitele states it 
not inferior to any of the greens free from arse- 
nic. The cheapest way of making this is to hea 
,i9 parts of tin in a Hessian crucible, with 100 parts 
of nitrate of soda, and dissidvo the mass, when 
cold, in a caustic alkali. AVhen clear, this solu- 
tion is diluted with water, and a cold solution of 
sulphate of copper is added. A reddish yellow 
precipitate falls, which, on being washed and 
dried, becomes a beautiful green. 

Titanium (ireen was first prepared by Eisner in 
1846. It is made in the following way: Iserin 
(titaniferous iron) is fused in a Hessian crucibl* 
with 12 times its weight of sulphate of fiotash. 
When cold, the fused mass is treated with hydro- 
chloric acid, heated to 50° 0. and filtered hot; 
the filtrate is then evaporated until a drop ]>lacod 
on a glass plate solidifies. It is then allowed to 
co(d, and when cold a concentrated s(dution of sal 
•ammoniac is poured over the mass, which is well 
stirred and then filtered. The titanic acid which 
remains behind is digested at 50° or 70° with di- 
lute hydrochloric acid, and the acid solution, after 
the addition of some scdution of prussiate of pot- 
ash, quickly heated to boiling. A green precipi- 
tate falls, which must be washed with water acidu- 
lated with hydrochloric acid, and then dried under 
100° C. Titanium green then forms a beautiful 
dark green powder. 

^■1 Green Color which may he employed in ConfeO' 
tionnry. 
Infuse for 24 hours 0.32 grammes of saffron in 
7 grammes of distilled water; take 0.26 grammet 
of carmine of indigo and infuse in 15.6 grammes 
of distilled water. On mixing the two liquids a 
beautiful green color is obtained, which is harm- 
less. Ten parts will color 1000 j)arts of sugar. It 
may bo preserved for a long time by evaporating 
the liquid to dryness, or making it into a syrup. 

To mix the Mineral Substances in Linseed Oil. 

Take 1 lb. of the genuine mineral green, pre- 
pared and well powdered, 1 lb. of the precipitate 
of copper, li lbs. of refiners' blue verditer, 3 lbs. 
of white lead, dry powdered, 3 oz. of sugar of load, 
powdered fine. Mix the whole of these ingredi- 
ents in linseed oil, and grind them in a levigating 
mill, passing it through until quite fine; it will 
thereby produce a bright mineral pea-green paint, 
preserve a blue tint, and keep any length of time in 
any clinnite without injury, by putting oil or wa- 
ter over it. 

To use this color for house or ship painting, 
take 1 lb. of the green color paint, with 1 gill of 
pale boiled oil; mix them well together, and this 
will produce a strong pea-green paint; the tint 
may bo varied at pleasure by adding a further 
quantity of white lead griiund in lins<ed oil. 
This color will stand the weather and resist salt 
water; it may also be used for Hatting rooms, by 
adding 3 ll>s. of white lead ground in half linseed 
oil and half turpentine, to 1 lb. of the green, then 
to be mixed up 'u\ turpentine spirits, fit for use. It 
may also be used for painting Venetian window- 
blinds, by adding to 1 lb. of the green (laint 10 oz. 
of white lead, ground in turpentine, then to be 
mixed up in turpentine varnish for use. In all 
the aforesaid preparations it will retain a blua 
tint, which is very desirable. When useil for 
blinds, a small quantity of Dutch pink may be 



VARNISHES. 



339 



pnt to the white lead if the color is required uf a 
yellow cast. 

To Imitate Flesh-color. 
Mix a little white mid yellow tojjet her, then add 
a liltlo more rod than yellow. These form an ex- 
oelloiit iuiitation of ttiu complexion. 

A While fur Painleri, which may be Preserved 
Forever. 
Put into a pan 3 qtH. of linseed oil, with an equal 
quiinlity of hranily and 4 ((ts. of the best douhle- 
diHtilloil vino^^iir, H do/,, of whole new-laid e{;K>*i '' 
lbs. of mutton suet, chopped »niall ; cover all with 
a lead platti and lule it well ; lay this pait in the 
cellar for 'A wceki<, then take Nkildilly the while 
off, and dry it. The doHe of thiM couipoiiition is 6 
0%. uf while to 1 of bisuiuth. 

To Clean Pivtiirei. 

Take the picture out of the frame, lay a coarse 
towel on it for 10 or 14 days; keep eontiiiually 
wettin;^ it until it ha.s drawn out all the llllhiness 
from the picture ; pass some linseed oil, which has 
been a lon)^ time seasoned in the sun, over it, to 
purify it, and the picture will beoouio as lively on 
the surface as new. 

Another Method. 

Put into 2 qts. of the oldest lye J lb. of Genoa 
Boap, rasped very fine, with about a pint of spirit 
of wine, and boil all together; then strain it 
through a cloth, and let it cool. With a brush 
dipped in the composition rub the picture all over, 
and let it dry ; repeat this process and let it dry 
again ; then dip a little cotton in oil of nut, and 
pass it over its surface. When perfectly dry, rub 
it well over with a warm cloth, and it will appear 
of a beautiful freshness. 

To Restore Discolored White. 

In paintings, where the white has become blaek- 
ened by sulphuretted hydrogen, the ap|dieation 
of Tbenard's oxygenated water will instantly re- 
store it. Probably a soluti<ui of permanganate of 
potassa would have the same eQ'ect. (See Condy'h 
Solution). 

To Restore Paintinijs. 

Prof. Pottenkoffer has shown that the change 
which takes place in old paintings, is the discon- 
tinuance of mcdecular cohesion, which, beginning 
on the surface in small lisdures, penetrates t.) the 
very foundation. His process is to expose the pic- 
ture in a tight box to the vapor of alcohol, ether, 
benzine, turpentine, or other similar solvent. The 
process has been sucoessfully tried in several iu- 
•tanoes. 



Compound for Receiving the Colors used in J5»»- 
eaustic Painting. 

Dissolve 9 ot. of gum arable in 1 pt. of water, 
add 14 oz. of finely powdered mastic and 10 oa, 
<<f white wax, cut in small pieces, and, whilst hot, 
add by ilegrees 2 pts. of cold spring- water; then 
strain the composition. 

Another Method. 

Mix 24 oz. of mastic with gum-water, leaving 
out the wax, and when sufliciently beaten and dis- 
solved over the lire, add by degrees 14 pts. of cold 
water, and strain. 

Or, tlissolve 9 oz. of gum arable in 14 |its. of 
water; then add 1 lb. of white wax. lioil them 
over a slow fire, pour them into a cold vessel, and 
beat them well together. When this is mixed with 
the colors, it will re((uire more water than the 
others. This is used in painting, the colors being 
nii.\ed with these compositions as with oil, a<lding 
water if necessary. When the painting is fin- 
ished, melt some white wax, and with a hard brush 
va^ni^h the painting, and, when cold, rub it to 
make it entirely smooth. 

Qrecian Method of Painting on Wax. 

Take 1 oz. of white wax and 1 oz. of gum mas- 
tic, in drops, made into powder; put the wax into 
a glazed pan over a slow lire, and when melted 
add the mastic; then stir the same until they are 
both incorporated. Next throw the paste into 
water, and when hard take it out, wipe it dry, and 
beat it in a mortar; when dry pound it in a linen 
cloth till it is reduced to a fine powder. Make 
some strong gum-water, and when painting take 
a little of the powder, some color, and mix them 
all with the gum-water. Light c(dors require but 
a small ((uantity of the powder, but more must be 
put in proportiiin to the darkness of the colors, 
and to black there should be almost as much of 
the powder as of color. 

Having mixed the colors, paint with water, as 
is practised in painting with water colors, a 
ground on the wood being first painted of some 
proper color, jircpared as described for the pic- 
ture. When the painting is quite dry, with a hard 
brush, passing it one way, varnish it with white 
wax, which is melted over a slow fire till the pio- 
turo is varnishe<l. Take care the wax does not 
boil. Afterwards hold the picture before a flre, 
near enough to melt the wax, but not to run, and 
when the varnish is entirely cold and hard, rub it 
gently with a linen cloth. Hhould the varnish 
blister, warm the picture again very slowly, and 
the bubbles will subside. 



V^HISriSHES. 



Solvents for India-Rubber and Onlta Percha. 

1. Itemine. There are two bodies sold as ben- 
sine or benzole: one obtained by distilling coal or 
coal-tar— the true benzine — used in making coal- 
tar o<dor8 ; the other, from petroleum, contains but 
little true benzine. They may be used instead of 
turpentine in mixing paints and the true benzine 
for varnishes. Commercial benzine will noi gen- 
erally do for varnishes; that from petroleum is 
much the cheaper. Either forms an oxuellont sol- 
vent for india-rubber. 

2. Bisulphide of Carbon is an excellent rubber 



solvent ; acts in the cold ; is made by passing; the 
vapor of sulphur over red-hot charcoal. 

3. Chloroform is very good, but costly. 

Turpentine acts slowly, and takes long to dry. 
India rubber shouhl always be cut into fine string! 
or shreds before being submitted to the action of 
solvents. 

Solvent for Old Paint or Putty. 

Caustic soda, applied with a broom or brush 
made of vegetable matter. It is sold in the shop! 
an ouncentratcd lye. 



340 



VAENISHES. 



To give a Drying Quahty to Poppy Oil. 
into 3 lbs. of pure water put 1 oz. of sulphate 
of zinc (white vitriol), and mix the whole with 2 
lbs. of oil of pinks, or poppy oil. Expose this mix- 
ture, in an earthen vessel capable of standing the 
fire, to a degree of heat sufficient to maintain it 
in a slight state of ebullition. When one-half or 
two thirds of the water has evaporated, pour the 
whole into a large glass bottle or jar, and leave it 
at rest till the oil becomes clear. Decant the 
cloirest part by means of a glass funnel, the beak 
of which is stopped with a piece of cork. AVhen 
the separation of the oil from the water is effected, 
remove the cork stopper, and supply its place with 
the forefinger, which must be applied in such a 
manner as to sutfer the water to escape, and to re- 
tain only the oil. 

Poppy-oil, when prepared in this manner, be- 
comes, after some weeks, exceedingly limpid and 
colorless. 

To give a Drying Quality to Fat Oils. 

Take of nut-oil, or linseed-oil, 8 lbs.; white lead. 
Slightly calcined, yellow acetate of lead (sal sa- 
turni), also calcined, sulphate of zinc (white vit- 
riol), each 1 oz. ; vitreous oxide of lead (litharge), 
12 oz. ; a head of garlic, or a small onion. 

When the dry substances are pulverized, mix 
them with the garlic and oil, over a fire capable 
of maintaining the oil in a slight state of ebulli- 
tion. Continue it till the oil ceases to throw up 
scum, till it assumes a reddish color, and till the 
head of garlic becomes brown ; a pellicle will then 
be soon formed on the oil, which indicates that the 
operation is completed. Take the vessel from the 
fire, and the pellicle, being precipitated by rest, 
will carry with it all the unctuous parts which 
rendered the oil fat. When the oil becomes clear, 
separate it from the deposit, and put it into wide- 
mouthed bottles, where it will completely clarify 
itself in time, and improve in quality. 
Another Method. 

Take of litharge, 1^ oz.; sulphate of zinc, f of 
an oz. ; linseed or nut-oil, 16 oz. The operation 
must be conducted as in the preceding case. 

The choice of the oil is not a matter of indiffer- 
ence. If it be destined for painting articles ex- 
posed to the impression of the external air, or for, 
delicate painting, nut-oil or poppy-oil. Linseed- 
oil is used for coarse painting, and that sheltered 
from the effects of the rain and of the sun. 

A little negligence in the management of the 
fire has often an influence on the color of the oil, 
to which a drying quality is communicated; in this 
case it is not proper for delicate painting. This 
inconvenience may be avoided by tying up the 
drying matters in a small bag; but the dose of the 
litharge must then be doubled. The bag must be 
suspended by a piece of packthread fastened to a 
stick, which is made to rest on the edges of the 
Tessel in such a manner as to keep the bag at the 
distance of an inch from the bottom of the vessel. 
A pellicle will be formed as in the first operation, 
but it will be slower in making its appearance. 

Another. — A drying quality may be commu- 
nicated to oil by treating, in a heat capable of 
maintaining a slight ebullition, linseed or nut-oil, 
to each pound of which is added 3 oz. litharge, 
reduced to fine powder. 

The preparation of floor-cloths, and all paint- 
ings of large figures or ornaments, in which argil- 
laceous colors, such as yellow and red boles, Dutch 
pink, etc. are employed, require this kind of prep- 
aration, that the desiccation may not be too slow; 
but painting for which metallic oxides are used, 
such as preparations of lead, copper, etc., require 
only the doses before indicated, because these ox- 



ides contain a great deal of oxygen, and the oil, by 
their contact, acquires more of a drying quality. 

Another. — Take of nut oil, 2 lbs.; common water, 
3 do. ; sulphate of zine, 2 oz. 

Mix these matters, and subject them to a slight 
ebullition, till little water remains. Decant the 
oil, which will pass over with a small quantity of 
water, and separate the latter by means of a fun- 
nel. The oil remains nebulous for some time; 
after which it becomes clear, and seems to be very 
little colored. 

Another. — Take of nut-oil, or linseed-oil, 6 lbs.; 
common water, 4 lbs.; sulphate of zinc, 1 oz. ; 
garlic, 1 head. 

Mix these matters in a large iron or copper pan; 
then place them over the fire, and maintain the 
mixture in a state of ebullition during the whole 
day. Boiling water must from time to time be 
added, to make up for the loss of that by evapor- 
ation. The garlic will assume a brown appear- 
ance. Take the pan from the fire, and having 
suffered a deposit to be formed, decant the oil, 
which will clarify itself in the vessel. By this 
process the drying oil is rendered somewhat more 
colored. It is reserved for delicate colors. 

Preparation of a Drying Oil for Zinc Paint. 

In order to avoid the use of oxide of lead in 
making drying oil for zinc paint, oxide of manga- 
nese has been proposed as a substitute. The pro- 
cess to be adopted is as follows : 

The manganese is broken into pieces about the 
size of peas, dried, and the powder separated by 
means of a sieve. The fragments are then to be 
introduced into a bag made of iron-wire gauze. 
This is hung in the oil contained in an iron or 
copper vessel, and the whole heated gently for 24 
or 36 hours. The oil must not be allowed to boil, 
in which case there is great danger of its running 
over. When the oil hiis acquired a reddish color, 
it is to be poured into an appropriate vessel to 
clear. 

For 100 parts of oil 10 of oxide of manganese 
may be employed, which will serve for several op- 
erations when freshly broken and the dust sepa- 
rated. Experience has shown, that when fresh 
oxide of manganese is used it is better to intro- 
duce it into the oil upon the second day. The 
process likewise occupies a longer time with the 
fresh oxide. Very great care is requisite in this 
operation to prevent accident, and one of the prin- 
cipal points to be observed is that the oil is not 
overheated. If the boiling should render the oU 
too thick, this may be remedied by an addition of 
turpentine after it has thoroughly cooled. 

On the Manufacture of Drying Linseed Oil without 
Beat. 

When linseed-oil is carefully agitated with vin- 
egar of lead (tribasic acetate of lead), and the 
mixture allowed to clear by settling, a copious 
white, cloudy precipitate forms, containing oxide 
of lead, whilst the raw oil is converted into a dry- 
ing oil of a pale-straw color, forming an excellent 
varnish, which, when applied in thin layers, dries 
perfectly in 24 hours. It contains from 4 to 5 per 
cent, of oxide of lead in solution. The following 
proporti(ms appear to be the most advan'tagecus 
for its preparation : 

In a bottle containing 4J pts. of rain-water, 18 
oz. of neutral acetate of lead are placed, and when 
the solution is complete, 18 oz. of litharge in a 
very fine powder are added; the whole is then al- 
lowed to stand in a moderately warm place, fre- 
quently agitating it to assist the solution of the 
litharge. This solution may be considered as com- 
plete when no more small scales are apparent. The 
deposit of a shining white color (sexbasic acetate 



VARNISHES. 



341 



of lead may be separated by filtration. This con- 
version (if the neutral acetate i«f lead into vinegar 
of lead, by means of litharge and water, is eSFected 
in about a quarter of an hour, if the mixture be 
heated to ebullition. When heat is not applied, the 
process will usually take 3 or 4 days. The solution 
«f vinegar of lead, or tribasic acetate of lead, thus 
formed, is suflScient for the preparation of 22 lbs. 
of drying oil. For this purpuse the solution is 
diluted with an equal volume of rain-water, and 
to it is gradually added, with constant agitation, 
22 lbs. of oil, with which 18 oz. of litharge have 
previously been mixed. 

When the points of contact between the lead 
solution and the oil have been frequently renewed 
by agitation of the mixture 3 or 4 times a day, and 
the mixture allowed to settle in a warm place, the 
limpid straw-colored oil rises to the surface, leav- 
ing a copious white deposit. The watery solution, 
rendered clear by filtration, contains intact all the 
acetate of lead at first employed, and may be used 
in the next operation, after the addition to it as 
before, of 18 oz. of litharge. 

By filtration through paper or cotton, the oil 
may be obtained as limpid as water, and by ex- 
posure to the light of the sun it may also be 
iDleached. 

Shiiuld a drying oil be required absolutely free 
from lead, it may be obtained by the addition of 
dilute sulphuric acid to the above, when, on being 
allowed to stand, a deposit of sulphate of lead will 
take place, and the clear oil may be obtained free 
from all trace of lead. 

Resinous Drying Oil. 

Take 10 lbs. of drying nut-oil, if the paint is 
destined for external articles, or 10 lbs. of drying 
linseed-oil if for internal; resin, 3 lbs.; turpen- 
tine, 6 oz. 

Cause the resin to dissolve the oil by means of 
a gentle beat. When dissolved and incorporated 
with the (lil, add the turpentine ; leave the varnish 
at rest, by which means it will often deposit por- 
tions of resin and other impurities; and then pre- 
serve it in wide-mouthed bottles. It must be us§d 
fresh ; when suffered to grow old it abandons some 
of its resin. If this resinous oil assumes too much 
consistence, dilute it with a little essence, if in- 
tended for articles sheltered from the sun, or with 
oil of poppies. 

Fat Copal Varnish. 

Take picked copal, 16 oz. ; prepared linseed oil, 
or oil of poppies, 8 oz. ; essence of turpentine, 
16 oz. 

Liquefy the copal in a matrass over a common 
fire, and then add the linseed oil, or oil of poppies, 
in a state of ebullition; when these matters are 
incorporated, take the matrass from the fire, stir 
the matter till the greatest heat is subsided, and 
then add the essence of turpentine warm. Strain 
the whole, while still warm, through a piece of 
linen, and put the varnish into a wide-mouthed 
bottle. Time contributes towards its clarification, 
and in this manner it acquires a better quality. 
Varnish for Watch Cases in Imitation of Tortoise- 
shell. 

Take copal of an amber color, 6 oz.; Venice 
turpentine, li oz. ; prepared linseed-oil, 24 oz. ; 
essence of turpentine, 6 oz. 

It is customary to place the turpentine over the 
copal, reduced to small fragments, in the bottom 
of an earthen or metal vessel, or in a matrass ex- 
posed to such a heat as to liquefy the copal; but 
it is more advantageous to liquefy the latter alone, 
to add the oil in a state of ebullition, then the 
turpentine liquefied, and in the last place the 
essence. If the varnish is too thick, some essence 



may be added. The latter liquor is a regulator 
for the consistence in the hands of an artist. 

Gold-colored Copal Varnish. 

Take copal in powder, 1 oz. ; essential oil of 
lavender, 2 oz. ; essence of turpentine, 6 oz. 

Put the essential oil of lavender into a matrasa 
of a proper size, placed on a sand-bath heated 
gently. Add to the oil while very warm, and at 
several times, the copal powder, and stir the mix- 
ture with a stick of white wood rounded at the 
end. AVhen the copal has entirely disappeared, 
add at three different times the essence almost in 
a state of ebullition, and keep continually stirring 
the mixture. When the solution is completed, the 
result will be a varnish of a gold-color, exceed- 
ingly durable and brilliant. 

Another Method. 

To obtain this varnish colorless, it will be pro- 
per to rectify the essence of the shops, which is 
often highly colored, and to give it the necessary 
density by exposure to the sun in bottles closed 
with cork stoppers, leaving an interval of some 
inches between the stopper and the surface of the 
liquid. A few months are thus sufficient to com- 
municate to it the required qualities. Besides, 
essence of the shops is rarely possessed of that 
state of consistence without having at the same 
time a strong amber color. 

The varnish resulting from the solution of copal 
in oil of turpentine, brought to such a state as to 
]>roduce the maximum of solution, is exceedingly 
durable and brilliant. It resists the shock of hard 
bodies much better than the enamel of toys, which 
often becomes scratched and whitened by the im- 
pression of repeated friction ; it is susceptible also 
of a fine polish. It is applied with the greatest 
success to philosophical instruments, and the 
paintings with which vessels and other utensils 
of metal are decorated. 

Camphorated Copal Varnish. 

This varnish is destined for articles which re- 
quire durability, pliableness, and transparency. 

Take of pulverized copal, 2 oz.; essential oil of 
lavender, 6 oz. ; camphor, | oz. ; essence of tur- 
pentine, a sufficient quantity, according to the con- 
sistence required to be given to the varnish. 

Put into a phial of thin glass, or into a small 
matrass, the essential oilof lavender and the cam- 
phor, and place the mixture on a moderately open 
fire, to bring the oil and the camphor'to a slight 
state of ebullition ; then add the copal powder in 
small portions, which must be renewed as they 
disappear in the liquid. Favor the solution, by 
continually stirring with a stick of white wood; 
and when the copal is incorporated with the oil, 
add the essence of turpentine boiling; but care 
must be taken to pour in, at first, only a small 
portion. 

This varnish is a little colored, and by rest it 
acquires a transparency which, united to the so- 
lidity observed in almost every kind of copal var. 
nish, renders it fit to be applied with great succesi 
in many cases. 

Ethereal Copal Varnish. 

Take of amberry copal, i oz. ; ether, 2 oz. 

Reduce the copiil to a very fine powder, and in- 
troduce it by small portions into the flask which 
contains the ether; close the flask with a glass or 
a cork stopper, and having shaken the mixture for 
i an hour, leave it at rest till the next morning. 
In shaking the flask, if the si<les become ciivered 
with small undulations, and if the liquor be not 
exceedingly clear, the solution is not complete, 
lu this case add a little ether, and leave the mix- 



842 



VARNISHES. 



ture at rest. The varnish is of a white lemon- 

coloi'. The largest quantity of copal united to 
ether may be a fourth, and the least a fifth. The 
use of copal varnish made with eiher seems, by 
the expense attending it, to be confined to repair- 
ing tnose accidents which frequently happen to 
the enamel of toys, as it will supply the place of 
glass to the colored varnishes employed for mend- 
ing fractures, or to restoring the smooth surface 
of painting.s which have been cracked and shat- 
tered. 

The great volatility of ether, and in particular 
its high price, do not allow the application of this 
varnish to be recommended, but for the purposes 
here indicated. It has been applied to wood with 
complete success, and the glazing it produced 
unites lustre to solidity. In consequence of the 
too speedy evaporation of the liquid, it often boils 
under the brush. Its evaporation, however, may 
be retarded, by spreading over the wood a light 
stratum of essential oil of rosemary or lavender, 
or even of turpentine, which may afterwards be 
removed by a piece of linen rag; what remains is 
SufiBcient to retard the evaporation of the ether. 
Fat Amber or Copal Varnish. 

Take of amber or copal of one fusion, 4 oz. ; 
essence of turpentine, drying linseed oil, of each, 
10 oz. 

Put the whole into a pretty large matrass, and 
expose it to the heat of a balneum mariae, or move 
it over the surface of an uncovered chafing-dish, 
but without flame, and at the distance from it c)f 
2 or 3 inches. When the solution is completed, 
add still a little copal or amber to saturate the 
liquid ; then pour the whole on a filter prepared 
with cotton, and leave it to clarify by rest. If the 
varnish is too thick, add a little warm essence to 
prevent the separation of any of the amber. 

This varnish is colored, but far less so than 
those composed by the usual methods. When 
Bpread over white wood, without any preparation, 
it forms a solid glazing, and communicates a slight 
tint to the wood. 

If it is required to charge this varnish with 
more copal, or prepared amber, the liquor must be 
composed of two parts of essence for one of oil. 
To Apply Copal Varnish to the Reparation of 
Opalce Enamels. 

The properties manifested by these varnishes, 
and which render them proper for supplying the 
vitreous and transparent coating of enamel, by a 
covering equally brilliant, but more solid, and 
which adheres to vitreous compositions, and to 
metallic surfaces, admit of their being applied to 
other purposes besides those here enumerated. 

By slight modifications they may be used also 
for the reparation of opake enamel which has been 
fractured. These kinds of enamel admit the use 
of cements colored throughout, or only super- 
ficially, by copal varnish charged with coloring 
parts. On this account they must be attended 
with less difficulty in the reparation than transpa- 
rent enamel, because they do not require the same 
reflection of the light. Compositions of paste, 
therefore, the diff"erent grounds of which may al- 
ways harmonize with the coloring ground of the 
pieces to be repaired, and which may be still 
strengthened by the same tint introduced into the 
solid varnish, with which the articles are glazed, 
■will answer the views of the artist in a wonderful 
manner. 

The base of the cement ought to be pure clay 
without color, and exceedingly dry. If solidity 
be required, ceruse is the only substance that can 
be substituted in its place. Drying oil of pinks 
will form an excellent excipient, and the consist- 



ence of the cement ought to be such that it can be 
easily extended by a knife or spatula, possessed 
of a moderate degree of flexibility. This sort of 
paste soon dries. It has the advantage also of 
presenting to the colors, applied to it with a brush, 
a kind of ground which contributes to their solid- 
ity. The compound mastic being exceedingly dry- 
ing, the application of it will be proper in cases 
where speedy reparation of the damaged articles 
is required. 

In more urgent cases, the paste may be com- 
posed with ceruse, and the turpentine copal var- 
nishes, which dry more speedily than oil of pinks; 
and the colors may then be glazed with the ethereal 
copal varnish. 

The application of the paste will be necessary 
only in cases when the accident, which has hap- 
pened to the enamel, leaves too great a vacuity to 
be filled up by several strata, of colored varnish. 
But in all cases the varnish ought to be well 
dried, that it may acquire its full lustre by polish- 
ing. 

To make White Copal Varnish. 

White oxide of lead, ceruse, Spanish white, 
white clay. Such of these substances as are pre- 
ferred ought to be carefully dried. Ceruse and 
clay obstinately retain a great deal of humidity, 
which would oppose their adhesion to drying oil 
or varnish. The cement then crumbles under the 
fingers, and does not assume a body. 

Another. — On 16 oz. of melted copal, pour 4, 6, 
or 8 oz. of linseed-oil boiled, and quite free from 
grease. When well mixed by repeated stirrings, 
and after they are pretty cool, pour in 16 oz. of the 
essence of Venice turpentine. Pass the varnish 
through a cloth. Amber varnish is made the 
same way. 

To ma]ce Black Copal Varnish. 

Lampblack, made of burnt vine-twigs, or black 
of peach-stones. The lampblack must be carefully 
washed and afterwards dried. AV ashing carries 
off a great many of its impurities. 

To make Yellow Copal Varnish. 

Yellow oxide of lead, of Naples and MontpelHer, 
both reduced to impalpable powder. These yel- 
lows are hurt by the contact of iron and steel ; in 
mixing them up, therefore, a horn spatula with a 
glass mortar and pestle must be employed. 

Gum guttoe, yellow ochre, or Dutch pink, ac- 
cording to the nature and tone of the color to bo 
imitated. 

To make Blue Copal Varnish. 

Indigo, prussiate of iron (Prussian blue), blue 
verditer, and ultramarine. AH these substances 
must be very much divided. 

To maJce Green Copal Varnish. 

"Verdigris, crystallized verdigris, compound green 
(a mixture of yellow and blue). The first two re- 
quire a mixture of white in proper proportions, 
from a fourth to two-thirds, according to the tint 
intended to be given. The white used for this 
purpose is ceruse, or the white oxide of lead, or 
Spanish white, which is less solid, or white of 
Moudon. 

To make Red Copal Varnish, 

Red sulphuretted oxide of mercury (cinnabar 
vermilion), red oxide of lead (minium), different 
red ochres, or Prussian reds, etc. 

To make Purple Copal Varnish. 
Cochineal, carmine, and carminated lakes, with 
ceruse and boiled oil. 

Brick Red. 
Dragon's blood. 



VARNISHES. 



843 



Chamoti Cblor. 
Dragon's bleed with a paste composed of flow- 
ws of zinc, or, what is still better, a little red ver- 
milion. 

Violet. 
Cinnabar, mixed with Inmpblack, washed very 
dry, or with the black of burnt vine-twigs; and 
to render it mellower, a proper mixture of red, 
blue, and white. 

Pearl Gray. 
White and black ; white and blue; for example, 
ceruse and lampblack; ceruse and indigo. 

Flaxen Gray. 
Ceruse, which forms the ground of the paste, 
mixed with a smnll quantity of Cologne earth, as 
much English red, or carminated lake, which is 
not so durable, and a particle of Prussian blue. 

Briinawick Black Vmuinh. 
Melt 4 lbs. of common asphalt, and add 2 pts. 
of boiled linseed-oil, and 1 gall, of oil of turpentine 
or coal-tar naphtha. 

Indin-Rnhher Varnish. 

Four ounces india-rubber in fine shavings are 
dissolved in a covered jar, by means of a sand- 
bath, in 2 lbs. of crude benzole, and then mi.\ed 
with 4 lbs. of hot linseed-oil varnish heated, and 
filtered. (See Cements). 

To make Varnish for Silks, etc. 

To 1 qt. of cold linseed-oil poured ofiF from the 
lees (produced on the addition of unslaked lime, 
on which the oil has stood 8 or 10 days at the 
least, in order to communicate a drying quality, 
or brown umber burnt and powdered, which will 
have the like effect,) add ^ oz. of litharge; boil 
them for i hour, then add i oz. of the copal var- 
nish. While the ingredients are on the fire, in a 
copper vessel, put in 1 oz. of chios turpentine or 
common resin, and a few drops of neat's-foot oil, 
and stir the whole with a knife; when cool it is 
ready for use. The neat's-foot oil prevents the var- 
nish from being sticky or adhesive, and may be 
put into the linseed-oil at the same time with the 
lime or burnt umber. Resin or chios turpentine 
may be added till the varnish has attained the 
desired thickness. 

The longer the raw linseed-oil remains on the 
unslaked lime or umber, the sooner will the oil 
dry after it is used ; if some monlhs, so much the 
be''*er. Such varnish will set, that is to say, not 
run, but keep its place on the silk in four hours ; 
the silk may then be turned and varnished on the 
other side. 

Compound Mastic Varnish. 

Take of pure alcohol, .32 oz. ; purified mastic, 
6 oz. ; gum sandarac, 3 oz. ; very clear Venice 
turpentine, 3 oz. ; glass, coarsely pounded, 4 oz. 

Keduce the mastic and sandarac to fine powder; 
mix this powder with white glass, from which the 
finest parts have been separated by means of a 
hair-sieve : put all the ingredient-s with alcohol 
into a short-necked matrass, and adapt to it a 
stick of white-wood, rounded at the end, and of 
a length proportioned to the height of the matrass, 
that it may be put in motion. E.Kpose the matrass 
in a vessel filled with water, made at first a little 
warm, and which must afterwards be maintained 
in a state of ebullition for 1 or 2 hours. The 
matrass may be made fast to a ring of straw. 

When the solution seems to be suflBciently ex- 
tended, add the turpentine, which must be kept 
separately in a phial or pot, and which must be 
melted by immersing it for a moment in a balneum 
marias. The matrass must be still left in the w;iter 
for i hour, at the end of which it is taken off, and 



the varnish is continually stirred till it is some- 
what cool. Next day it is to be drawn off and 
filtered through cotton. By these means it will 
become exceedingly limpid. 

The addition of glass may appear extraordinary; 
but this substance divides the parts of the mixtur* 
which have been made with the dry ingredients; 
and it retains the same quality when placed over 
the fire. It therefore obviates with success two 
inconveniences which are exceedingly troublesome 
to those who compose varnishes. In the first 
place, by dividing the matters, it facilitates the 
action of the alcohol ; and in the second, its 
weight, which surpasses that of resins, prevents 
these resins from adhering to the bottom of the 
matrass, and also the coloration acquired by the 
varnish when a sand-bath is employed, as is com- 
monly the case. 

The application of this varnish is suited to ar- 
ticles belonging to the toilet, such as dressing- 
boxes, cut-paper works, etc. The following pos- 
sess the same brilliancy and lustre, but they have 
more solidity, and are exceedingly drying. 

Camphorated Mastic Varnish for Paintings. 

Take of mastic, cleaned and washed, 12 oz. ; 
pure turpentine, 1^ oz. ; camphor, i oz. ; white 
glass pounded, 5 oz. ; essence of turpentine, 36 oz. 
Make the varnish according to the method indi- 
cated for Compound Mastic Varnish. The cam- 
phor is employed in pieces, and the turpentine is 
added when t;ie solution of the resin is completed. 
But if the varnish is to be applied to old paint- 
ings, or paintings which have been already var- 
nished, the turpentine may be suppressed ; as this 
ingredient is here recommended only in cases of 
a first application to new paintings, and just freed 
from white-of-egg varnish. 

The question by able masters respecting the 
kind of varnish proper to be employed for paint- 
ings, has never yet been determined. Some artists 
who have paid particular attention to this subject, 
make a mystery of the means they employ to ob- 
tain the desired effect. The real end may be ac- 
complished by giving to the varnish destined for 
painting, pliability and softness, without being 
too solicitous in regard to what may add to its 
consistence or its solidity. The latter quality is 
particularly requisite in varnishes which are to be 
applied to articles much exposed to friction; such 
as boxes, furniture, etc. 

Shaw's Mastic Varnish for Paintings. 
Bruise the mastic with a muller on a painter's 
stone, which will detect the soft parts, or tears, 
which are to be taken out, and the remainder put 
into a clean bottle with good spirits of turpentine 
(twice distilled if you can get it); and dissolve 
the gum by shaking it in your hand for i hour, 
without heat. When dissolved, strain it through 
a piece of calico and place it in a bottle well 
corked, so that the light of the sun can strike it, 
for 2 or 3 weeks; which will cause a mucilaginous 
precipitate, leaving the remainder as transparent 
as water. It may then be carefully decanted into 
another bottle and put by for use. The propor- 
tions of gum and alcohol are: mastic, 6 oz. ; tur- 
pentine, 14 oz. If found on trial to be too thick, 
thin it with turpentine. 

To make Painter's Cream. 

Painters who have long intervals between their 
periods of labor, are accustomed to cover the 
parts they have painted with a preparation which 
preserves the freshness of the colors, and which 
they can remove when they resume their work. 
This preparation is as follows : 

Take of very clear nut-oil, 3 oz ; mastic in tears. 



8M 



VARNISHES. 



pulverized, J oz. ; sal saturni, in powder (acetate 
of lead), J oz. Dissolve the mastic in oil over a 
gentle fire, and pour the mixture into a marble 
mortar, over the pounded salt of lead ; stir it with 
a wooden pestle, and add water in small quanti- 
ties till the matter assume the appearance and 
eonsistence of cream, and refuse to admit more 
water. 

Sandarac VarmaJi. 

Take of gum sandarac, 8 oz. ; pounded mastic, 
2 oz. ; clear turpentine, 2^ oz. ; pounded glass, 4 oz. ; 
pure alcohol, 32 oz. Mix and dissolve as before. 
Compound Sandarac Varnish. 

Take of pounded copal, of an nmber color, once 
liquefied. 3 oz. ; gum sandarac, 6 oz.; mastic, 
cleaned, 3 oz. ; clear turpentine, 3^ oz. ; pounded 
glass, 4 oz. ; pure alcohol, 32 oz. Mix these in- 
gredients, and pursue the same method as above. 

This varnish is destined for articles subject to 
friction; such as furniture, chairs, fan -sticks, 
mouldings, etc., and even metals ; to which it 
may be applied with success. The sandarac gives 
it great durability. 

Camphorated Sandarac Varnish for Cut-Paper 

Worhs, Dregsing-Boxes, etc. 
"Take of gum sandarac, 6 oz. ; gum elemi, 4 oz. ; 
gum animi, 1 oz. ; camphor, i oz. ; pounded glass, 
4 oz. ; pure alcohol, 32 oz. 

Make the varnish according to the directions 
already given. The soft resins muA be pounded 
with the dry bodies. The camphor is to be added 
in pieces. 

Another. — Take of gallipot or white incense, 6 
oz. ; gum animi, gum elemi, each 2 oz. ; pounded 
glass, 4 oz. ; alcohol, 32 oz. 

Make the varnish with the precautions indicated 
for the compound mastic varnish. 

The two last varnishes are to be used for ceil- 
ings and wainscots, colored or not colored. They 
may even be employed as a covering to parts 
painted with strong colors. 
Spirituous Sandarac Varnish for Wainscoting small 

Articlea of Furniture, Balustrades, Inside Bail- 
ings. 

Take gum sandarac, 6 oz. ; shell-lac, 2 oz. ; colo- 
phonium or resin, white glass pounded, clear tur- 
pentine, each 4 oz. ; pure alcohol, 32 oz. 

Dissolve the varnish according to the directions 
given for compound mastic varnish. 

This varnish is sufiiciently durable to be applied 
to articles destined to daily and continual use. 
Varnishes composed with copal, ought however, 
in these cases to be preferred. 

Another. — ^There is another composition which, 
without forming part of the compound varnishes, 
is employed with success for giving a polish and 
lustre to furniture made of wood ; wax forms the 
basis of it. 

Many cabinet-makers are contented with wax- 
ing common furniture, such as tables, chests of 
drawers, etc. This covering, by means of repeated 
friction, soon acquires a polish and transparency 
which resembles those of varnish. Waxing seems 
to possess qualities peculiar to itself, but, like var- 
nish, it is attended with inconveniences as well as 
advantages. 

Varnish supplies better the part of glazing; it 
gives a lustre to the wood which it covers, and 
heightens the colors of th'\t destined, in particu- 
lar, for delicate articles. These reiil and valuable 
advantages are counterbalimcevi by its want of 
consistence ; it yields too easily to the shrinking or 
swelling of the w lod, and rises in scales or splits 
on being exposed to the slightest shock. The-i-e 
•ocidenta can be repaired only by new strata of 



varnish, which render application to the vamisher 
necessary, and occasion trouble and expense. 

Waxing stands shocks, but it does not possess 
in the same degree as varnish the property of 
giving lustre to the bodies on which it is applied, 
and of heightening their tints. The lustre it 
communicates is dull, but this incimvenience is 
compensated by the facility with which any acci- 
dent that may have altered its polish Ciin be re- 
paired by rubbing it with a piece of fine cork. 
There are some circumstances, therefore, under 
which the application of wax ought to be -prefer- 
red to that of varnish. This seems to be the case 
in particular with tables of walnut-tree wood, ex- 
posed to daily use, chairs, mouldings and for all 
small articles subject to constant employment. 

But as it is of importance to make the stratum 
of wax as thin as possible in order thnt the veins 
of the wood may be more apparent, the following 
process will be acceptable to the reader : 

Melt over a moderate fire in a very clean ves- 
sel 2 oz. of white or yellow wax, and when lique- 
fied add 4 oz. of good essence of turpentine; stir 
the whole until it is entirely cool, and the result 
will be a kind of pomade fit for waxing furniture, 
and which must be rubbed over them according to 
the usual method. The essence of turpentine is 
soon dissipated, but the wax, which by its mix- 
ture is reduced to a state of very great division, 
may be extended with more ease and in a more 
uniform manner. The essence soon penetrates 
the pores of the wood, calls forth the color of it, 
causes the wax to adhere better, and the lustre 
which thence results is equal to that of varnish, 
without having any of its inconveniences. 
Colored Varnish for Violins and other Stringed In- 
struments, also for Plum-tree, Mahogany and 

Bose-wood. 

Gum sandarac, 4 oz.; seed-lac, 2 oz. ; mastic, 
Benjamin, in tears, each 1 oz. ; pounded glass, 4 
oz. ; Venice turpentine, 2 oz. ; pure alcohol, 32 oz. 

The gum sandarac and lac render this varnish 
durable; it may be colored with a little saffron or 
dragon's blood. 

French Polish. 

The varnish being prepared (shellac), the arti- 
cle to be polished being finished off as smoothly 
as possible with glass-paper, and your rubber, 
being prepared as directed below, proceed to the 
operation as follows: The varnish, in a narrow- 
necked bottle, is to be applied to the middle of 
the flat face of the rubber, by laying the rubber 
on the mouth of the bottle and shaking up the 
varnish once, as by this means the rubber will im- 
bibe the proper quantity to varnish a considerable 
extent of surface. The rubber is then to be en- 
closed in a soft linen cloth doubled, the rest of 
the cloth being gathered up at the back of the 
rubber to form a handle. Moisten the face of the 
linen with a little raw linseed-oil, applied with the 
finger to the middle of it. Placing your work op- 
posite the light, pass your rubber quickly and 
lightly over its surface until the varnish becomes 
dry or nearly so; charge your rubber as before 
with varnish (omitting the oil), and repeat the 
rubbing until three coats are laid on, when a little 
oil may be applied to the rubber and two coats 
more given to it. Proceeding in this way until 
the varnish has acquired stinie thickness, wet the 
inside of the linen cloth, before applying the var- 
nish, with alcohid, and rub quickly, lightly and 
uniformly the whole surface. Lastly, wet the 
linen cloth with a little oil and alcohol without 
varnish, and rub as before till drj'. 
. To make the Bnhher. 

Roll up a strip of thick woolen cloth which hafl 



LACQUERS. 



345 



been torn off so as to form a soft, clastic edge. It 
Bhould form ii. coil from 1 to 3 inches in diameter, 
according to the size of the work. 

Fat Vtirnhh of a Gold-color. 
Amber, 8 oz,. ; guin-lac, 2 oz. ; drying linseed- 
oil, 8 oz. ; essence of turpentine, 16 oz. Dissolve 
separately the gum-lac, and then add the amber, 
prepared and pulverized, with the iinseed-oil and 
essence very warm. When the whole has lost a 
part of its heat, mix in relative proportions tinc- 
ture of anatto, of terra merita, gum guttae and 
dragon's blood. This varnit^h, when applied to 
white metals, gives them a gold color. 

Fat Turpentine, or Golden Varnish, being a Mor- 
dant to Gold and Dark Colors. 

Boiled linseed oil, 16 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 8 
oz. ; Naples yellow, 5 oz. Heat the oil with the 
turpentine, and mix the Naples yellow pulverized. 

Naples yellow is substituted here for resins, on 
account of its drying qualities, and in particular 
of its color, which resembles that of gold ; great 
use is made of the varnish in applying gold leaf. 

The yellow, however, may be omitted when this 
species of varni.vh is to be solid and colored cov- 
erings. In this case an ounce of litharge to each 
pound of composition may be substituted in its 
stead, without this mixture doing any injury to 
the color which is to constitute the ground. 

To make Turners' Varnish for Boxxoood. 

Seed-lac, 5 oz. ; gum sandarac, 2 oz. ; gumelemi, 
IJ oz. ; Venice turpentine, 2 oz. ; pounded glass, 5 
oz. ; pure alcohol, 24 oz. 

Another. — Other turners employ the gum-lac 
united to a little elemi and turpentine digested 
some months in pure alcohol exposed to the sun. 
If this method be followed, it will be proper to 
substitute for the sandarac the same quantity of 
gum-lac reduced to powder, and not to add the 
turpentine to the alcohol, which ought to be ex- 
ceedingly pure, till towards the end of the in- 
fusion. 

Solar infusion requires care and attention. Ves- 
sels of a sufficient size to allow the spirituous va- 
pors to circulate freely ought to be employed, be- 
cause it is necessary that the vessels should be 
closely shut. Without this precaution the spirits 
would become weakened and abandon the resin 
which they laid hold of during the first day's ex- 
posure. This perfect obituration will not admit 
of the vessels being too full. 

In general the varnishes applied to articles 
which may be put into the lathe acquire a great 
deal of brilliancy by polishing; a piece of woollen 
cloth is sufl&cient for the operation. If turpen- 
tine predominates too much in these composiiions, 
the polish does not retain its lustre, because the 
heat of the hands is capable of softening the sur- 
face of the varnish, and in this state it readily 
tarnishes. 

Lonitig's Colorless Varnish. 

For this varnish a prize of 20 guineas was 
awarded by the Society of Arts, London. Dis- 
solve 2i oz. of shellac in a pint of alcohol; boil 
for a few minutes with 5 oz. of well burned and 
recently-heated animal charcoal. A small portion 
of the solution must then be filtered, and if not 
colorless more charcoal must be added. When all 
color is removed, press the liquid through a piece 
of silk, and afterwards filter through fine blotting- 
paper. This varnish should be used in a room of 
at least 60° Fahr., and free froui dust. It dries 
in a few minutes, and is not liable afterwards to 
chill or bloom. It is particularly ap[)licable to 
drawings and prints which have been sized, and 
may bo advantageously used upoxi oil paintings, 



which are thoroughly hard and dry, as it brings 
out the colors with the purest effect. This quality 
renders it a valuable varnish for all kinds of 
leather, as it does not yield to the warmth of the 
hand and resists damp. 

Dr. Hare's Colorless Varnish. 

Dissolve in an iron kettle 1 part of pearlash i» 
about 8 parts of water; add 1 part of seed or 
shellac, and heat to boiling. When the lac is dis- 
solved impregnate the whole with chlorine (made 
by gently heating 1 part black oxide of manga- 
nese with 4 of muriatic acid) until the lac is all 
precipitated. Wash, dry, and dissolve in alcohoL 
To Varnish Dressing- Boxes. 

The most of spirit of wine varnishes are des- 
tined for covering preliminary preparations, which 
have a certain degree of lustre. They consist of 
cement, colored or not colored, charged with land- 
scapes and figures cut out in paper, which pro- 
duces an effect under the transparent varnish. 
Most of the dressing-boxes, and other small arti- 
ticles of the same kind, are covered with this par- 
ticular composition, which, in general, consists of 
three or four coatings of Spanish white pounded 
in water, and mixed up with parchment glue. The 
first coating is smoothed with pumice-stone, and 
then polished with a piece of new linen and water. 
The coating in this state is fit to receive the des- 
tined color, after it has been ground with water 
and mixed with parchment glue diluted with 
water. The cut figures with which it is to be em- 
bellished are then applied, and a coating of gum 
or fish-glue is spread over them, to prevent the 
varnish from penetrating to the preparation, and 
from spoiling the figures. The operation is fin- 
ished by applying 3 or 4 coatings of varnish, which 
when dry are polished with tripoli and water, by 
means of a piece of cloth. A lustre is then given 
to the surface with starch and a bit of doe-skin, 
or very soft cloth. 

Gallipot Varnish. 

Take of gallipot, or white incense, 12 oz.; white 
glass, pounded, 5 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 2 oz.; 
essence of turpentine, 32 oz. Make the varnish 
after the white incense has been pounded with the 
glass. 

Some authors recommend mastic or sandarac in 
the room of gallipot; but the varnish is neither 
more beautiful nor more durable. When the color 
is ground with the preceding varnish and mixed 
up with the latter, which, if too thick, is thinned 
with a little essence, and which is applied imme- 
diately, and without any sizing, to boxes and other 
articles, the coatings acquire sufficient strength to 
resist the blows of a mallet. But if the varnish be 
applied to a sized color it must be covered with a 
varnish of the first or second genus. 

Varnish for Electrical Purposes. 
Dissolve the best red sealing-w.ax in alcohol. 
Two or three coats will make a complete covering. 
It may be applied to wood or glass. 

Jifastic Gallipot Varniih, for (ik;inding Colors 

Take of new gallipot, fr white incense, 4 oz. ; 
mastic, 2 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 6 oz.; pounded 
glass, 4 oz. ; essence of turpentine, 32 oz. When 
the varnish is made with the precautions already 
indicated, add prepared nut-oil or linseed-oil, 2 oz. 

The matters ground with this varnish dry more 
slowly; they are then mixed up with the follow- 
ing varnish, if it be for common painting, or with 
particular varnishes destined for colors and for 
grounds. 

Lacquer for Brass. 

Take of seed-'.ac, 6 oz. ; amber or copal, ground 



846 



VAKNISHES. 



or porphyry, 2 oz, ; dragon's blood, 40 grs. ; ex- 
tract of red sandal-wood, obtained by water, 30 
grs.; oriental saffron, 36 grs.; pounded glass, 4 
oz. ; very pure alcohol, 40 oz. 

To apply this vnrnish to articles or ornaments 
of brass, expose them to a gentle heat, and dip 
them into varnish. Two or three coatings may 
be applied in this manner, if necessary. The var- 
nish is durable and has a beautiful color. Arti- 
cles varnished in this manner may be cleaned 
with water and a bit of dry rag. 

Lacquer for Philosophical Instruments. 

This lacquer or varnish is destined to change 
or to modify the color of those bodies to which it 
is applied. 

Take of gum guttae (gamboge), } oz. ; gum san- 
darac, gum elemi, each 2 oz. ; dragon's blood, of 
the best quality, 1 oz. ; seed-lac, 1 oz. ; terra uierita, 

1 oz. ; oriental saffron, 2 grs. ; pounded glass, 3 oz. ; 
pure alcohol, 20 oz. 

The tincture of saffron and of terra merita is 
first obtained by infusing them in alcohol for 24 
hours, or exposing them to the heat of the sun in 
summer. The tincture must be strained through 
a piece of clean linen cloth, and ought to be 
strongly squeezed. This tincture is poured over 
the dragon's blood, the gum elemi, the seed-lac, 
and the gum guttse, all pounded and mixed with 
the glass. The varnish is then made according to 
the directions before given. 

It may be applied with great advantage to phi- 
losophical instruments. The use of it might be 
extended also to various cast or moulded articles 
with which furniture is ornamented. 

If the dnigon's blood be of the first quality it 
may give too high a color; in this case the dose 
may be lessened at pleasure, as well as that of the 
other coloring matters. 

Gold.- iolored Lacquer for Brass Watch-cases, 
Watch-keys. etc. 
Take of seed-lac, 6 oz. ; amber, gum guttae, each 

2 oz.; extract of red sandal- wood in water, 24 grs.; 
dragon's blood, 60 grs.; oriental saffron, 36 grs.; 
pounded glass, 4 oz. ; pure alcohol, 36 oz. Grind 
the amber, the seed-lac, gum guttie, and dragon's 
blood on a piece of porphyry ; then mix them 
with the pounded glass, and add the alcohol, after 
forming with it an infusion of the saJfron and an 
extract of the sandal-wood. The varnish must 
then be completed as before. The metal articles 
destined to be covered by this varnish are heated, 
and those which will admit of it are immersed in 

Eackets. The tint of the varnish may be varied 
y modifying the doses of the coloring substances. 
Lacquer of a Less Drying Quality. 
Take of seed-lac, 4 oz. ; sandarac, or mastic, 4 
oz. ; dragon's blood, i oz. ; terra merita, gum 
gutta;, each 30 grs.; pounded glass, 5 oz.; clear 
turpentine, 8 oz.; essence of turpentine, 32 oz. 
Extract by infusion the tincture of the coloring 
substances, and then add the resinous bodies ac- 
cording to the directions for compound, mastic 
varnish. 

Lacquer or varnishes of this kind are called 
cnanging, because, when applied to metals, such 
as copper, brass, or hammered tin, or to wooden 
boxes and other furniture, they communicate to 
them a more agreeable color. Besides, by their 
contact with the common metals, they acquire a 
lustre which approaches that of the precious 
metals, and to which, in consequence of peculiar 
intrinsic qualities or certain laws of convention, a 
much greater value is attached. It is by menns 
of these changing varnishes that artists are able 
io communicate to their leaves of silver and cop- 



per those shining colors observed in foils. Thii 
process of industry becomes a source of prosperity 
to the manufacturers of buttons and works formed 
with foil, which in the hands of the jeweller con- 
tributes with so much success to produce that 
reflection of the rays of light which doubles the 
lustre and sparkling quality of precious stones. 

It is to varnish of this kind thai we are indebted 
for the manufactory of gilt leather, which, taking 
refuge in England, has given place to that of pa- 
pier-mache, which is employed for the decoration 
of palaces, theatres, etc. 

In the last place, it is by the effect of a foreign 
tint, obtained from the coloring part of saffron, 
that the scales of silver disseminated in confection 
d'hi/aciiithe reflect a beautiful gold color. 

'The colors transmitted by different coloring sub- 
stances, require tones suited to the objects for 
which they are destined. The artist has it in his 
own power to vary them at pleasure, by the ad- 
dition of anatto to the mixture of dragon's blood, 
saffron, etc., or some changes in the doses of the 
mode intended to be made in colors. It is hero 
impossible to give limited formulae. 

To make Lacquers of Vario>ts Tints. 

There is one simple method by which artists may 
be enabled to obtain all the different tints they re- 
quire. Infuse separately 4 oz. of gum guttae in 
32 oz. of essence of turpentine, and 4 oz. of dra- 
gon's blood, and 1 oz. of annatto also in separate 
doses of essence. These infusions rnay be easily 
made in the sun. After 15 days' exposure pour a 
certain quantity of these liquors into a flask, and 
by varying the doses different shades of color will 
be obtained. 

These infusions may be employed also for 
changing alcoholic varnishes ; but in this case the 
use of saffron, as well as that of red sandal-wood, 
which does not succeed with essence, will soon 
give the tone necessary for imitating with other 
tinctures the color of gold. 

Mordant Varnish for Gilding. 

Take of mastic, 1 oz. ; gum sandarach, 1 oz. ; gum 
guttae, i oz.; turpentine, i oz.; essence of turpen- 
tine, 6 oz. 

Some artists, who make use of mordants, sub- 
stitute for the turpentine 1 oz. of the essence of 
lavender, which renders this composition still les3 
drying. 

In general, the composition of mordants admits 
of modifications, according to the kind of work 
for which they are destined. The application of 
them, however, is confined chiefly to gold. When 
it is required to fill up a design with gold-leaf on 
any ground whatever, the composition, which is to 
serve as the means of union between the metal 
and the ground, ought to be neither too thick nor 
too fluid ; because both these circumstances are 
equally injurious to delicacy in the strokes; it 
will be requisite also that the composition should 
not dry till the artist has completed his design 
Other Mordants. 

Some prepare their mordants with Jew's pitch 
and drying oil diluted with essence of turpentine. 
They employ it for gilding pale gold, or for 
bronzing. 

Other artists imitate the Chinese, and mix with 
their mordants colors proper for assisting the tone 
which they are desirous of giving to the goLd, 
such as yellow, red, etc. 

Others employ merely fat varnish, to which they 
add a little red oxide of lead (minium). 

Others make use of thick glue, in which they 
dissolve a little honey. This is what they call 
batture. When they are desirous of heightening 



WATER-PROOFING. 



347 



tbe color of the p-old, they employ this glue, to 
which the goM-leaf adheres exceedingly well. 

Another. — T'je qualities of ihe fullowiriL; are fit 
for every kind of application, and particularly to 
metals: Expose boiled oil to a strong heat in a 
pan ; when a black smoke is disengaged from it, 
Bet it on fire, and extinguish it a few moments 
after by putting on the cover of the pan. Then 
pour the matter still warm into a heated bottle, 
and add to it a little essence of lurpentine. This 
mordant dries very speedily ; it has body and ad- 
heres to, and strongly retains, gold-leaf, when ap- 
plied to wood, meta.ls, and other substances. 

To Prepare a Composition for making Colored 
Drawings and Prints Resemble Paintings in Oil. 
Take of Canada balsam, 1 oz. ; spirit of turpen- 
tine, 2 oz. ; mix them together. Before this com- 
position is applied, the drawing or print should 
be sized with a solution of isinglass in water, and 
■when dry, apply the varnish with a camel's-hair 
brush. 

A Varnish to Color Baskets. 

Take either red, black, or white sealing-wax. 
whichever color you wish to make; to every 2 oz. 
of sealing-wax, add 1 oz. of spirit of wine ; pound 
the wax fine, then sift it through a fine lawn sieve, 
till you have made it extremely fine; put it into a 
large phial with the spirit of wine, shake it, let it 
stiind near the fire 48 hours, shaking it often; 
then, with a little, brush the baskets sill over with 
it; let them dry, and do them over a second time. 

To Prepare Anti-attrition. 
According to the specification of the patent, 
this mixture consists of 1 cwt. of plumbago, to 4 
cwt. of hog's lard, or other grease ; the two to be 
well incorporated. The application is to prevent 
the affects of friction in all descriptions of engines 
or machines; and a sufiicient quantity must be 
rubbed over the surface of the axle, spindle, or 
other part where the bearing is. 

Liard, 
A French lubricating compound, is thus made : 
Into 50 parts of the finest rape-oil put 1 part of 
India-rubber, cut into strips, and apply a gentle 
heat until nearly dissolved. 

Varnish for Pales and Coarse Wood-work, 
Take any quantity of tar, and grind it with as 
much Spanish-brown as it will bear, without ren- 
dering it too thick to be used as a paint or var- 
nish, and then spread it on the pales, or other 
wood, as soon as convenient, for it quickly hardens 
by keeping. 

This mixture must be laid on the wood to be 
varnished by a hard brush, or house -painter's 
tool ; and the work should then be kept as free 
from dust and insects as possible, till the varnish 
is thoroughly dry. It will, if laid on smooth 
wood, have a very good gloss, and is an excellent 
preservative of it against moisture; on which ac- 
count, as well as its being cheaper, it is far pre- 
ferable to painting, not only for pales, but for 
weather-boarding, and all other kinds of wood- 
work for grosser purposes. Where the glossy 
brown color is not liked, the work may be made 
of a grayish-brown, by mixing a small proportion 
of white lead, or whiting and ivory black, with the 
Spanish-brown. Boiled coal-tar is extensively 
used for the same purpose. 

A Black Varnish for Old Slraic or Chip Hats. 

Take of best black sealing-wax, J oz.; rectified 
spirit of wine, 2 oz. ; powder the sealing-wax, and 
^ut It with the spirit of wine into a 4 oz. phial; 
digest them in a sand-heat, or near a fire, till the 



wax is dissolved ; lay it on warm with a fine soft 
hair-brush, before a fire or in the sun. It gives a 
good stiffness to old straw hats, and a beautiful 
gloss, equal to new, and resists wet. 

Flexible Paint. 

Take of good yellow soap, cut into slices, 2J lbs. ; 
boiling water, H galls. Dissolve, and grind the 
solution while hot with IJ cwt. of good oil-paint. 
Used to paint on canvas. 

Porons Water-proof Cloth. 

This quality is given to cloth by simply passing 
it through a hot solution of weak glue and alum. 
To apply it to the cloth, inake np a weak solution 
of glue, and while it is hot add a piece of alum 
(about 1 oz. to 2 qts.), and then brush it over the 
surface of the cloth while it is hot, and it is after- 
wards dried. Cloth in pieces may be run through 
this solution, and then run out of it and dried. 
By adding a few pieces of soap to the glue, the 
cloth will feel much softer. Goods in pieces may 
be run through a tubfuU of weak glue, soap, and 
alum, and squeezed between rollers. This would 
be a cheap and expeditious mode of preparing 
them. Woollen goods are prepared by brushing 
them with the above mixture first in the inside, 
then with the grain or nap of the cloth ; after 
which it is dried. It is the best to dry this first 
in the air, and then in a stove-room at alow heat; 
but allow the cloth to remain for a considerable 
time, to expel the moisture completely. This kind 
of cloth, while it is suflSciently water-proof to keep 
out the moisture and rain, being quite impervious 
to water, is pervious to the air. 

To Thicken Linen Cloth for Screens and Bed- 
testers, 

Grind whiting with zinc (white), and to prevent 
its cracking add a little honey to it ; then take a soft 
brush and Iny it upon the cloth, and so do 2 or 3 
times, suffering it the meanwhile to dry between 
layings on ; and for the last laying, smooth it over 
with Spanish white ground with linseed-oil; the 
oil being first heated and mixed with a small quan- 
tity of the litharge of gold, the better to endure 
the weather; and so it will be lasting. 

Common Wax, or Varnished Cloth, 
The manufacture of this kind of cloth is very 
simple. The cloth and linseed-oil are the principal 
articles required for the establishment. Common 
canvas, of an open and coarse texture, is extended 
on large frames placed under sheds, the sides of 
which are open, so as to afford a free passage to 
the external air. The manner in which the cloth 
is fastened to these frames is as follows : it is fixed 
to each side of the frame by hooks which catch 
the edge of the cloth, and by pieces of strong 
packthread passing through holes at the other 
extremity of the hooks, which are tied around 
movable pegs in the lower edge of the frame. The 
mechanism by which the strings of a violin are 
stretched or unstretched, will give some idea of 
the arrangement of the pegs employed for extend- 
ing the cloth in this apparatus. By these means 
the cloth can be easily stretched or relaxed, when 
the oily varnish has exercised an action on its 
texture in the course of the operation. The whole 
being thus arranged, a liquid paste made with 
drying-oil, which may be varied at pleasure, is 
applied to the cloth. 

To make Liquid Paste with Drying. oil. 
Mix Spanish white, or tobacco-pipe clay, or any 
other argillaceous matter with water, and leave it 
at rest some hours ; which will be suflBcient to 
separate the argillaceous parts, and to produce a 
sediment. Stir the sediment with a broom, to 



348 



VARNISHES. 



complete the division of the earth ; and after it 
has rested some seconds, decant the turbid water 
into an eartiien or wooden vessel. By this process 
the earth will be separated from the sand and 
other foreign bodies, which are precipitated and 
■which must be thrown away. If the earth has 
been washed by the same process on a large scale, 
it is divided by kneading it. The supernatant 
water is thrown aside and the sediment placed in 
sieves, on pieces of cloth, where it is suffered to 
drain ; it is then mixed up with oil rendered dry- 
ing by a large dose of litharge, that is about a 
fourth of the weight of the oil. The consistence 
of thin paste being given to the mi.xture, it is 
spread over the cloth by means of an iron spatula, 
the length of which is equal to that of the breadth 
of the cloth. This spatula performs the part of a 
knife, and pushes forward the excess of matter 
above the quantity siifiBcient to cover the cloth. 
When the fir.<t stratum is drj', a second is applied. 
The inequalities produced by the coarseness of 
the cloth, or by an unequal extension of the paste, 
are smoothed down with pumice-stone. The pum- 
ice-stone is reduced to powder and rubbed over 
the cloth with a piece of soft serge or cork dipped 
in water. The cloth must then be well washed in 
water to clean it; and after it is dried, a varnish 
of gum-lac dissolved in linseed-oil boiled with 
turpentine, is to be applied to it. 

This preparation produces yellowish varnished 
cloth. When wanted black, mix lampblack with 
the Spanish white or tobacco-pipe clay, which 
forms the basis of the liquid paste. Various shades 
of gray may be obtained, according to the quantity 
of lampblack which is added. Umber, Cologne- 
earth, and different ochry argillaceous earths, may 
be used to vary the tints, without causing any 
addition to the expense. 

To prepare Varnished Silk. 

Varnished silk, for making umbrellas, capots, 
coverings for hats, etc., is prepared in the same 
manner as the varnished and polished cloths al- 
ready described, but with some variation in the 
liquid paste or varnish. 

If the surface of the silk be pretty large, it is 
made fast to a wooden frame furnished with hooks 
and movable pegs, such as that used in the manu- 
facture of common varnished cloths. A soft paste, 
composed of linseed-oil boiled with a fourth part 
of litharge; tobacco-pipe clay, dried and sifted 
through a silk sieve, 16 parts ; litharge, ground on 
porphyry with water, dried and sifted in the same 
manner, 3 parts, and lampblack, 1 part. This 
paste is then spread in a uniform manner over the 
surface of the silk by means of a long knife, hav- 
ing a handle at each extremity. In summer, 24 
hours are sufficient for its desiccation. When 
dry, the knots produced by the inequalities of 
the silk are smoothed with pumice-stone. This 
operation is performed with water, and, when 
finished, the surface of the silk is washed. It is 
then suffered to dry, and fat copal varnish is ap- 
plied. 

If it be intended to polish this varnish, apply a 
second stratum, after which polish it with a ball 
of cloth and very fine tripoli. The varnished silk 
thus made is very black, exceedingly pliable, and 
has a tine polish. It may be rumpled a thousand 
ways without retaining any fold, or even the mark 
of one. It is light, and therefore proper for cover- 
ings to hats, and for making cloaks and caps so 
useful to travellers in wet weather. 
Another Melhiid. 

A kind of varnished silk, which has only a yel- 
lowish color, and which suffers the texture of the 
stuff to appear, is prepared with a mixture of 3 



parts boiled oil of pinks, or linseed-oil, and 1 pari 
of fat copal varnish, which is extended with a 
coarse brush or knife. Two strata are sufficient 
when oil has been freed from its greasy particle! 
over a slow fire, or when boiled with a fourth part 
of its weight of litharge. 

The inequalities are removed by pumice-stone 
and water, after which the copal varnish is ap- 
plied. This simple operation gives to white silk a 
yellow color, which arises from the boiled oil and 
the varnish 

This varnished silk possesses all those qualitieg 
ascribed to certain preparations of silk which are 
recommended to be worn as jackets by persuni 
subject to rheumatism. 

To Prepare Water-proof Boots. 

1. Boots and shoes may be rend, red imperviouf 
to water by the following composition : Take 3 
01. of spermaceti and melt it in a pipkin, or other 
earthen vessel, over a slow fire; add thereto 6 
drs. of India-rubber, cut into slices, and theso 
will presently di3S(dve. Then add, seriatim, of 
tallow, 8 oz.; hog's lard, 2 oz. ; amber varnish, 4 
oz. Mix, and it will be fit for use immediately. 
The boots or other material to be treated are to 
receive 2 or 3 coats with a common blacking-brush, 
and a fine polish is the result. 

2. Half-pound of shoemaker's dubbing, ^ pit. of 
linseed-oil ; J pt. of solution of India-rubber. 
Dissolve with a gentle heat (it is very intlamma> 
ble), and rub on the boots. This will last for sev- 
eral months. 

India-rubber Varnish. 
Digest India-rubber, cut into small pieces, in 
benzine for several days, frequently shaking the 
bottle containing the materials. A jelly will bo 
formed, which will separate from the benzine; this 
dissolved in the fixed and volatile oils, dries fast, 
does not crack or shine, unless mixed with some 
resinous substance. 

On Chlaroformic Solution of Gutta-percha. 
Gutta-percha, in small slices, 1^ oz. ; chloro- 
form, 12 fluidounces. To 8 fluidounees of the 
chloroform contained in a bottle, add the gutta- 
percha, and shake occasionally till dissolved; then 
add the carbonate of lead, previously mixed 
smoothly with the remainder of the chloroform, 
and, having shaken the whole thoroughly together 
several times at intervals of ^ hour, set the mix- 
ture aside, and let it stand for 10 days, or until 
the insoluble matter has subsided, and the solu- 
tion has become limpid, and either colorless or of 
a slight straw-color. Lastly, decant, and keep the 
solution in a glass-stopped bottle. 

To make Black Japan. 

Boiled oil, 1 gall.; umber, 8 oz. ; asphaltum, 3 
oz. oil of turpentine, as much as will reduce it to 
the thinness required. 

To Preserve Tiles. 

After the adoption of glazing, varnishing, etc., 
to increase the hardness of tiles, tarring has beea 
found completely to stop their pores, and to ren« 
der them impervious to water. This process ii 
practicable, and not expensive. Lime and tar, 
whale-oil or dregs of oil, are equally adapted to 
the purpose, and still cheaper. Tarring is par- 
ticularly efficacious when tiles are cracked by the 
frost. It is calculated that the expense of coal- 
tar for a roof of a middling extent, and suppos- 
ing such a roof to require one hundredweight, 
would not exceed 15 dollars. 

To Bronze Plaster Figures. 

For the ground, after it has been sized and rub- 
bed down, take Prussian blue, verditer and spruca 



BLACKING. 



849 



ochre; grind fhem separately in water, turpen- 
tine, or oil, according to the work, and mix thein 
in such pripportions as will produce the color de- 
sired ; then grind Dutch metal in a part of this 
composition, laying it with judgment on the promi- 
nent parts of the figure, which produces a grand 
effect. 

To Polish Varnished Furniture. 
Talle 2 oz. of tripoli powdered, put it in an 
earthen pot with water to cover it; then take a 
piece of white flannel, lay it over a piece of cork 
or rubber, and proceed to polish the varnish, al- 
ways wetting it with the tripoli and water. It 
will be known when the process is finished by 
wiping a part of the work with a sponge, and ob- 
serving whether there is a fair even gloss. When 
this is the case, take a bit of mutton suet and fine 
flour and clean the work. 

To Polish Wood. 
Take a piece of pumice-stone and water, and 
pass regularly over the work until the rising of 
the grain is cut down ; then take powdered tripoli 
and boiled linseed-oil, and polish the work to a 
bright surface. 

To Polish Brass Ornaments inlaid in Wood. 

File the brass very clean with a smooth file ; 
then take some tripoli powdered very fine, and 
mix it with the linseed oil. Dip in this a rubber 
of felt, with which polish the work until the de- 
sired effect is obtained. 

If the work is ebony, or black rosewood, take 
some elder coal powdered very fine, and apply it 
dry after you have done with the tripoli, and it 
will produce a superior polish. 

The French mode of ornamenting with brass 
differs widely from ours ; theirs being chiefly 
^^■ter-gilt (or-7noulu), excepting the flutes of 
columns, etc., which are polished very high with 
rotten-stone, and finished with elder coal. 

To Brown Iron aitd Steel Objects. 

Dissolve 2 parts of crystallized chloride of iron, 
2 parts of solid chloride of antimony, and 1 part 
of gallic acid in 4 or 5 parts of water. With this 
moisten a piece of sponge or cloth and apply to 
the object, a gun-barrel for instance. Let it dry 
in the air, and repeat the operation several times ; 
then wash with water; dry, and rub with boiled 
linseed-oil. Objects browned in this way have a 
very agreeable dead gray appearance, and the 
shade deepens according to the number of times 
the operation is repeated. 

To make Blacking. 

Take of ivory black and treacle, each 12 oz.; 
spermaceti oil, 4 oz., white wine vinegar, 4 pts. Mix. 

To make Liquid Blacking. 

Take of vinegar. No. 18 (the common), 1 qt. ; 
ivory-black and treacle, each 6 oz. ; vitriolic acid 
and spermaceti (or common oil), each 1^ oz. 

Mix the acid and oil first, afterwards add the 
ether ingredients ; if, when it is used, it does not 
dry quickly enough on the leather, add a little more 
of the vitriol, a little at a time, till it dries quickly 
enough. When there is too much of the vitriolic 
acid, which is various in its strength, the mixture 
will give it a brown color. 

Vinegar is sold by numbers, viz., No. 18 (the 
weakest), 19, 20, 21, 22. The celebrated blacking 
is made with No. 18. When this mixture is pro- 
perly finished, the ivory-black will be about one- 
third the contents of the bottle. 

To make Bailey's Composition /or Blacking-cakes. 

Take gum tragacanth, 1 oz. ; neat's-foot oil, 

•uperfine ivory-black, deep blue, prepared from 



iron and copper, each 2 oz. ; brown sugar candy, 
river-water, each 4 oz. Having mixed well these 
ingredients, evaporate the water, and form your 
cakes. 

To make Blacking Balls /or Shoes. 

Take mutton suet, 4 oz. ; bees- wax, 1 oz. ; sweet 
oil, 1 oz. ; sugar candy and gum Arftbic, I dr. each, 
in fine powder; melt these well together over a 
gentle fire, and add thereto about a spoonful of 
turpentine, and lampblack sufiicient to give it a 
good black colnr. While hot enough to run, make 
it into a ball by pouring the liquor into a tin 
mould; or let it stand till almost cold; or it may 
be moulded by the hand. 

To make Liquid Japan Blacking. 

Take 3 oz. of ivory-black, 2 oz. of coarse sugar, 
1 oz. of sulphuric acid, 1 oz. of muriatic acid, 1 
tablespoonful of sweet oil and lemon acid, and 1 
pt. of vinegar. First mix the ivory-black and 
sweet oil together, then the lemon and sugar, with 
a little vinegar to qualify the blacking; then add 
the sulphuric and muriatic acids, and mix them all 
well together. 

Observation. — The sugar, oil, and vinegar. pre- 
vent the acids from injuring the leather, and add 
to the lustre of the blacking. 

A Cheap Method. 

Ivory-black, 2 oz. ; brown sugar, IJ oz. ; and / 
sweet oil, 4 tablespoonful. Mix them well, and /-« 
then gradually add i pt. of small beer. 
Another Method. 

A quarter lb. of ivory -black, J lb. of moist sugar, a 
tablespoonful of flour, a piece of tallow about the 
size of a walnut, and a small piece of gum Arabic. 
Make a paste of the flour, and while hot put in 
the tallow, then the sugar, and afterwards mix the 
whole well together in a quart of water. 
India Rubber Blacking (Patent.) 

Ivory-black, 60 lbs. ; treacle, 45 lbs. ; vinegar 
(No. 24), 20 galls. ; powdered gum, 1 lb. ; India- 
rubber oil, 9 lbs. (The latter is made by dissolv- 
ing by heat 18 oz. of India rubber in 9 lbs. of rape- 
oil.) Grind the whole smooth in a paint-mill, 
then add by small quantities at a time 12 lbs. of 
oil of vitriol, stirring it strongly for i an hour a 
day for a fortnight. 

To render Leather Water-proo/. 

This is done by rubbing or brushing into the 
leather a mixture of drying oils, and any of the 
oxides of lead, copper, or iron; or by substituting 
any of the gummy resins in the room of the metal- 
lic oxides. 

To make Varnish /or Colored Drawings. 

Take of Canada balsam, 1 oz. ; spirit of turpen- 
tine, 2 oz. Mix them together. Before this com- 
position is applied, the drawing or print should 
be sized with a solution of isinglass in water; and 
when dry apply the varnish with a camel's-hair 
brush. 

To make Furniture Paste. 

Scrape 4 oz. of bees'-wax into a basin, and add 
as much oil of turpentine as will moisten it through. 
Now powder a i oz. of resin, and add as much 
Indian red as will bring it to a deep mahogany 
color. When the composition is properly stirred 
up, it will prove an excellent cement or paste for 
blemishes in mahogany and other furniture. 
Another Method. 

Scrape 4 oz. of beeswax as before. To a pint 
of oil of turpentine, in a glazed pipkin, add an 
ounce of alkanet-root. Cover it close and put it 
over a slow fire, attending it carefully that it may 
not boil over, or catch fire. When the liquid is 



850 



VARNISHES. 



of a deep red, add as much of it to the wax as will 
lnoi^^ten it through, also a quarter of an ounce of 
pcrwdered resin. Cover the whole close, and let it 
stand 6 hours, when it will be fit for use. 

To make Furniture Oil. 
, Take linseed-oil, put it into a glnzed pipkin 
■with as much alkanet-root as it will cover. Let 
it boil gently, and it will become of a strong red 
color; when cool it will be fit for use. 

To make Wanh for Preserving Drawings made 

with a Black Lead Pencil. 

A thin wash of isinglass will fix either black 

lead, or hard black chalk, so as to prevent their 

rubbing out; or the same eflTect may be produced 

by the simple application of skimmed milk, as has 

been proved by frequent trials. The best way of 

using the latter is to lay the drawing flat upon the 

surface of the milk ; and then taking n up by one 

corner till it drains and dries. The milk must be 

perfectly free from cream, or it will grease the 

paper. 

To make Varnish for Wood, which Resists the 

Action of Boiling Water. 

Take IJ lbs. of linseed-oil, and boil it in a red 
copper vessel, not tinned, holding suspended over 
it, in a small linen bag, 5 oz. of litharge and 3 
oz. of pulverized minium ; taking care that the 
bag does not touch the bottom of the vessel. 
Continue the ebullition until the oil acquires a 
deep brown color, then take away the bag and 
substitute another in its place, containing a clove 
of garlic: continue the. ebullition and renew the 
clove of garlic 7 or 8 times, or rather put them all 
in at once. 

Then throw into the vessel 1 lb. of yellow am- 
ber, after having melted it in the following man- 
ner : Add to the pound of amber, well pulverized, 
2 oz. of linseed oil, and place the whole on a 
strong fire. When the fusion is complete, pour it 
boiling into the prepared linseed-oil, and continue 
tJ leave it boiling for 2 or 3 minutes, stirring the 
■whole up well. It is then left to settle; the com- 
position is decanted and preserved, when it be- 
comes cold, in well-corked bottles. 

After polishing the wood on which this varnish 
is to be applied, you give to the wood the color re- 
quired ; for instance, for walnut-wood, a slight 
coat of a mixture of soot with the essence of tur- 
pentine. When this color is perfectly dry, give 
it a coat of varnish with a fine sponge. In order 
to spread it very equally, repeat these coats four 
times, taking care always to let the preceding coat 
be dried. 
To Restore the Blackness of old Leather Chairs, etc. 

Many families, especially in the country, pos- 
ee.ss chairs, settees, etc. covered with black lea- 
ther. These, impaired by long use, may be re- 
stored nearly to their original good color and gloss 
by the following easy and approved process : 
Take yolks of 2 newly-laid eggs and the white 
of one. Let these be well beaten up, and then 
shaken in a glass vessel or jug, to become like 
thick oil; dissolve in about a tablespoonful or less 
of geneva, an ordinary tea-lump of loaf-sugar; 
make this thick with ivory black, well worked up 
with a bit of stick ; mix with the egg for use. Let 
this be laid on as blacking ordinarily is for shoes; 
after a very few minutes, polish with a soft, very 
clean brush, till completely dry and shining, then 
let it remain a day to harden. 

The same process answers admirably for ladies' 
or gentlemen's dress-shoes, but with the follow 
ing addition for protecting the stockings from 
ioil. Let the white or glair of eggs be shaken 
vn a large glass phial until it becomes a perfect 



oil, brush over the inner edges of the shoes ■witk 
it, and when completely dry, it will prevent all 
soiling from the leather. This requires to be re- 
peated. 

Transparent Ivory. 

The process for making ivory transparent and 
flexible is simply immersion in liquid phosphoric 
acid, and the change which it undergoes is owing 
to a partial neutralization of the basic phosphate 
of lime, of which it principally consists. The 
ivory is cut in pieces not thicker than the twen- 
tieth part of an inch, and placed in phosphoric 
acid of a specific gravity of 1.131, until it has be- 
come transparent, when it is taken from the bath, 
washed in water, and dried with a clean linen 
cloth. It becomes dry in the air without the ap- 
plication of heat, and softens again under warm 
water. 

Bleaching of Ivory. 

Ivory knife-handles which have become quite 
yellow from use, being left for from 2 to 4 hours 
in a watery solution of sulphurous acid, become 
quite white again. The acid in the gaseous form 
makes the ivory crack. 

To Varnish Drawings and Card Work, 

Boil some clear parchment cuttings in water, 
in a glazed pipkin, till they produce a very clear 
size. Strain it and keep it for use. 

Give the work 2 coats of the size, passing the 
brush quickly over the work, not to disturb the 
colors. 

To make Turpentine Varnish. 

Mix 1 gall, of oil of turpentine and 5 lbs. of 
powdered resin ; put it in a tin can, on a stove, 
and let it boil for i an hour. When cool it is fit 
for use. 

Manufacture of Papier-Machi. 

There are at present five principal varieties of 
papier-mache known in the trade, viz.: 1. Sheets 
of paper pasted together upon models. 2. Thick 
sheets or boards produced by pressing ordinary 
paper pulp between dies. 3. Fibrous slab, which 
is made of the coarse varieties of fibre only, mixed 
with some earthy matter, and certain chemical 
agents introduced for the purpose of rendering 
the mass incombustible. A cementing size is 
added, and the whole well kneaded together with 
the aid of steam. The kneaded mass is passed 
repeatedly through iron rollers, which squeeze it 
out to a perfectly uniform thickness. It is then 
dried at a proper temperature. 4. Carton pierre, 
which is made of pulp or paper mixed with whit- 
ing and glue, pressed into plaster piece-moulds, 
backed with paper, and, when suflBciently set, 
hardened by drying in a hot room. 5. Martin's 
Ceramic Papier-Machi, a new composition, pat- 
ented in 1858, which consists of paper pulp, resin, 
glue, drying oil, and sugar of lead, mixed in cer- 
tain fixed proportions and kneaded together. 
This composition is extremely plastic, and may be 
worked, pressed, or moulded into any required 
form. It may be preserved in this plastic condi- 
tion for several months by keeping the air away, 
and occasionally kneading the mass. 

The first-mentioned variety of/>o7)/ec-»infA(e alone 
engages our attention here. A special kind of paper, 
of a porous texture, is manufactured for this pur- 
pose. An iron mould, of somewhat smaller size 
than the object required, is greased with Kussian 
tallow. A sheet of the paper is laid on to the 
greased surface of the mould, and covered over 
with a coat of paste made of the best biscuit- 
flower and glue, which is spread evenly all over 
the sheet with the hands ; another sheet is then 
laid on, and rubbed down evenly, so that the two 



PAPIER-MACHE. 



351 



•beets are closely pasted together at all points. 
After this the mould is taken to the drying cham- 
ber, where it is exposed to a temperature nf about 
120°. When quite dry, which it takes several 
hours to accompli.^h, it is carried back to the 
pasting-room, and another sheet is laid on, with 
another coat of paste, after wiiich it is returned to 
the drying chamber; and the same operation is 
repeated over and over again, until a suflBcient 
thickness is attained, which, for superior articles, 
such as are manufactured at these works, requires 
from 30 to 40 sheets of paper, and of course as 
many coats of paste between. The shell is then 
removed from the mould, and planed to shape 
with a carpenter's plane, after which it is dipped 
in linseed-oil and spirits of tar to harden it; this 
changes the color from gray to a dingy j'ellowish- 
brown tint. The article is then stoved, and 7 or 
8 coats of varnish are laid on (with a stoving after 
each), which are cleared ofiF each time, any equal- 
ities of surface being finally removed with pumice- 
stone. The number of drying processes the arti- 
cles have to go through consume so much time, 
that it takes 3 or 4 weeks to fit them for ornamen- 
tation, which is applied in bronze-powder, gold, 
or color, and, for many articles, also in mother-of- 
pearl. The ornamentation of these articles is 
sometimes efl'ected in the highest style of the 
painter's art. 

The gold-leaf is laid on with a solution of isin- 
glass in water, the design then pencilled on with 
asphaltum, the superfluous gold removed with a 
dossil of cotton dipped in water, which leaves in- 
tact the parts touched with asphaltum, and the 
latter finally removed with essence of turpentine. 

After the application of every coat of color or 
varnish, the object so colored or varnished is dried 
in an oven or chamber, called a stove, and heated 
by flues to as high a temperature as can safely be 
employed without injuring the articles, or causing 
the varnish to blister. 

For black grounds, drop ivory-black mixed with 
dark-colored anime varnish is used; for colored 
grounds, the ordinary painters' colors, ground with 
linseed-oil or turpentine, and mixed with anime 
varnish. 

The colors are protected against atmospheric 
influences, and made to shine with greater bril- 
liancy, by 2 or 3 coats of copal or anime varnich. 
Superior articles receive as many as 5 or 6 coats 
of varnish, and are finally polished. 

The ornamentation of all such articles as come 
under the head of toilet wares is effected by the 
ordinary mode of painting with the camel's-hair 
pencil, or some fitting substitute; where imitation 
of woods or marble is intended, the ordinary 
grainers' tools are used. Many patterns are pro- 
duced upon the various articles by " transfer 
printing." Designs in mother-of-pearl are laid 
on with black varnish; the article is then var- 
nished all over, dried, then rubbed down over the 
design with pumice-stone; another coat of varnish 
is then laid on, dried, and the part covering the 
design again rubbed off with pumice-stone; and 
thus several coats are laid on, until all the surface 
is level with that of the design. Ornamental lines, 
writing, etc., are laid on with color. The inlay- 
ing with mother-of-pearl is a laborious business, 
owing to the small size of the pieces at the artist's 
disposal, and the necessity of attending to a proper 
distribution and fitting of lights and shades. 

On a Black Varnish for Zinc. 
M. Boettger describes a process for covering 
zinc with a chemical, adherent, velvet-black var- 
nish. Ltissolve 2 parts by weight of nitrate of 
copper and 3 parts of crystallized chloride in 64 



parts of distilled water; add 8 parts of hydro- 
chloric acid of I-IO density. Into this liquid 
plunge the zinc, previously scoured with fino 
sand ; then wash the metal with water, and dry it 
rapidly. 

Protection of Iron and Steel. 

Moderately-heated benzine dissolves half its 
weight of wax; and if this solution be carefully 
a|iplied to the tool with a brush, the evaporation 
leaves a very adhesive and permanent coating of 
wax, which will preserve the metal even from the 
action of acid vapors. 

Varnish used for Indian Shields. 

Shields made in Silhet, in Bengal, are noted 
throughout India, for the lustre and durability of 
the black varnish with which they are covered. 
Silhet shields constitute, therefore, no inconsider- 
able article of traflic, being in request among 
natives who carry arms, and retain the ancient 
predilection for the scimitar and buckler. The 
varnish is composed of the expressed juice of the 
marking-nut, Semecarptcs anarardiuni, and that 
of another kindred fruit, Uollgarna lotigifolia. ■ 

The shell of the Seniecarpns anacardiiim con- 
tains between its integuments numerous cells, 
filled with a black, acrid, resinous juice, which 
likewise is found, though less abundantly, in the 
wood of the tree. It is commonly employed aa 
an indelible ink, to mark all sorts of cotton <'loth. 
The color is fixed with quicklime. The cortical 
part of the fruit of Holigarua loiigifolia likewise 
contains between its laminae numerous cells, fillei 
with a black, thick, acrid fluid. The natives of 
Malabar extract by incision, with which they var- 
nish targets. 

To prepare the varnish according to the method 
practised in Silhet, the nuts of the Semecarpus 
auacnrdium, and the berries of the Holigarna 
longifolia, having been steeped for a month in 
clear water, are cut transversely, and pressed in 
a mill. The expressed jijice of each is kept for 
several months, taking ofi" the scum from time to 
time. Afterwards the liquor is decanted, and two 
parts of the one are added to one part of the other, 
to be used as varnish. Other proportions of in- 
gredients are sometimes employed, but in all the 
resinous juice of the Semecarpus predominates. 
The varnish is laid on like paint, and when dry is 
polished by rubbing it with an agate or smooth 
pebble. This varnish also prevents destruction 
of wood. etc. by the white ant. 

To Varnish Silver Leaf like Gold. 

Fix the leaf on the subject, similar to gold leaf, 
by the interposition of proper glutinous matters; 
spread the varnish upon the piece with a pencil. 
When the first coat is dry wash the piece again 
and again with the varnish till the color appears 
sufficiently deep. What is called gilt-leather, and 
many picture-frames, have no other than this gild- 
ing; washing them with a little rectified spirit of 
wine affords a proof of this, the spirit dissolving 
the varnish, and leaving the silver-leaf of its own 
whiteness. For plain frames thick tin- foil may 
be used instead of silver. The tin-leaf, fixed on 
the piece with glue, is to be burnished, then pol- 
ished with emery and a fine linen cloth, and after- 
wards with putty applied in the same manner; 
being then lacquered over with varnish 5 or 6 
times, it looks very nearly like burnished gold. 
The same varnish, made with a less proportion of 
coloring materials, is applied also on works of 
brass, both for heiglitening the color of the metal 
to a resemblance with that of gold, and for pre- 
serving it from being tarnished by the air. 
To Recover Varnish. 

Clear off the filth with a lye made of potash, and 



352 



CEMENTS. 



the ashes of the lees of wine; then take 48 oz. of 
potash and 16 of the above mentioned ashes, and 
put them into 6 qts. of water, and this completes 
the lye. 

To Polish Vnrnish. 

This is effected with pumice-stone and tripoli 
earth. The pumice-stone must be reduced to an 
impalpable powder, and put upon a piece of serge 
moistened with water: with this rub lightly and 
equally the varnish substance. The tripoli must 
also be reduced to a very fine powder, and put 
upon a clean woollen cU>th, moistened with olive- 
oil, with which the polishing is to be performed. 
The varnish is then to be wiped off with soft linen, 
and when quite dry cleaned with starch or Spanish 
white, and rubbed with the palm of the hand. 
Process for ffivhig various Objects a Pearly Lustre. 

To produce the iridescence of mother-of-pearl 
on stone, glass, metal, resin, paper, silk, leather, 
etc., Reinsch adopts the following process :' 2 parts 
of solution of copal, 2 parts of that of sandarac, 
and 4 parts of solution of Damara resin (equal 
parts of resin and absolute alcohol) are mixed 
with half their volume of oil of bergamot or rose- 
mary. This mixture is to be evaporated to the 
thickness of castor-oil. If this varnish be then 



drawn, by means of a feather or brush, over the 
surface of some water, it will form a beautiful iri- 
descent pellicle. This film is now to be applied to 
the objects which are to be rendered iridescent. 
The vessel in which the water is contained, on 
which the pellicle ha^ been produced, must there- 
fore be as hirge as or larger than these objects. 
The water should have about .') per cent, of pure 
solution of lime added to it; its temperature 
should be kept at about 72°. The objects ara 
dried in the air. 
To Prevent the Formation of Fungi in Timber. 

The following paint has been found successful : 
Flour of sulphur, 3088 grs. ; common linseed-oil, 
2084 grs.; refined oil of manganese, 463 grs. 
Prevention of Rotting of Wood. 

Take 50 parts of rosin, 40 of finely powdered 
chalk, 300 parts or less of fine, white, sharp sand, 
4 parts of linseed-oil, 1 part of native red oxide 
of copper, and 1 part of sulphuric acid. First 
heat the rosin, chalk, sand and oil, in an iron 
boiler; then add the oxide, and, with care, the 
acid. Stir the composition carefully, and apply 
while hot. If too thick, add more oil. This coat- 
ing, when cold and dry, forms a varnish hard aa 
stone. 



CEM:E]SrTS. 



Hydraulic Mortar. 
Slaked lime, 1 bu. ; calcined clay, \\ bu.; washed 
Band, \l bu. 

Concrete. 

Unslaked lime, 3 bu. ; sand, 3 bu. ; gravel, 2 bu. ; 
broken stone, 4 bu. 

Cement. 
Hydraulic cement, 6 bu. (6-5 London, or 2 New 
York bbl.) ; sand, 6 bu. This amount will suffice 
to lay 1,000 bricks or 2 perches of stone. 
Mortars. 

1. Stone lime (unslaked), 1 bu. ; sand, 3 bu. 

2. Stone lime (unslaked), 1 bu.; gravel, 10 bu. 

Beton 
Is superior, in every respect, to concrete. It is 
made in the same way, using hydraulic instead 
of common mortar. 

Mastic. 
Sand, 100 lbs. ; marble-dust, 100 lbs. ; freestone, 
100 lbs. ; red lead (minium), 3 lbs. ; litharge, 3 lbs. ; 
linseed-oil, 21 pts. 

Genuine Roman Cement, 
Or pozzuolana, from the neighborhood of "Vesu- 
vius, is a peculiar mixture of silica, clay, and 
lime, which has been calcined by the volcano. It 
is used mixed with lime and sand. The following 
is the formula of Vitruvius : 12 parts pozzuolana 
well powdered, 6 sharp sand well washed, 9 rich 
lime, recently slaked. It has the power of rapidly 
hardening under water. 

Artificial Portland Cement. 
. One hundred lbs. of pure, dry chalk is moist- 
ened and ground in a mill with excess of water; 
to this is added 137i lbs. of pure alluvial clay, and 
the two are thoroughly incorporated. The mix- 
ture is made into balls, which are dried and cal- 
oiaed in an ordinary lime-kilu. 



Rotendale Cement 
Is made by calcining the limestone or cement- 
stone, found above the Potsdam sandstone and 
below the Utica slate of the New York survey. It 
consists of silica, magnesia, alumina, oxide of 
iron, with some salts of potash and soda. The 
stone is found in eastern New York, New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania and Virginia. 

Artificial Hydraulic Cements 
Are made 1, by combining thoroughly slaked lime 
with from 10 to 40 per cent, unburnt clay, and 
burning the mixture in a kiln; 2, by grinding 
clay and chalk as directed above for Portland 
Cement; 3, by making artificial pozzuolana from 
calcareous sand and clay, and calcining it; 4, by 
the use of silicate of soda: 8 or 10 per cent, of a 
solution of the consistence of thin syrup, is to b« 
mixed with mortar of fat lime. 

Cement for Rooms. 
A coat of oxide of zinc (zinc white) mixed with 
size, is applied to the wall, ceiling or wainscot; 
over this, one of chloride of zinc, prepared in the 
same way. The two unite and form a cement 
smooth and polished as glass. 

Parolic Cement. 

Take unsalted curd of skimmed milk, press the 
whey out, dry and pulverize, and warm over a 
stove. Of this, 90 parts; caustic quicklime, in 
fine powder, 10 parts ; powdered camphor, 1 part. 
Mix intimately and keep in small bottles corked 
perfectly tight. To use, mix the required amount 
with water with a palette-knife, and apply imme- 
diately. 

To make Cement for Floors. 

Earthen floors are commonly made of loam; 
and sometimes, especially to make malt on, of 
lime and brook-sand, and gun-dust or anvil-dust 
from the forge. The manner of makii^g earthen 



CEMENTS. 



353 



floors for plain country habitations is as follows: 
take J lime and J coal-ashes well sifted, with a 
Email quantity of loam clay; mix the whole to- 
gether and temper it well with water, making it 
up into a heap; let it lie a week or 10 days and 
then temper it over again. After this, heap it up 
for 3 or 4 days, and repeat the tempering very 
high till it becomes smooth, yielding, tough and 
gluey. The ground being then levelled, lay the 
fl(/or therewith about 2^ or 3 in. thick, making it 
smooth with a trowel. The hotter the season is, 
the better; and when it is thoroughly dried, it 
will make the best floor for houses, especially 
B\alt-houses. 

Pew's Composition for Roofing Bnildings. 
Take the hardest and purest limestone (white 
marble is to be preferred), free from sand, clay or 
other matter; calcine it in a reverberatory furnace, 
pulverize and pass through a sieve. One part, by 
weight, is to be mixed with 2 parts of clay well 
baked and similarly pulverized, conducting the 
whole operation with great care. This forms the 
first powder. The second is to be made of 1 part 
of calcined and pulverized gypsum, to which is 
added 2 parts of clay baked and pulverized. These 
two powders are to be combined and intimately 
incorporated, so as to form a perfect mixture. 
When it is to be used, mix it with about i part 
of its weight of water, added gradually, stirring 
the ma.*s well the whole time, until it forms a thick 
paste, in which state it is to be spread like mortar 
upon the desired surface. It becomes in time as 
hard as stone, allows no moisture to penetrate, 
and is not cracked by heat. When well prepared 
it will last any length of time. When in its plastic 
or soft state, it may be colored of any desired tint. 

Zeiodelile. 
Zeiodelite is made by mixing together 19 lbs. 
of sulphur and 42 lbs. of pulverized stoneware 
and glass. The mixture is exposed to a gentle 
heat, which melts the sulphur, and then the mass 
is stirred till it becomes thoroughly homogeneous, 
when it is run into suitable moulds and allowed 
to cool. This preparation is proof against acids 
in general, whatever their degree of concentration, 
and will last an indefinite time. It melts at about 
248°, and may be re-emploj'ed without loss of any 
of its qualities, whenever it is desirable to change 
the form of an apparatus, by melting at a gentle 
heat and operating as with asphalte. At 230° it 
becomes as compact as stone, and therefore pre- 
serves its solidity in boiling water. Slabs of zei- 
odelite may be joined by introducing between 
them some of the paste heated to 392°, which 
will melt the edges of the slabs, and when the 
whole becomes cold it will present one uniform 
piece. Chambers lined with zeiodelite, in place 
of lead, the inventor says, will enable manufac- 
turers to produce acids free from nitrate and sul- 
phate of lead. The cost will be only one-fifth the 
price of lead. The compound is also said to be 
fuperior to h3'draulic lime for uniting stone and 
resisting the action of water. 

To make Cement for Canals. 

T«ke 1 part of iron filings, reduced to sifted 
powder, 3 parts of silica, 4 parts of red clay, the 
same quantity of pulverized brick, and 2 parts of 
hot lime ; the whole measured by weight and not 
by bulk. 

Put the mixture into a large wooden tub, in or- 
der that nothing foreign may be introduced into 
it. If sufficient water is poured out to extinguish 
the lime and give a degree of liquidness to the 
cement, and if all the component parts are briskly 
stirred, a great degree of heat will be emitted from 
23 



the lime, and an intimate union formed by th« 
heat.. 

Cem en t for Cast- Iron. 

In mfxing cement for cast-iron, put 1 oz. of 
sal ammoniac to each hundredweight of borings, 
and use it without allowing it to heat. Multiply 
the length of any joint in ft. by the breadth in 
in., by the thickness in eighths, and by 3; the pro- 
duet will be the weight of dry borings, in lbs. 
avoirdupois, required to make cement to fill that 
joint nearly. 

Or, take of sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; flowers of sul- 
phur, 1 oz. ; clean cast-iron borings or filings, 16 
oz.: mix them well in a mortar, and keep them 
dry. When required for use, take 1 part of this 
powder and 20 parts of clean iron borings or fil- 
ings, mix thoroughly in a mortar, make the mix- 
ture into a stifi" paste with a little water, and apply 
it between the joints, and screw them together. 
A little fine grindstone sand added improves the 
cemenf. 

A mixture of white paint with red lead, spread 
on canvas or woollen, and placed between the 
joints, is best adapted for joints that require to 
be often separated. 

In 100 lbs. of iron borings mix 1 oz. of flowers 
of sulphur, and add 1 oz. of sal ammoniac, dig- 
solved in hot water. 

To Preserve for Use. 

Pack it close in an iron vessel, and cover with 
water. 

For Mending Iron Retorts. 

Fifteen lbs. fire-clay, 1 lb. saleratus, with water 
sufficient to make a thick paste. This mixture 
must be applied to the broken part of the retort 
when the retort is at a good working heat; after 
this has been done, cover it with fine coal dust, and 
charge the retort for working. 

Cement for Rock-work and Reservoirs. 

Where a great quantity of cement is wanted 
for coarser uses, the coal-ash mortar (or Welsh 
tarras) is the cheapest and best, and will hold ex- 
tremely well, not only where it is constantly kept 
wet or dry, but even where it is sometimes dry 
and at others wet ; but where it is liable to be ex- 
posed to wet and frost, this cement should, at its 
being laid on, be suSered to dry thoroughly before 
any moisture has access to it; and, in that case, it 
will likewise be a great improvement to temper it 
with the blood of an}' beast. 

The mortar must be formed of 1 part lime and 
2 parts of well-sifted coal-ashes, and they must be 
thoroughly mixed by being beaten together; for 
on the perfect commixture of the ingredients the 
goodness of the composition depends. 
To make Mortar. 

Mortar is composed of quicklime and sand, re- 
duced to a paste with water. The lime ought to 
be pure, completely free from carbonic acid, and 
in the state ol^ a very fine powder ; the sand should 
be free from clay, partly in the state of fine sand, 
and partly in that of gravel; the water should be 
pure, and, if previously saturated with lime, so 
much the better. The best proportions are 3 parta 
of fine, and 4 parts of coarse sand, 1 part of quick- 
lime, recently slaked, and as little water as pos- 
sible. There should always be enough water 
added at first; if water is added after the slaking 
has begun, it will be chilled and the mortar lumpy. 

The addition of burnt bones improves mortar 
by giving it tenacity and renders it less apt to 
crack in drying; but they ought never to exceed i 
of the lime employed. 

When a little manganese is added to mortar, it 
acquires the important property of hardening 



354 



CEMENTS. 



under water; so that it may be employed in con- 
structing those edifices which are constantly ex- 
posed to the action of water. Limestone is often 
combined with manganese ; in that ease it becomes 
brown by calcination. 

Tunisinn Cement. 
This is composed of 3 parts of lime, 1 of sand, 
and 2 of wood-ashes ; these ingredients are mi.\ed 
up with oil and water alternately, till they com- 
pose a paste of the desired consistency. 
Water-cement, or Stucco. 
Take 56 lbs. of pure coarse sand, 42 lbs. of pure 
finesMnd; mix them together, and moisten them 
thoroughly with lime-water; to the wetted sand 
add 14 lbs. of pure fresh-burnt lime, and while beat- 
ing them up together add, in successive portions, 
14 lbs. of bone-ash. The quicker and more per- 
fectly these materials are beaten together, and the 
sooner they are used, the better will be the cement ; 
for some kinds of work it will be better to use fine 
sand alone, and for others coarse sand, remember- 
ing the finer the sand is the greater quantity of 
lime is to be employed. 

To make a Fire and Water-proof Cement. 
To i pt. of vinegar add the same quantity of 
milk; separate the curd, and mix the whey with 
the whites of 6 eggs; beat it well together, and 
sift into it a sufiicient quantity of quicklime, to 
convert it to the consistency of a thick paste. 
Broken vessels mended with this cement never 
afterwards separate, for it resists the action of both 
fire and water. 

Turkish Cement for Joining Metals, Glass, etc. 
Dissolve mastic in as much spirit of wine as 
■will sufiice to render it liquiJ; in another vessel 
dissolve as much isinglass (which has been pre- 
viously soaked in water till it is swollen and soft) 
in brandy as will make 2 oz. by measure of strong 
glue, and add two small bits of gum-galbanum or 
ammoniacum, which must be rubbed or ground 
till they are dissolved ; then mix the whole with a 
sufficient heat ; keep it in a phial stopped, and when 
it is to be used set it in hot water. 

Solution of Indin-ruhher. 
A solution of caoutchouc, or India-rubber, for 
repairing india-rubber shoes, is prepared in the 
following manner: Cut 2 lbs. of caoutchouc into 
thin, small slices; put them in a vessel of tinned 
sheet-iron, and pour over 12 to 14 lbs. of sulphide 
of carbon. For the promotion of solution place 
the vessel in another containing water previously 
heated up to about 86° Fahr. The solution will 
take place promptly, but the fluid will thicken 
very soon, and thus render the application difii- 
cult, if not impossible. In order to prevent this 
thickening and difficulty, a solution of caoutchouc 
and rosin (colophony ) in spirits of turpentine must 
be added to the solution of caoutchouc in sulphide 
of carbon, and in such quantity that the mixture 
obtains the consistency of a thin paste. The so- 
lution of caoutchouc and rosin in spirit of turpen- 
tine should be prepared as follows : Cut 1 lb. of 
caoutchouc into thin, small slices; heat them in a 
suitable vessel over a moderate coal fire, until the 
saoutchouc becomes fluid; then add ^ lb. of pow- 
dered rosin, and melt both materiiils at a mod- 
erate heat. When these materials are perfectly 
fluid, then gradually add 3 or 4 lbs. of spirit of 
turpentine in small portions, and stir well. By 
the addition of the last solution, the rapid thick- 
ening and hardening of the compound will be pre- 
vented, and a mixture obtained fully answering 
the purpose of gluing together rubber surfaces, etc. 
Murine Glun. 
Out 3 parts India-rubber into small pieces, and 



dissolve it by heat and agitation in 34 parts ot 
cold naphtha, chloroform, or benzine ; add to this 
64 parts of powdered shellac, and heat the whole 
with constant stirring until the shellac is dissolved ; 
then pour it while hot on metal plates, to form 
sheets. When used it must be heated to 248* 
Fahr., and applied with a brush. 
Water-proof Glue. 
Fine shreds of India-rubber dissolved in warm 
copal varnish, make a water-proof cement for wood 
and leather. 

Another. — Glue, 12 oz.; water, sufficient to dis- 
solve it; add 3 oz. of rosin, melt them together, 
and add 4 parts of turpentine or benzine. Tnis 
should be done in a carpenter's glue-pot, to avoid 
burning. 

A New Cement. 
M. Edmund Davy prepares a new cement, which 
is well spoken of, by melting in an iron vessel 
equal parts of common pitch and gutta-percha. It 
is kept either liquid under water, or solid to be 
melted when wanted. It is not attacked by wa- 
ter, and adheres firmly to wood, stone, glass, porce- 
lain, ivory, leather, parchment-paper, feathers, 
wool, cotton, hemp, and linen fabrics, and even to 
varnish. 

Aquaria Cement. 
One part, by measure, of litharge; 1 part plas- 
ter of Paris; 1 part fine beach-sand; J part fine 
powdered rosin ; mi.x all together. This may be 
kept for years, while dry, in a well-corked bottle; 
when used, make in a putty with boiled linseed- 
oil; a little patent dryer may be used; it will stand 
water at once, either salt or fresh. 

New Gutta-percha Cements. 
For uniting sheet gutta-percha to silk or other 
fabrics: Gutta-percha, 40 lbs.; caoutchouc, 3 lbs.; 
shellac, 3 lbs.; Canada balsam, or Venice turpen- 
tine, 14 lbs. ; liquid styrax, 35 lbs. ; gum mastio, 
4 lbs. ; oxide of lead, 1 lb. 

For uniting sheet gutta-percha to leather, as 
soles of shoes, etc. : Gutta-percha, 50 lbs. ; Venice 
turpentine, 40 lbs.; shellac, 4 lbs. ; caoutchouc, 1 
lb. ; liquid styrax, 6 lbs. 

Metallic Cement. 
A metallic cement, which answers for all pur- 
poses and becomes hard in the heat, may be ob- 
tained in the following way : One hundred parts 
of oxide of zinc, with the same quantity of sul- 
phate of lead, are triturated with 30 parts of 
linseed-oil, and then a mixture consisting of 100 
parts of black oxide of manganese and 100 parts 
of peroxide of iron added until the mass forms a 
stiff dough. This is beaten in a mortar for 12 
hours, during which the remainder of the above 
mixture of iron and manganese is added by de- 
grees. The goodness of the cement may be re- 
cognized by its not crumbling when rolled out be- 
tween the fingers. 

Cement for Stoneioare, hy M. Heller. 
Gelatine is allowed to swell in cold water, the 
jelly warmed, and so much recently-slaked lime 
added as is requisite to render the mass sufficiently 
thick for the purpose. A thin coating of this ce- 
ment is spread while warm over the gently-heatod 
surfaces of fracture of the articles, and let dry 
under a strong pressure. What oozes out is re- 
moved directly with a moist rag. 

Yates' Water-proof Cement. 
T.ike of the best glue 4 oz. ; of isinglass, 2 oz., 
an't dissolve them in mild ale over a slow fire, in 
a common glue-kettle, to the consistency of strohg 
glue, when IJ oz. of well boiled linseed-oil must 
be gradually added, and the whole be well mixed 
by stirring. When cold and made into cakes it 



GLUE. 



355 



resembles India-rubber. When wanted for use, 
dissolve a piece of it in a proportionate quantity 
of ale. This cement is applicable to all joints of 
wood, to join earthenware, china, glass. It is an 
excellent cement for leather, for harness, bands 
fur machinery, etc. The joints of these are to be 
prepared as if for sewing, the cement to be ap- 
plied hoi, laying a weight upon each joint as it is 
Viiide, in which state it is to be left 6 hours, when 
the joints will be found nearly as firm as if they 
were of an entire piece. By adding a little tow 
to the above, you have an excellent cement for 
leaks in casks, etc., etc. 

Common Cement for Joining Alabaster, ilarhle, 
Porphyry, and other Stones. 
Take of beeswa.x 2 lbs., and of resin I lb. ; melt 
them, and add 1^ lbs. of the same kind of matter, 
powdered, as the body to be cemented is composed 
of, strewing it into the melted mixture, and stir- 
ring them well together, and afterwards kneading 
the mass in water, that the powder may be thor- 
oughly incorporated with the wax and resin. The 
proportion of the powdered matter may be varied 
where required, in order to bring the cement 
nearer to the color of the body on which it is em- 
ployed. 

This cement must be heated when applied, as 
also the parts of the subject to be cemented to- 
gether, and care must be taken, likewise, that ihey 
may be thoroughly dry. 

To make Lutes. 
These are used for securing the juncture of ves- 
sels in distillations and sublimations. For the 
distillation of water, linen dipped in a thin paste 
of flour and water is suflScient. A lute of greater 
security is composed of quicklime, made into a 
paste with the whites of eggs. For the security 
of very corrosive vapors, clay finely powdered and 
sifted, made into a paste with boiled linseed-oil, 
must be applied to the juncture, which must be 
afterwards covered with slips of linen, dipped in 
the paste of quicklime and the whites of eggs. 
The lute must be perfectly dried before the vbl- 
sels are used, or else the heat may cause it to dry 
too quickly, and thereby cause the lute to crack. 
If this be the case, it is repaired by applying fresh 
lute in the cracks, and suffering it to dry gradu- 
ally. Vessels which are to be exposed to the na- 
ked fire are frequently coated to resi.*t the efiects 
of the heat, the best coating for which purpose 
consists in dissolving 2 oz. of borax in 1 pt. of 
boiling water, and adding to the solution as much 
slaked lime as is necessary to form a thin paste. 
The vessel must be covered all over with it by 
means of a painter's brush, and then suffered to 
dry. It must then be covered with a thin paste 
of linseed-oil and slaked lime, except the neck. 
In 2 or 3 days it will dry of itself, and the retort 
will then bear the greatest fire without cracking. 
The cracks of chemical vessels may be secured by 
the second lute. 

To maJre Portable Glue. 
Take 1 lb. of the best glue, boil and strain it 
very clear; boil likewise 4 oz. of isinglass, put it 
in a double glue-pot, with i lb. of fine brown sugar, 
and boil it pretty thick; then pour it into moulds ; 
when cold, cut and dry them in small pieces. This 
glue is very useful to draughtsmen, architects, 
etc., as it immediately dilutes in warm water, and 
fastens the paper without the process of damping. 

To make Glue that will Resist Moisture. 
Dissolve gum sandarac and mastic, of each, 2 
oz., in 1 pt. of spirit of wine, adding about 1 oz. 
of clear turpentine. Then take equal parts of isin- 
glass and parchment glue, made according to the 



directions in the preceding article, and having 
beaten the isinglass into small bits, and reduced 
the glue to the same state, pourthe solution of the 
gums upon them, and melt the whole in a vessel 
well covered, avoiding so great a heat as that of 
boiling water. When melted, strain the glue 
through a coarse linen cloth, and then put it again 
over the fire, adding about 1 oz. of powdeied 
glass. 

This preparation may be best managed by hang- 
ing the vessel in boiling water, which will prevent 
the matter burning to the vessel, or the spirit of 
wine from taking fire, and indeed it is better to 
use the same method for all the evaporation of 
nicer glues and sizes ; but, in that case, less water 
than the proportion directed, should be added to 
the materials. 

Another Method. 

A very strong glue, that will resist water, may 
be also made by adding i lb. of common glue, or 
isinglass glue, to 2 qts. of skimmed milk, and then 
evaporating the mixture to the due consistence of 
the glue. 

To make Parchment Glue. 

Take 1 lb. of parchment, and boil it in 6 qts. of 
water, till the quantify be reduced to 1 qt. ; strain 
oB" the fluid from the dregs, and then boil it again 
till it be of the consistence of glue. 

The same may be done with glovers' cuttings of 
leather, which make a colorless glue, if not burnt 
in the evaporation of the water. 

A very Strong Compound Glue. 

Take common glue in very small or thin bits, 
and isinghiss glue; infuse them in as much spirit 
of wine as will cover them, for at least 24 hours. 
Then melt the whole together, and, while they are 
over the fire, add as much powdered chalk as will 
render them an opake white. 

The infusion in the spirit of wine has been di- 
rected in the recipes given for glue ; but the re- 
mark on the use of it in one of the preceding arti- 
cles will hold good also in this, and the mixturj 
may be made with water only. 

To make Compound Glue. 
Take very fine flour, mix it with white of eggs 
isinglass, and a little yeast; mingle the materials, 
beat them well together; spread them, the batter 
being made thin with gum-water, on even tin 
plates, and dry them in a stove, then cut them out 
for use. To color them, tinge the paste with Bra- 
zil, or vermilion for red ; indigo or verditer, etc., 
for blue'; saffron, turmeric, or gamboge, etc., for 
yellow. 

To make Isinglass Glue. 

This is made by dissolving beaten isinglass in 
water by boiling, and having strained it through 
a coarse linen cloth, evaporating it again to such 
a consistence, that, being cold, the glue will be 
perfectly hard and dry. 

A great improvement is made in this glue by 
adding spirit of wine or brandy after it is strained, 
and then renewing the evaporation till it gains tho 
due consistence. 

To make Isinglass Size. 
This may also be prepared in the manner above 
directed for the glue, by increasing the proportion 
of the water for dissolving it, and the same holds 
good of parchment size. A better sort of the com- 
mon size may be likewise made by treated cut- 
tings of glovers' leather in the same manner. 

To make Flour Paste. 
Paste is formed principally of wheaten flonr 
boiled in water till it be of a glutinous or viscid 



356 



CEMENTS. 



consistence. It may be prepared with those in- 
gredients simply for common purposes; but when 
it is used by bookbinders, or for paper-hangings 
to rooms, it is usual to mix a fourth, fifth, or sixth 
of the weight of the flour of powdered resin ; and 
where it is wanted still more tenacious, gum ara- 
bic or any kind of size may be added. 

To make Chinese Paste. 

Mix together bullock's blood and quicklime, in 
the proportion of 1 lb. of the latter to 10 lbs. of 
the former. It becomes a stiff jelly, in which 
state it is sold to the consumers, who beat it down 
with an addition of water, into a state sufficiently 
fluid for use. 

To Weld Tortoise-shell. 

Provide a pair of pincers, the tongs of which 
will reach 4 inches beyond the rivet. Now file the 
tortoise-shell clean to a lap-joint, carefully ob- 
serving that there be no grease about it. Wet the 
joint with water; apply the pincers hot, follow- 
ing them with water, and the shell will be found 
to be joined, as if it were originally one piece. 
Gas-Fitters' Cement. 

Rosin, 5 lbs. ; beeswax, 1 lb. ; red ochre, 1 lb. ; 
plaster of Paris, 3 oz. Finely-powdered brick- 
dust may be used instead of the red ochre and 
plaster. 

Turners' Cement. 

Soft rosin, 8 oz. ; wax, 1 oz. ; pitch, 1 oz. ; red 
ochre, i oz. ; hard shellac, 2 oz. ; powdered pumice, 
1 oz. 

Opticians' Cement. 

Sifted wood-ashes, 1 oz. ; melted pitch, 3J oz. 

Lapidaries' Cement. 
Rosin, 10 oz. ; beeswax, 1 oz. ; tallow, i oz.; 
red ochre, i oz. 

British Gum. 
Take 1000 lbs. of starch, moisten with a mix- 
ture of 300 lbs. of water, and 2 lbs. of nitric acid, 
allow it to dry spontaneously, and heat for 1 or 2 
hours in stoves, at a temperature of 212° to 230° 
Fahr. 

Preparing Glue for Ready Use. 

1. To any quantity of glue use common whiskey 
insteady of water. Put both together in a bottle, 
cork it tight, and set it for 3 or 4 days, when it 
will be fit foi use without the application of heat. 
Glue thus prepared will keep for years, and is at 
all times fit for use, except in very cold weather, 
when it should be set in warm water before using. 
To obviate the difficulty of the stopper getting 
tight by the glue drying in the mouth of the ves- 
sel, use a tin vessel, with the cover fitting tight on 
the outside to prevent the escape of the spirit by 
evaporation. A strong solution of isinglass, 
made in the same manner, is an excellent cement 
for leather. 

2. Take of best white glue, 16 oz. ; white lead, 
dry, 4 oz. ; rain-water, 2 pts. ; alcohol, 4 oz. With 
constant stirring dissolve the glue and lead in the 
water by means of a water-bath. Add the alcohol, 
and continue the heat for a few minutes. Lastly, 
four into bottles while it is still hot. 

Liquid Glue. 
Take 2 and l-5th lbs. of glue, and dissolving it 
in 2 and l-9th pts. of water in a glazed pot over 
a gentle fire, or, what is better, in the water-bath, 
stirring it from time to time. When all the glue 
is melted, 7 oz. Av. of nitric acid (spec. grav. 1-32) 
are to be poured in, in small quantities at a time. 
This addition produces an effervescence, owing to 
(be disengagement of hyponitric acid. When all 



the acid is added, the vessel is to be taken from 
the fire, and left to cool. 

Aniither. — Dissolve the best isinglass in the 
strongest (glacial) acetic acid. 

Bottle Cement. 
Resin, 15 parts; tallow, 4 (or wax, 3) parts; 
highly dried red ochre, 6 parts; or lampblack suf- 
ficient to give color. 

Diamond Cement. 
Isinglass, 1 oz. ; distilled water, 5 oz. ; dissolve 
and boil down to 3 oz. ; add H oz. of alcohol, 
boil for a minute or two. Strain, and while hot 
add i oz. of milky emulsion of gum ammoniac, 
and 5 drs. of tincture of mastic. 

Oxychloride of Zinc Cement. 
In liquid chloride of zinc, of 50° to 60° Beaum6, 
dissolve 3 per cent, of borax or sal ammoniac; 
add oxide of zinc (zinc white) until the mass is of 
proper consistence. This cement, when hard, be- 
comes as firm as marble. It may be cast into 
moulds like plaster, as used in Mosaic work. 
Bird Lime. 
Boil the middle part of the holly 7 or 8 hours 
in water ; drain it, and lay it in heaps in the 
ground, covered with stones, for 2 or 3 weeks, till 
reduced to a mucilage. Beat this in a mortar, 
wash it in rain-water, and knead it till free from 
extraneous matters. Put it into earthen pots, and 
in 4 or 5 days it will be fit for use. An inferior 
kind is made by boiling linseed-oil for some hours, 
until it becomes a viscid paste. 

Transparent Cement. 
Dissolve 75 parts India-rubber in 60 parts of 
chloroform or benzine, and add to the solution 15 
parts of mastic. 

Another. — Balsam of fir is a strong cement 
when not exposed to heat. It is to be warmed 
and applied to the glass, itself previously warmed. 
It is used for cementing lenses, mounting micro- 
scopic objects, etc., and does very well for broken 
glass when it is not to be washed in warm water. 
The thicker the balsam the stronger, when too 
thin it may be thickened by gentle evaporation. 
To make Papier Water-proof. 
Dissolve 8 oz. of alum and 3i oz. of white soap 
in 4 pints of water; in another vessel dissolve 2 
oz. of gum Arabic and 4 oz. of glue in 4 pints or 
water. Mix the two solutions and make the mix- 
ture hot. Immerse the paper in the mixture, an(l 
then hang it up to dry or pass it between cyl- 
inders. 

The alum, soap, glue, and gum form a sort of 
artificial covering which protects the surface of 
the paper from the action of water, and to a cer- 
tain extent from fire. This paper will be very 
useful for packages which may be exposed to the 
inclemency of the weather. 

Neiv Applications for Gun-cotton. 
In order to obtain cheap gun-cotton it may be 
made of rags instead of new cotton. It is first 
dissolved in any of its solvents, such as ether and 
alcohol, and becomes collodion. To this is now 
added any of the purest animal and vegetable oils, 
and it forms the new liquid which is to be used 
as a cement and vehicle. By adding to it guma 
and resins a cement is formed, which may be 
rolled out into sheets and stamped in dies into 
cups, fancy boxes, and various other articles. The 
oxide of copper imparts a green color to it, and 
the chloride of lime added renders it uninflam- 
mable. The addition of fine flax fibre, or the 
flocks of wool, renders it strong and flexible. It is 
stated to be an excellent compound for taking 



SEALING-WAX. 



357 



oasts requirod for the purposes of dentistry, the 
models of jewellers, and other articles requiring 
sharp and smootii edges and sides. 

The collodion oil-liquid, when very thin, may also 
be employed as a varnish for pictures, prints, etc. 
Artificial Wood. 
In one of his last lectures at the " Conservatoire 
des Arts et Metiers," M. Payeu called the atten- 
tion of his hearers to the process of making a kind 
of ebony or artificial wood, very hard, very heavy, 
and capable of receiving a very high polish and 
a brilliant varnish. M. Ladry, the inventor of 
this process, takes very fine saw-dust, mixes it 
with blood from the slaughter-houses, and sub- 
mits the resulting paste to a very heavy pressure 
obtained by the hydraulic press. If the paste has 
been enclosed in moulds it will take the form of 
the moulds, and resembles pieces of ebony carved 
by a skilful hand. 

Another curious application of this paste con- 
sists in the formation of brushes; the bristles are 
arranged in the paste while yet soft; the paste is 
covered by a plate pierced with holes, through 
which the bristles pass; the pressure is then ap- 
plied and brushes are obtained, made of a single 
piece cheaper and more lasting than the usual 
kind. This artificial wood of M. Ladry is much 
heavier than common woods. 

Blood Cement for Coppersmiths. 
A cement often used by copper.-imiths to lay over 
the rivets and edges of the sheets of copper in 
large boilers, to serve as an additional security to 
the joinings, and to secure cocks, etc., from leak- 
ing, is made by mixing pounded quickliuie with 
ox's blood. It must be applied fresh made, as it 
60on gets hard. If the properties of this cement 
were duly investigated, it would probably be 
found useful for many purposes to which it has 
never yet been applied. It is extremely cheap, 
and very durable. 

Entomologist's Cement. 
To a solution of gum ammoniac in proof spirit, 
add the Ijjst isinglass, and unite them with a gen- 
tle heat. The great value of this cement consists 
in the re (> din ess with which it melts, and the little 
tendencj it has to be affected by moisture. It is 
generally employed by entomologists in rejoining 
the di.slj3ated parts of insects, for which it is very 
convenient. 

Japanese Cement, or Rice Glue. 
This elegant cement is made by mixing rice- 
flour intimately with cold water, and then gently 
boiling it; it is beautifully white, and dries almost 
transparent. Papers pasted together by means 
of this cement will sooner separate in their own 
substance than at the joining, which makes it 
useful in the preparation of curious paper articles, 
as tea-tray.'), ladies' dressing boxes, and other ob- 
jects that require layers of paper to be cemented 
together. 



SEALING-WAX. 
Blue. 

1. Shellac, 2 parts; dammar resin, 2 parts; 
Burgundy pitch, 1 part; Venice turpentine, 1 part; 
artificial ultramarine, 3 parts. 

2. JJyht Bine. — As the last, with 1 part of dry 
Bulphafe of lead. 

3. Dark Dine. — Venice turpentine, 3 oz. ; finest 
ehellac, 7 oz. ; clear amber or black resin, 1 oz. ; 
Prussian blue, 1 oz. ; carbonate of magnesia, 1^ 
dr. The last two to be made into a stiff paste 
with oil of turpentine and added to the melted 
ehellac and Venice turpentine. 



Black. 

1. Venice turpentine, 4i oz. ; shellac, 9 oi. ; 
colophony, ^ oz.; lampblack mixed to a past* 
with oil of turpentine, q. s. 

2. Inferior. — Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; shellac, 
8 oz. ; 3 oz of colophony, and sufficient lampblack 
mixed with oil of turpentine to color it. 

3. Shellac, 8 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; lamp- 
black, 6 oz. 

4. Common, for Bottles. — Resin, 6 oz.; shellac, 
2 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 2 oz. j lampblack, q. s. 

Brown. 

1. Light Brown. — Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; 
shellac, 7i oz. : brown earth (English umber), i 
oz. ; cinnabar, i oz. ; prepared chalk, J oz.; car- 
bonate of magnesia, moistened with oil of turpen- 
tine, l^ dr. 

2. Light Brown. — Second Quality. — Venice tur- 
pentine, 4 oz. ; shellac, 7 oz. ; resin, 3 oz. ; English 
umber 3 oz. ; cinnabar, ^ oz. ; prepared chalk, 1 
oz. ; magnesia as the last. 

3. Dark Brown. — Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; fine 
shellac, 1-\ oz.; English umber, 1^ oz. ; magnesia 
as before. 

4. Dixrk Brown. — Second Quality. — Venice tur- 
pentine, 4 oz. ; shellac, 7 oz. ; colophony, 3 oz.j 
English umber, 1^ oz. ; magnesia as before. 

Green. 
Venice turpentine, 2 oz. ; shellac, 4 oz. ; colo- 
phony, U oz. ; King's yellow, i oz. ; Prussian blue, 
i oz. ; magnesia as for brown. 

Gold. 

1. Venice turpentine 4 oz. ; fine shellac, 8 oz. j 
leaf gold, 14 sheets; bronze powder, J oz. ; mag- 
nesia (made into a paste with oil of turpentine), 
IJ dr. 

2. Use gold talc instead of gold leaf and bronze. 

Marhled. 
Melt each colored wax separately, and just as 
they begin to grow solid, mix together. 
Red. 

1. Fine Carmine Wax. — Venice turpentine, 2 
oz. ; finest shellac, 4 oz. ; colophony, 1 oz. ; Eng- 
lish vermilion, li oz. ; magnesia (moistened with 
oil of turpentine), H dr. 

2. Finest Red. — Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; shel- 
lac, 7 oz. : cinnabar, 4 oz. ; carbonate of magnesia 
(with oil of turpentine), 1^ dr; 

3. As the last, with only 3^ oz. of cinnabar. 

4. Ven ice turpentine, 4 oz. ; shellac, 6J oz. ; colo- 
phony, i oz.; cinnabar, 2i oz.; magnesia (with 
oil of turpentine), 1^ dr. 

5. Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; shellac, 6 oz. ; colo- 
phony, J oz. ; cinnabar, 1 J oz. ; magnesia as before. 

6. As the last, but use colophony and cinnabikf, 
each li oz. 

7. Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; shellac 6J ci. ; 
colophony, IJ oz. ; cinnabar, li oz. ; magnesia aa 
before. 

8. Fnglish. — Venice turpentine, 2 oz. ; shellac, 
3 oz. ; vermilion, 1 oz. 

9. Spanish. — Venice turpentine, 8 oz. ; shellac, 
2 oz. ; colophony, 1 oz. ; vermilion, 1 oz. Remove 
from the fire; and add i oz. rectified spirit. 

Yelloio. 
Venice turpentine, 2 oz. ; shellac, 4 oz. ; colo- 
phony, li oz. ; King's yellow, i oz. ; magnesia as 
before. 

Perfumed Wax. 

Add to any of the above a small quantity of 
fine benzoin. 

Common Bottle Wax. 
1. Dark resin, 18 oz. ; shellac, 1 oz. ; beeswax; 



S58 



INKS. 



1 oz. Mix together and color with red-lead, Veni- 
tian-red or lampblack. 

2. Resin, 19 oz. ; beeswax, 1 oz. ; color as 
before. 

India-rnhher Court- Plaster, 

A stout frame of wood must be made, about 3 
yards long and about li yards wide. Within this 
frame must be placed 2 sides of another frame, 
running longitudinally and across, so fixed in the 
cuter frame that the 2 pieces may slide indepen- 
dently of each other backwards and forwards 
about 6 inches. Tapes of canvas must be tacked 
round tiie inside of the inner frame, so as to form 
a square for the material to be sewn in, which, 
■when done, the two loop-frames must be drawn 
tightly to the outer by means of a twine passed 
round each, in order to stretch perfectly free from 
irregularities the silk or satin previous to layiog 
on the composition. 

To mnke the Plaster. 

Dissolve India-rubber in naphtha or naphtha 
and turpentine; lay it on with a fiat brush on the 
opposite side to that which is intended for the 
plaster. When the silk is perfectly dry, and the 
smell in a great measure dissipated, it will be 
ready for the adhesive material; to make which 
take equal parts of Salisbury or fine Russian glue 
and the best isinglass, dissolve in a sufficient quan- 
tity of water over a water-bath, and lay on with 
a flat hogtool while warm. It is requisite to use 
great caution to spread the plaster evenly and in 
one direction, and a sufficient number of coatings 
must be given to form a smooth surface, through 
■which the texture of the fabric is not perceptible. 
Each coatmg should be perfectly dry before the 
succeeding one is given ; after which the frame is 



to be placed in a situation free from dust, and 
where a draught of air would facilitate the dry- 
ing. The quantity of water used and the weight 
of the two materials mu.-^t be a litlle varied, ac- 
cording to the season iind the gelatine strength 
they possess. Lastly, the plaster being ready to 
receive the polishing coat, which gives also the 
balsamic effect to it, a preparation is made in 
nearly the same manner as the compound tinc- 
ture of benzoin, with the addition of more gums. 
This preparation must be laid on once only, and 
with a brush kept for the purpose. For making 
plasters on colored silk it is only necessary to se 
lect the silk a shade deeper than the colors re- 
quired, as the plaster causes it to appear a little 
lighter. 

Tooth Cements 
Are only recommended when the decay has pro- 
ceeded so far that the ordinary plugging is im- 
possible. Those containing mercury are objected 
to by many. They consist of an amalgam of silver, 
gold, or tin, applied warm. The following have 
been used : 

1. Anhydrous phosphoric acid, 12 grs. ; pure 
caustic lime, 13 grs.; both finely powdered, and 
mixed rapidly in a mortar at the time ot using. 
Smoothe ofi' with the finger moistened with a drop 
of water. 

2. Asbestos, or levigated quartz, made into a 
paste with mastic varnish. 

Artificial Ivory for Photographers. 
Tablets of gelatine or glue are immersed in a 
solution of alumina. When entirely penetrated 
by the alumina, the slabs are to be removed, dried^ 
and polished like ivory. 



INKS, etc. 



PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 

Ordinary black writing-ink contains a mixture 
of the tannates and gallates of the proto and ses- 
quioxide of iron. These are insoluble in water, 
and are suspended by means of gum. Creosote 
or essential oils are added to prevent moulding. 

Many receipts are given for inks; those found 
below are reliable. As a general rule, the use of 
vinegar, logwood, and salts of copper is not to be 
recommended. Inks so prepared are richer at 
first, but will fade and act on pens. 

Most ink is pale when first written with, but 
becomes dark; this is owing to oxidation. Such 
ink lasts better than that which is very black. 

When ink fades, it is from a decomposition of 
the organic matter; it may be restored by brush- 
ing over with infusion of galls or solution of ferro- 
cyanide of potassium. The durability of any ink 
is impaired by the use of steel pens. 

Writing Fluids, 
Ink which is blue when first used (Stark's, Ste- 
phens's, Arnold's) contains sulphate of indigo, or 
soluble Prussian blue. It is an ink which is a 
true solution, and not merely a suspended precip- 
itate. The same is true of llunge's Chrome Ink. 

Marking Inks, 
Containing nitrate of silver, are not indelible; 
they may be removed by cyanide of potassium. 

Carbon inks, such as coal-tar diluted with naph- 
tha* are indelible. 



Aniline black is nearly indelible ; it is turned 
yellowish, but not removed, by chlorine. 
To make common Black Ink, 

Pour 1 gall, of boiling soft water on 1 lb. of 
powdered galls, previously put into a proper ves- 
sel. Stop the mouth of the vessel, and set it in 
the sun in summer, or in winter where it may be 
warmed by any fire, and let it stand 2 or 3 days. 
Then add J lb. of green vitriol powdered, and, 
having stirred the mixture well together with a 
wooden spatula, let it stand again for 2 or 3 days, 
repeating the stirring, when add further to it 5 oz. 
of gum Arabic dissolved in a quart of boiling 
water; and, lastly, 2 oz. of alum ; alter which let 
the ink be strained through a coarse linen cloth 
for use. 

Another, — A good and durable black ink may 
be made by the following directions : To 2 pts. of 
water add i oz. of the dark-colored, rough-skinned 
Aleppo galls in gross powder, and of rasped log- 
wood, green vitriol, and gum arable, each, 1 oz. 

This mixture is to be put in a convenient vessel, 
and well shaken four or five times a day, for ten 
or twelve days, at the end of which time it will 
be fit for use, though it will improve by remaining 
longer on the ingredients. 

Stark's Ink ( Writing fluid). 

Twelve oz. nut-galls, 8 oz. each, sulphate of indi- 
go and copperas, a few cloves, 4 or 6 oz. of gum Ara- 
bic for a gallon of ink. The addition of tho sul- 
phate of indigo renders the ink more permanent 



MARKING INK. 



859 



and less liable to mould. It is blue when first 

written with, l>ut soon becomes an intense blacij. 

Chrome Ink (Runge's Ink). 

This ink is of an excellent blue-black, does not 
fade, and, as it contains no gum, flows freely from 
the pen. It does not affect steel pens. Take 1 
oz. extract of logwood, pour over it 2 qts. of boil- 
ing water, and, when the extract is dissolved, add 
1 dr. of yellow ehromate of potassa. This ink 
can be made for twenty-five cents a gallon. If 
mit into an old inkstand, it must be thoroughly 
cleansed, as ordinary ink decomposes chrome ink. 
N(»i-c(>rri>8!ve Writing Fluid. 

Dissolve sulphate of indigo (chemic or Saxony 
blue) in twelve times its weight of water, add car- 
bonate of soda as long as any precipitate falls, 
dissolve this in 150 parts of boiling water, let it 
settle and use the clear portion. It dries nearly 
black, flows very freely, and will not corrode pens 
or paper. 

Alizarine Ink. Leonhrirdi. 

Digest 24 parts Aleppo galls with .3 parts Dutch 
madder and 120 parts warm water. Filter. Mix 
1.2 parts solution of indigo, 5.2 parts sulphate 
of iron, and 2 parts crude acetate of iron solution. 
This ink contains no gum, cannot get mouldy; 
the tannate of iron is prevented from separating 
by the sulphate of indigo. Alizarine ink may 
be evaporated to dryness and formed into cakes. 
One part with 6 parts hot water will then form 
an excellent writing fluid. 

Indestructible Ink for Resisting the Action of Cor- 
ronive Substances. 

On many occasions it is of importance to em- 
ploy an ink indestructible by any process, and 
will not equally destroy the material on which it 
is applied. For black ink, 25 grs. of copal, in 
powder, are to be dissolved in 200 grs. of oil of 
lavender, by the assistance of a gentle heat, and 
are then to be mixed with 2^ grs. of lampblack 
and i gr. of indigo; for red ink use 120 grs. of oil 
of lavender, 17 grs. of Copal, and 60 grains of 
vermilion. A little oil of lavender or of turpen- 
tine may be added, if the ink be found too thick- 
A mixture of genuine asphaltum dissolved in oil 
of turpentine or benzine, amber varnish and lamp- 
black, would be still superior. 

This ink is particularly useful in labelling 
phials, etc. containing chemical or corrosive sub- 
stances. 

Ink Powder. 

Take 4 oz. powdered galls, dried sulphate of 
iron, 1 oz. ; powdered gum, 1 oz, ; white sugar, i 
oz. ; to make a quart of ink with water or beer. 



MARKING INK. 

Jules Guillier, who received five years' exclusive 
privilege in Paris for making marking inks, gives 
the following formulae. But one preparation is 
required, and the inventor states that they will 
not wash out or fade. 

No 1. Nitrate of silver, 11 parts; distilled wa- 
ter, 85 parts ; powdered gum Arabic, 20 parts : 
Irbonate of soda, 22 parts; solution of ammonia, 
.•0 parts. Dissolve the carbonate of soda, and af- 
terwards the gum (by trituration in a mortar) in 
the water, dissolve the nitrate of silver in the 
ammonia and add to the carbonate of soda solu- 
tion. Heat gently to the boiling point; the ink 
at first turbid, becomes clear and very dark. 

No. 2. Nitrate of silver, 5 parts ; distilled wa- 
ter, 12 parts; powdered gum Arabic, 5 p;irts; car- 
bonate of soda, 7 parts; solution of ammonia, 10 
parts. Heat as before, and heat until it has a 
Tery dark color. This ink i."! very black and is 
suitable for marking by stamps. 



A Purple-red Ink for ifarhing Lint.t^ 
The place where the linen is to be marked is 
first wetted with a solution consisting ol 3 drs. 
of cnrbonate of soda, and .? drs. of gum Arabic, 
dissolved in IJ oz. of wafer, then dried and 
smoothed. The place is now to be written on 
with a solution composed of 1 dr. of chloride of 
platina dissolved in 2 oz. of distilled water, then 
allowed to dry. When quite dry, the writing ia 
to be painted over with a goose's feather, moist- 
ened with a liquid consisting of one dr. of proto- 
chloride of tin dissolved in 2 oz. of distilled water. 

Blue and Indelible Black Ink. 
Take of iodide of potassium, 1 oz. ; iodine, 6 
drs.; water, 4 oz. ; dissolve. Make a solution of 
2 oz. of ferrocyanide of potassium in water. Add 
the iodine solution to the second. A blue pre- 
cipitate will fall, which, after filtering, may be 
dissolved in Wiiter, forming a blue ink. This blue, 
added to common ink, renders it indelible. 

C'irmine Ink. 

Dissolve 10 grs. of the best carmine in the least 
qunntiry possible of solution of ammonia. Let it 
stand for 24 hours, and add 2i fl. oz. of distilled 
water. 

To take out Spots of Ink. 

As soon as the accident happens, wet the placa 
with juice of sorrel or lemon, or with vinegar, and 
the best hard white soap, or use a weak solution 
of oxalic acid. 

7'o take out Harking Ink. 

Ordinary marking-ink is removed by wetting 
with a solution of cyanide of potassium, and after- 
wards washing with water. The cyanide must be 
carefully handled, as it is a violent poison. 
To make New Writing look Old. 

Take 1 dr. of saffron, and infuse it into i pt. of 
ink, and warm it over a gentle fire, and it will 
cause whatever is written with it to turn yellow, 
and appear as if of many years' standing. 

To Write on Greasy Paper or Parchment. 

Put to a bullock's gall 1-handful of salt, and J 
pt. of vinegar, stir it until it is mixed well ; when 
the paper or parchment is greasy, put 1 drop of 
the gall into the ink, and the difficulty will be in- 
stantly obviated. 

To Restore Decayed Writings. 

1. Cover the letters with solution of ferrocya- 
nide of potassium, with the addition of a diluted 
mineral acid; upon the application of which, the 
letters change very speedily to a deep blue color, 
of great beauty and intensity. To prevent the 
spreading of the color, which, by blotting the 
parchment, detracts greatly from the legibility, 
the ferrocyanide should be put on first, and the 
diluted acid added upon it. The method found 
to answer best has been to spread the ferrocya- 
nide thin with a feather or a bit of stick cut to a 
blunt point. Though the ferrocyanide should oc- 
casion no sensible change of color, yet the mo- 
ment the acid comes upon it, every trace of a let- 
ter turns at once to a fine blue, which soon acquires 
its full intensity, and is beyond comparison 
stronger than the color of the original trace. If, 
then, the corner of a bit of blotting-paper be care- 
fully and dexterously applied near the letters, so 
as to imbibe the superfluous liquor, the staining of 
the parchment may be in a great measure avoided ; 
for it is this superfluous liquor which, absorbing 
part of the coloring matters from the letters, be- 
comes a dye to whatever it touches. Care must be 
taken not to bring the blotti.ig-paper m contact 
with the letters, because the coloring matter is soft 



360 



INKS. 



■whilst wet, and may ensily be rubbed off. The 
acid ohiefly employed is the muriatic : but both 
the sulphuric and nitric succeed very well. They 
should be so far diluted as not to be liable to 
corrode the parchment, after which the degree 
of strength does not seem to be a matter of much 
nicety. 

2. Moriff'g Procens. — The paper or parchment 
written on is first left for some time in contact 
with distilled water. It is then placed for 5 seconds 
in a solution of oxalic acid (1 of acid to 100 of 
water) ; next, after washing it, it is put in a. vessel 
containing a solution of gallic acid (10 grs. of acid 
to .300 of distilled water); and finally washed 
again and dried. The process should be carried 
forward with care and promptness, that any acci- 
dental discoloration of the paper may be avoided. 

To take Impressions from Recent MoiiHScripts. 
This is done by means of fusible metal. In or- 
der to show the application of it, p.nste a piece of 
paper on the bottom of a China saucer, and allow 
it to dry; then write upon it with a common wri- 
ting ink, and sprinkle some finely powdered gum 
Arabic over the writing, which produces a slight 
relief. When it is well dried, aird the adhering 
powder brushed off, the fusible metal is poured 
into the .«aucer, and is cooled rapidly, to prevent 
crystallization. The metal then takes a cast of 
the writing, and, when it is imniersed in slightly 
warm water to remove adhering gum, impres- 
sions may be taken from it as from a copper-plate. 
Another Method. 
Put a little sugar into a common writing ink, 
and let the writing be executed with this upon 
common paper, sized as usual. When a copy is 
required, let unsized paper be taken and lightly 
moistened with a sponge. Then apply the wet 
paper to the writing, and passing lightly aflat-iron, 
of a moderate heat, such as is used by laundresses, 
over the unsized paper, the copy will be imme- 
diately produced. This method requires no ma- 
chine or preparation, and may be employed in any 
situation. 

To Produee a Facsimile of any Writing. 
The pen should be made of glass enamel ; the 
point being small and finely polished; so that the 
part above the point may be large enough to hold 
as much ink as, or more than a common writing- 
pen. 

A mixture of equal parts of Frankfort black, 
and fresh butter, is now to be smeared over sheets 
of paper, and rubbed off after a certain time. The 
paper, thus smeared, is to be pressed for some 
hours, taking care to have sheets of blotting- 
paper between each of the sheets of black ))aper. 
When fit for use, writing-paper is put between 
sheets of blackened paper, and the upper sheet is 
to be written on, witb common writing-ink, by the 
glass or enamel pen. By this method, not only 
the copy is obtained on which the pen writes, but 
also two or more, made by means of the blackened 
paper. 

Substitute for Copying Machines. 
In the common ink used, dissolve lump sugar 
(1 dr. to 1 oz. of ink). Moisten the copying paper, 
and then put it in soft cap-paper to absorb the su- 
perfluous moisture. Put the moistened paper on 
the writing, place both between some soft paper, 
and either put the whole in the folds of a carpet, 
or roll upon a ruler 3 or 4 times. 
To Copy Writings. 
Take a piece of unsized paper exactly of the 
■ize of the paper to be copied; moisten it with 
water, or with the following liquid: Take of dis- 
tilled vingar, 2 lbs., dissolve it in 1 oz. of boracio 



acid ; then take 4 oz. of oyster-shells calcined to 
whiteness, and carefully freed from their brown 
crust; put them into the vinegar, shake the mix- 
ture frequently for 24 hours, then let it stand till 
it deposits its sediment; filter the clear part 
through unsized paper into a glass vessel; then 
add 2 oz. of the best Aleppo galls bruised, and 
place the liquor in a warm place; shake it fie. 
quently for 24 hours, then filter the liquor again 
through unsized paper, and add to it after filtra- 
tion, 1 qt., ale measure, of pure water. It mu^t 
then stand 24 hours, and be filtered again, if it 
shows a disposition to deposit any sediment, which 
it generally does. When paper has been wet with 
this liquid, put it between 2 thick unsized paperi 
to absorb the superfluous moisture ; then lay it 
over the writing to be copied, and put a piece of 
clean writing-paper above it. Put the whole oa 
the board of a rcdling-press, and press them 
through the rolls, as is done in printing copper- 
plates, and a copy of the writing will appear on 
both sides of the thin moistened paper; on one 
side in a reversed order and direction, but on the 
other side in the natural order and direction of 
the lines. 



COPPER-PLATE PRINTERS' INK. 

Ink for the rolling-press is made of linseed-oil, 
burnt just as for common printing-ink, and is then 
mixed with Frankfort black, finely ground. There 
are no certain proportions, every workman adding 
oil or black to suit. Good ink depends most on 
the purity of the oil, and on its being thoroughly 
burned. Test it occasionally by cooling a drop 
on the inside of an oyster-shell; feel it between 
the thumb and finger, and if it draws out into 
threads, it is burnt enough. Weak oil well 
charged with black is called stiff ink. Oil fully 
burned and charged with as much black as it 
will take in, is termed strong ink. The character 
of the engraving to be printed determines which 
is suitable. It is cleaned out with spirits of tur- 
pentine. 

Another Method. 

Instead of Frankfort, or other kinds of black 
commonly used, the following composition may be 
substituted, and will form a much deeper and more 
beautiful black than can be obtained by any other 
method. Take of the deepest Prussian blue, 5 
parts, and of the deepest colored lake and brown 
pink, each 1 part. Grind them well with oil of 
turpentine, and afterwards with the strong and 
weak oils in the manner and proportion above 
directed. The colors need not be bright for this 
purpose, but they should be the deepest of the 
kind, and perfectly transparent in oil, as the whole 
effect depends on that quality. 



PRINTERS' INK. 
Ten or 12 galls, of nut or linseed-oil are set over 
the fire in a large iron pot, and brought to boil. It 
is then stirred with an iron ladle ; and whilst boil- 
ing, the inflammable vapor arising from it either 
takes fire of itself or is kindled, and is suflered to 
burn in this way for about ^ hour; the pot being 
partially covered so as to regulate the body of the. 
flame, and consequently the heat communicated to 
the oil. It is frequently stirred during this time, 
that the whole may be heated equally ; otherwise a 
])art would be charred, and the rest left imperfect. 
The flame is then extinguished by entirely cover- 
ing the pot. The oil, by this process, has much 
of its unctuous quality destroyed; and when cold 
is of the consistence of soft turpentine; it is then 
called varnish. After this, it is made into ink by 
mixture with the requisite quantity of lampblack, 



SYMPATHETIC INKS. 



361 



of which about 2i oz. are sufficient for 16 oz. of 
the prepared oil. The oil loses by the boiling 
about J of its weight, and emits very offensive 
fumes. Several otlier additions are made to the 
oil during the boiling, such as crusts of bread, 
onions, and sometimes turpentine. These are kept 
secret by the preparers. The intention of them is 
more effectually to destroy part of the unctuous 
quality of oil, to give it more body, to enable it 
to adhere better to the wetted paper, and to spread 
on the tyi>es neatly and uniformly. 

Besides these additions, others are made by the 
printers, of which the most important is a little 
fine indigo in powder, to improve the beauty of 
the color. 

Another Method. 

One pound of lampblack ground very fine or 
run through a lawn sieve; 2 oz. of Prussian blue 
ground very fine; 4 oz. of linseed-oil, well boiled 
and skimmed; 4 oz. of spirit of turpentine, very 
clear; 4 oz. of soft varnish, or neat's-foot oil. To 
be well bulled and skimmed ; and while boiling the 
top burned ofi" by several times applying lighted 
paper. Let these be well mixed ; then put the 
whole in a jug, place that in a pan, and boil them 
very carefully 1 hour. 

A Fine Black Printing-ink. 
Less turpentine and oil, without Prussian blue, 
for common ink. 

Best Printing-ink. 
In a secured iron pot (fire outside when possi- 
ble), boil 12 galls, of nut or linseed-oil; stir with 
iron ladle, long handle; while boiling put an iron 
cover partly over, set the vapor on fire by lighted 
paper often applied ; keep stirring well, and on the 
fire 1 hour at least (or till the oily particles are 
burnt) ; then add 1 lb. of onions cut in pieces, and 
a few crusts of bread, to get out the residue of 
oil; also varnish, 16 oz. ; fine lampblack, 3 oz. ; 
ground indigo, J oz. Boil well 1 hour. 

Good Common Printing-ink. 
Take 16 oz. of varnish, 4 oz. of linseed-oil well 
boiled, 4 oz. of clear oil of turpentine, 16 oz. of 
fine lampblack, 2 oz. of Prussian blue, fine, 1 oz. 
of indigo, fine. Boil 1 hour. 

Printers' Bed Ink. 

Soft varnish and vermilion with white of eggs 
not very thick. Common varnish, red lead and 
orange. Coleothar is indelible. 
Blue. 

Prussian blue and a little ivory -black with var- 
nish and eggs very thick. Common indigo and 
varnish ; then wash off with boiling lees. 
Green. 

Sesquioxide of chromium (chrome green). This 
is the ink used in printing Greenbacks. It is in- 
destructible, and cannot be photographed. 

Perpetual Ink for Inscriptions on Tombstones, 
Marbles, etc. 

This ink is formed by mixing about 3 parts of 
pitch with 1 part of lampblack, and making them 
incorporate by melting the pitch. With this com- 
position, used in a melted state, the letters are 
filled, and will, without extraordinary violence, en- 
dure as long as the stone itself. 

Ink for Writing on Zinc Labels, 
Hnrf'culiiiral ink. — Dissolve 100 grs. of chloride 

of platinum in a pint of water. A little mucilage 

and lampblack may be added. 

Another. — Jlix thoroughly 2 parts (by weight) 

verdigris, 2 of sal auioniac, 1 of lampblack, and 

30 of water. Always shake well before using, and 



write with a quill pen. Writings made on zino 
with this ink will keep many years. 
Indian-ink. 

Let ivory or lampblack be mixed with a small 
portion of Prussian blue or indigu, for a blue- 
black, and let the same blacks be united with raw 
or burnt umber, bistre, Vandyke or any other 
hrownj instead of the blue, for a brown-black. 
These shuulil be mixed together in a weak gum- 
water (perhi'.ps matt-work would answer the pur- 
pose better), first levigating them very fine, in 
common water, on a marble slab. When dried to 
the consistence of a paste, let the glutinous mat- 
ter be well mixed with them ; that will be found 
sufficiently strong, which binds the composition, 
so as to prevent rubbing off' by the touch. Indian- 
ink drawings should be handled as lightly as pos- 
sible. Too much gum in the composition will 
create an offensive gloss. 

Another Method. 

Isinglass, 6 oz., and 12 oz. of soft water; make 
into size; add 1 oz. of refined liquorice, ground 
up with 1 oz. of genuine ivory-black, and stir the 
whole well. Evaporate the water in balneum ma- 
riae, and form the sticks or cakes. 

A Substitute for Indian-ink. 

Boil parchment slips or cuttings of glove-leather 
in water till it forms a size, which, when cool, be- 
comes of the cor.sistence of jelly; then, having 
blackened an ea*.thcn plate, by holding it over the 
flame of a can'lle, mix up, with a camel-hair pen- 
cil, the fine lampblack thus obtained with some 
of the above size, while the plate is still warm. 
This black requires no grinding, and produces an 
ink of the same color, which works as freely with 
the pencil, and is as perfectly transparent as the 
best Indian-ink. 



SYMPATHETIC INKS. 

Sympathetic inks are such as do not appear 
after they are written with, but which may be 
made to appear at pleasure by certain means to be 
used for that purpose. A variety, of substances 
have been used as sympathetic inks, among which 
are the following : 

Chloride of Gold and Tin. 

Write with a solution of gold in aqua regia, 
and let the paper dry gently in the shade. Noth- 
ing will appear, but draw a sponge over it, wetted 
with a solution of tin in aqua regia, and the wri- 
ting will immediately appear, of a purjjle color. 
Starch and Iodine. 

Write with weak boiled starch, and when the 
writing is required to appear, brush over with a 
weak solution of iodine; the letters will appear 
blue. 

Chloride of Cobalt, 
When pure, is invisible in dilute solution, but gives 
a blue when exposed to a gentle heat; if it con- 
tain (as it usually does) some nickel, the color 
will be green. A little common salt should be 
added to the solution, so that it will remain more 
on the paper. It can then be brought out and 
suffered to fade for many successive times. 
Other Si/mpathetic Inks. 

Write on paper with a solution of nitrate of 
bismuth, and smear the writing over by means of 
a feather with some infusion of galls. The let- 
ters, which were before invisible, will now appear 
of a brown color. If the previous use of nitrate 
of bismuth be concealed from the spectators, great 
surprise will be excited by the appearance of wri- 
ting, merely by the dash of a feather. The same 
phenomenon will take place when infusion of galls 



862 



METALLURGY. 



is written with, and the salt of bismuth applied 
afterwards. 

Auother. — Write on a sheet of paper any sen- 
tence with a transparent infusion of nut-giiils, and 
dip the paper in a transparent solution of the sul- 
phate of iron. The writing, which was before in- 
visible, will now, on a slight exposure to the air, 
turns quite binck. A neater way of performing 
this experiment will be by smearing the written 
parts over with a feather dipped in the solution of 
the metallic salt ; it may also be reversed, by writing 
■with the salt and smearing with the infusion. 

Auoiher. — If a letter be written with a solu- 
tion of sulphate of iron, the inscription will be 
invisible, but if it afterwards be rubbed over by a 
feather dipped in a solution of prussiate of potassa, 
it will appear of a beautiful blue color. 

Anothei: — Write a letter with a solution of ni- 
trate of bismuth. The letters will be invisible. 
If a feather be now dipped in a solution of the 
prussiate of potass, and rubbed over the paper, the 
•writing will appear of a beautiful yellow color, oc- 
casioned by a formation of prussiate of bismuth. 

Aiiiither. — Write with a solution of sugar of 
lead or tartar emetic ; moisten the writing (or 
drawing) and expose to a current of sulphuretted 
hydrogen gas. The lead will turn black, and the 
antimony orange brown. 

Chemical Londscnpes, 

These are drawn partly in Indian-ink and partly 
in sympathetic inks, which are only visible when 
gently heated. The picture represents ordinarily 
a winter scene, but when heated the sky becomes 
blue, the leaves green, and flowers and fruit are 
seen. The materials are as follows : Green, chlo- 
ride of nickel ; blue, pure chloride or acetate of co- 
balt; yellow, chloride of cop})er; bmwti, bromide 
of copper. If the picture is too highly heated it 
will not again fade. 



COLORED INKS. 
Gold [ilk. 
Mosaic gold, 2 parts, gum Arabic, 1 part, are 
rubbed up with water until reduced to a proper 
condition. 

Silver Lih. 
Triturate in a mortar equal parts of silver foil 
and sulphate of potassa, until reduced to a fine 
powder; then wash out the salt, and mix the resi- 
due with a mucilage of equal parts of gum Arabic 
and water. 

Brown Ink. 
Digest powdered catechu, 4 parts, with water, 
60 parts, for some hours ; filter, and add sufiBcient 
of a solution of bichromate of potassa, 1 part in 
16 of water. 

Yellow Ink. 
Macerate gamboge, 1 part (or IJ) ; alum, i part ; 



gum Arabic, 1 part, in acetic acid, 1 part, and w*. 
ter, 24 parts. 

Blue Ink. 
Triturate best Prussian blue, 6 parts, with a so- 
lution of 1 part of oxalic acid in 6 of water, and 
towards the end of ^ of an hour or so add gradu- 
all3' gum Arabic, 18 parts, and water, 280. Pour 
off clear. 

Red Inks. 

1. Pernambuco-wood, 4 parts; alum and cream 
of tartar, each 1 part, with 30 of water ; boil down 
to 16 parts, let stand, pour off, filter, and dissolve 
in the liquid gum Arabic, IJ parts; white sugar, 1 
part. 

2. Digest powdered cochineal, 8 parts, and car- 
bonate of potash, 16 parts, in 144 of water, for 24 
hours; then boil up with powdered alum, 4 parts, 
and add 24 of cream of tartar, with 3 parts of 
tartaric acid, and, when effervescence has ceased, 
another part of the acid, or enough to produce the 
color; let cool, filter, and boil the residue on the 
filter with 12 parts of water; filter again, mix the 
liquids and dissolve in them 24 parts of gum Ara- 
bic, and lastly J part of oil of cloves. No iron 
vessels must be used in this process. 

3. Digest powdered cochineal, 16 parts ; oxalic 
acid, 2 pa/ts ; dilute acetic acid, 80 parts; distil- 
led water, 40 parts, for 36 hours ; then add pow- 
dered alum, 1 part; gum Arabic. 1 to 10; shake 
up, let stand for 12 hours, and strain. 

4. Dissolve 1 part of carmine in 8 to 10 parts 
of aqua ammonia, and add mucilage of gum Arabic 
sufiicient to reduce it properly. 

Violet Ink. 
Eight parts of logwood and 64 parts of water; 
boil down to one-half, then strain and add 1 part 
of chloride of tin. 

Green Inks. 

1. Digest 1 part of gamboge with from 7 to 10 
parts of the blue ink. 

2. To powdered bichromate of potassa, 8 parts, 
contained in a porcelain dish, add oil of vitriol, 8 
parts, previously diluted with 64 of water ; then 
heat, and, while evaporating, add gradually 24 
parts of alcohol, and reduce to 56 parts, wliieh fil- 
ter, and in the clear liquor dissolve 8 parts of gum 
Arabic. 

Crimson Ink. 

A beautiful crimson ink is made by mixing red 
ink No. 1 with the violet ink ; about equal parts 
will answer. 

The parts given are those of weight, not meas- 
ure. The mucilage of gum Arabic prevents the 
fine particles of color falling to the bottom in the 
form of a sediment. Sugar gives to inks a glossy 
appearance, but very little of it should be used,a» 
it is liable to make the ink sticky. 



META-LLXJUaY. 



ASSAYING OF METALLIC ORES. 

Before metallic ores are worked upon in the 
large way, it will be necessary to inquire what 
sort of metal, and what portion of it, is to be found 
in a determinate quantity of the ore ; to discover 
■whether it will be worth while to extract it largely, 
and in what manner the process is to be oonducted, 



so as to answer that purpose. The knowledge 
requisite for this is called the art of assaying. 

Assay of Ores in the Dry Way. 
The assaying of ores may be performed either 
in the dry or moist way ; the first is the most an- 
cient, and, in many respects the most advanta- 



ASSAYING. 



363 



geous, and consequently still continues to be 
mostly used. 

Assays are made either in crucibles with the 
blast of the bellows, or in tests under a muffle. 
Assay Weights. 

The assay weights are always imafjinary, some- 
times an ounce represents a hundredweight on 
the large scale, and is subdivided into the same 
number of parts, as that hundredweight is in the 
great; so that the contents of the ore, obtained 
by the assay, shall accurately determine by such 
relative proportion the quantity to be expected 
from any weight of the ore on a larger scale. 

Roasting the Ore. 
In the lotting of the ores care should be taken 
to have small portions from different specimens, 
which should be pulverized, and well mixed in an 
iron or brass mortar. The pmper quantity of the 
ore is now taken, and if it contain cither sulphur 
or arsenic it is put into a crucible or test, and ex- 
posed to a moderate degree of heat, till no vapor 
arises from it. To assist this volatilization some 
add a small quantity of powdered charcoal. 

Fluxes. 

To assist the fusion of the ores, and to convert 
the extraneous matters connected wiih them into 
scoria, assayers use different kinds of fluxes. The 
most usual and efficacious materials for the com- 
position of these are, borax, creaui of tartar, nitre, 
sal ammoniac, conanon salt, glass, fluur-spar, char- 
coal powder, pitch, lime, litharge, etc., in different 
proportions. 

As the whole process of which we are speaking 
is merely an experiment, made for the purpose of 
ascertaining what is the nature of the metal con- 
tained in the ore, and the proportion the former 
bears to the latter, the little additional expense in- 
curred by employing animnl instead of vegetable 
charcoal is not to be regarded, particularly when 
4he increased fusibility of the ore, occasioned 
thereby is considered. 

Crude or White Flux. 
This consists of 1 part of nitre and 2 of cream 
of tartar, well mixed together. 

Black Flux. 

The above crude flux detonates by means of 

kindled charcoal, and if the detonation be effected 

in a mortar slightly covered it becomes black. It 

is a mixture of carbonate of potassa and charcoal. 

Cornish Kedncing Flux. 
Mix well together 10 oz. of cream of tartar, 3 
oz. and 6 drs. of nitre, and 3 oz. and 1 dr. of borax. 

Cornish Refining Flnx. 

Deflagrate, .ind afterwards pulverize, 2 parts of 
nitre and 1 part of cream of tartar. 

The above flu.xes answer the purpose very well, 
provided the ores be deprived of all their sulphur, 
or if they contain much earthy matters; bfause, 
in the latter case, they unite with them, and con- 
vert them into a thin glass; but if any quantity 
of sulphur remain, these fluxes unite with it, and 
form a liver of sulphur, which has the power of 
destroying a portion of all the metals; conse- 
quently the assay under such circumstances must 
be very inaccurate. The principal difficulty in 
assaying appears to be in the appropriation of 
the proper fluxes to each particular ore, and it 
likewise appears that such a discriminating knowl- 
edge can only be acquired from an extensive prac- 
tice, or from a knowledge of the chemical affinities 
and actions of different bodies upon each other. 

In assaying we are at liberty to use the most 
expensive materials to effect our purpose, hence j 



the use of different saline fluxes; but in the work.- 
ing at large such expensive means cannot be ap- 
plied, as by such processes the inferior metals 
would be too much enhanced in value, especially 
in working very poor ores. In consequence of 
which in .-^melting works, where the object is the 
production of metals in the great way, cheaper 
additions are used, such as limestone, feldspar, 
fluor-spar, quartz, sand, slate, and slags. These 
are to be chosen according to the different views 
of the operator and the nature of the ores. Thug 
iron ores, on account of the argillaceous earth they 
contain, require calcareous additions, and the cop 
per ores, rather slags or vitrescent stones, thau 
calcareous earth. 

Humid Assay of Metallic Ores. 

The mode of assaying ores for their particular 
metals by the dry way is deficient, so far as relates 
to pointing out the different substances connected 
with them, because they are always destroyed by 
the process for obtaining the assay metal. The 
assay by the moist way is more correct, because 
the different substances can be accurately ascer- 
tained. 

Dry Assay of Iron Ores. 

Mix 100 grs. of the ore, thoroughly powdered, 
with from 30 to 100 grs. of calcined borax. The 
quality of the latter depends upon the (juality of 
the ore, and is to be increased with the foreign 
matters. If the ore contains sulphur, it must first 
be roasted. The mixture is introduced into a cru- 
cible lined with charcoal, covered with powdered 
charcoal, on which is laid a piece of charcoal. The 
crucible is then closed, the cover luted on, and 
submitted to a white heat for an hour. The iron 
is found in the form of a button, and is not pure, 
but gives about the quality of the pig iron which 
will be obtained from the ore. 

Humid Assay of Iron Ore. 

Fueh's method is accurate, and determines the 
relative quantity of protoxide and peroxide in an 
ore, which is often desirable. The only ores to 
which it cannot be applied are those containing 
arsenious acid, and this is not a very common in- 
gredient. 

Dissolve the ore in muria'tic acid, and filter. 
Put into a small round-bottomed flask, and cork 
tightly until ready to boil it. immerse a clean, 
weighed strip of copper, and, removing the cork, 
boil until the copper is no longer attacked. It is 
then taken out, washed, well wiped, and weighed. 
To ascertain the amount of peroxide multiply this 
weight by 40 and divide by 31'7. The quotient 
gives the amount sought. 

To know the whole amount of iron in the ore, 
another portion is weighed out — say 1 gramme 
(about 15 grs.)— and dissolved as before; it is 
then digested with chlorate of potassa, by which 
all the iron is converted into peroxide, after which 
copper will decompose the whole. Multiply the 
loss by 28 and divide by 31'7; the quotient will 
give the whole amount of iron in the ore. 

The presence of copper in the ore will make it 
appear poorer than it really is. 

Volumetric Assay of Iron Ore {Percy). 
Heat 10 grs. of iron-ore, finely pulverized, with 
strong hydrochloric acid, for ^ an hour, in a coni- 
cal-shaped flask with a funnel inserted in the neck; 
when decomposition is complete dilute the solution 
with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and 
add a few pieces of granulated zinc and boil until 
all traces of yellow color disappear, or the solu- 
tion remains of a pale green tint, and free from 
fine particles of zinc. Transfer to a white porce- 
lain dish, and dilute to 20 oz. with distilled water. 



J64 



METALLURGY. 



When cnid it is ready for testing with the follow- 
ing solution. 

Dissolve 50 grs. of crystallized permanganate 
of potassa in 20 oz. of distilled water, and keep it 
in a tightly corked bottle, marked "'St.andard So- 
lution Permanganate of Potassa." To ascertain 
the standard of this solution, dissolve 10 grs. of 
iron piiino wire in dilute hydrochloric acid in a 
narrow-mouth flask with gentle heat. Dilute to 
10 oz. Take 1 oz. of the diluted iron solution and 
dilute to 20 oz. with distilled water in a white por- 
celain dish. 

Allow the solution of permanganate to run 
slowly in from a graduated pipette, stirring con- 
stantly until the solution assumes a faint pink 
color. Record the amount used, this represents 
1 gr. of metallic iron. 

Proceed in the same manner to test the solution 
of ore first obtained, noting the amount required 
to produce the first tint of pink color. Divide 
this amount by the amounts required for 1 gr. of 
iron, and the result is the number of grains of 
metallic iron contained in the ore. 
Tin Ores. 

Mix a quintal of tin ore, previously washed, 
pulverized, and roasted till no arsenical vapor 
arises, with half a quintal of calcined borax, and 
the samequantity of pulverized pitch; these are 
to be put in a crucible lined with charcoal, which 
is placed in an air-furnace. After the pitch is 
burnt, give a violent heat for a quarter of an^hour, 
and on withdrawing the crucible, the reguhis will 
be found at the bottom. If the ore be not well 
washed from earthy matters, a larger quantity of 
borax will be requisite, with some powdered glass ; 
and if the ore contain iron, some alkaline salt may 
be added. 

In the Humid Way^ 

Dissolve the ore in hot muriatic acid, pass 
through the solution a current of sulphuretted 
hydrogen in large excess. Allow the precipitate 
to subside, add to it, with the aid of heat, nitric 
acid until no sulphuretted hydrogen is given off. 
This transforms the tin into stannic acid, wash 
carefully, dry, and weigh. Stannic acid contains 
78.61 per cent, of tin. 

Lead Ores. 

As most of the lead ores contain either sulphur 
or arsenic, they require to be well roasted. Take 
a quintal of roasted ore, with the same quantity 
of calcined borax, i a quintal of fine powdered 
glass, J of a quintal of pitch, and as much clean 
iron filings. Line the crucible with wetted char- 
coal-dust, and put the mixture into the crucible, 
and place it before the bellows of a forge-fire. 
When it is red hot, raise the fire for 16 or 20 
minutes, then withdraw the crucible, and break it 
when cold. 

In the Humid Way. 

Powder the ore (Galena) finely. Moisten with 
fuming nitric acid and digest on the sand-bath. 
This converts the whole into sulphate of lead. 
Dilute with water and filter. The insoluble sul- 
phate of lead will remain in the filter. Wash it 
thoroughly, dry it, and weigh — 100 parts of sul- 
phate of If-ad contain 73.56 parts of oxide of lead 
and 68.28« of metallic lead. 

Zinc Ores. 
Take the assay weight of roasted ore, and mix 
it well with one-eighth part of charcoal-dust, put 
it into a strong luted earthen retort, to which must 
be fitted a receiver; place the retort in a furnace 
and raise the fire, and continue it in a violent heat 
for two hours ; suffer it then to cool gradually, and 



the zinc will be found adhering to the neck o/ the 
retort in its metallic form. 

In the Hnmid Way {Percy). 

Take 20 grs. of the ore (finely pulverized) to b« 
assayed. Digest it for 1 hour in nitric acid 1 
part, water 2 parts, with a few drops of hydro- 
chloric acid ; add cnrbonate of ammonia dissolved 
in liquid ammonia until the reaction is strongly 
alkaline. Digest for half an hour, dilute with an 
equal bulk of distilled water; filter and mark the 
filtrate Sol. A. 

Make a standard solution of zinc by dissolving 
10 grs. of pure zinc in nitric acid and diluting to 
10 oz. Sol. B. 

Make a solution of sulphide of sodium, 1 oz. of 
saturated solution to 10 oz. of distilled water. 
Sol. C. 

Take of solution chloride of iron, ^ oz. ; distilled 
water, 5 oz. : add aqua ammonia: separate all of 
the iron. Shake. Sol. D. 

Take of solution B, 1 oz. ; dilute to 3 oz. ; add 
of solution D, 1 oz. ; take in a graduMted pipette 
of solution C, and add gradually to the mixture of 
B and D (stirring rapidly all the while), until the 
flocculent iron bet/ins to change color to grayish 
black. Make a memorandum of the number of 
graduations of solution C required. This is the 
amount of sulphide of sodium necessary to pre- 
cipitate ] gr. of metallic zinc. 

Take i of solution A (diluted to 12 oz.) equal 6 
oz. ; add of solution D, 2 oz. ; then with gradu- 
ated pipette run in slowly the solution C until the 
flocculent iron begins to change color as before. 
Tiie number of graduations required, divided by 
the number used in the former experiment, indi- 
cate the number of grains of metallic zinc in 10 
grs. of the ore, and represent the per centage 
likewise. 

Copper Ores. 

Take an exact troyounee of the ore, previously 
pulverized, and calcine it well ; stir it all the time 
with an iron rod without rcMuving it from the 
crucible ; after the calcination add an equal quan- 
tity of borax, i the quantity of fusible glass, i the 
quantity of pitch, and a little charcoal-dust; rub 
the inner surface of the crucible with a paste 
composed of charcoal-dust, a little fine powdered 
clay, and water. Cover the mass with common 
salt, and put a lid upon the crucible, which is to 
be placed in a furnace; the fire is to be raised 
gradually till it burns briskly, and the crucible 
continued in it for i hour, stirring the metal fre- 
quently with an iron rod; and when the scoria 
which adheres to the rod appears clear, then the 
crucible must be taken out and suffered to cool; 
after which it must be broken and the regulus 
separated and weighed. This is called black cop- 
per; to refine which equal parts of common salt 
and nitre are to be well mixed together. The 
black copper is brought into fusion, and a tea- 
spoonful of the flux is thrown upon" it, which is 
rejieated 3 or 4 times, when the metal is poured 
into an ingot mould and the button is found to be 
fine copper. 

In the Humid Way. 

Make a solution of vitreous copper ore in 5 
times its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, 
and boil it to dryness; add as much water as will 
dissolve the vitriol thus formed. To this solution 
add a clean bar of iron, which will precipitate the 
whole of the copper in its metallic form. If the 
solution be contaminated with iron, the copper 
must be re-dissolved in the same manner and 
precipitated again. The sulphur may be sep- 
arated by filtration. 



ASSAYING. 



865 



Volumetric Assay of Copper Ore». (Percy.) 
Dissolve 10 grs. of the copper ore finely pulver- 
ized ami moistened with strong sulphuric acid, in 
strong nitric acid, adding the acid gradually ; and 
when the fumes of hyponitric acid cease to be 
evolved, add a small amount of vrater and boil 
for a few minutes. Dilute to 10 oz. and treat with 
ammonia in excess, and it will become of a deep 
blue color. Set aside to cool, and prepare the 
following solution: Dissolve 500 grs. of granu- 
lated cyanide of potassium in 20 oz. of distilled 
water, and keep in a tight-stoppered bottle in the 
dark. Mark " Standard Solution Cyanide of Po- 
tassium." To ascertain the standard of this solu- 
tion, dissolve 10 grs. of electrotype copper in di- 
lute nitric acid and boil to expel hyponitric acid 
fumes, and dilute to 10 oz. with distilled water. 
Take of this solution 1 oz. and dilute to 5 oz. with 
distilled water, and allow the standard cyanide 
solution to flow very slowly into it at intervals, 
from a graduated pipette, and note the amount 
used to render it nearly colorless. This process 
takes from J to J of an hour. Proceed in the 
same manner to test the solution of ore first ob- 
tained, noting the amount required to reduce the 
color to a faint lilac. Divide this amount by the 
amount found required for 1 gr. of metallic copper, 
and the result is the number of grains of metallic 
copper in the ore tested. 

Bismuth Ores. 
If the ore be mineralized by sulphur, or sulphur 
and iron, a previous roasting will be necessary. 
The strong ores require no roasting, but only to 
be reduced to a fine powder. Take the assay 
weight and mix it with half the quantity of cal- 
cined borax, and the same of pt)unded glass; line 
the crucible with charcoal, melt it as quickly as 
possible, and when well done, take out the cruci- 
ble and let it cool gradually. The regulus will be 
found at the bottom. 

In the Humid Way. 
Bismuth is easily soluble in nitric acid or aqua 
regia. Its solution is colorless and is precipitable 
by the addition of pure water; 118 grs. of the 
precipitate from nitric acid, well washed and 
dried, are equal to 100 of bismuth in its metallic 
form. 

Antimonial ores. 
Take a common crucible, bore a number of small 
holes in the bottom, and place it in another cruci- 
ble a size smaller, luting them well together; then 
put the proper quantity of ore in small lumps 
into the upper crucible, and lute thereon a cover; 
place these vessels on a hearth and surround them 
with stones about 6 in. distant from them ; the 
intermediate space must be filled with ashes, so 
that the undermost crucible may be covered with 
them ; but upon the upper charcoal must he laid, 
and the whole made red hot by the assistance of 
hand bellows. The antimony being of easy fusion 
is separated, and runs through the holes of the 
upper vessel into the inferior one, where it is col- 
lected. 

Humid Assay of Arseniated Antimony. 
Dissolve the ore in aqua regia; the sulphur is 
separated by filtration. Evaporate the solution to 
dryness and heat below redness until all the nitric 
acid is expelled. The resulting antimonie acid 
contains 76.33 per cent, of metallic antimony. 
Manganese Ores. 
The regulus is obtained by mixing the calx or 
ore of manganese with oil, making it into a ball, 
and putting it into a crucible lined with powdered 
charcoal I- 10th of an inch on the sides, and \ of 
an inch at bottom j then filling the empty space 



with charcoal -dust, covering the crucible with 
another inverted and luted on, and exposing it 
to the strongest heat of a forge for an hour or 
more. The ore is very difficult to reduce. 
Arsenical Ores. 

This assay is made by sublimation in close ves 
sels. Beat the ore into small pieces and put them 
into a matrass, which place in a sand-pot with \\ 
proper degree of heat. The arsenic sublimes in 
this operation and adheres to the upper part of 
the vessel: when it must be carefully collected, 
with a view to ascertain its weight. A singla 
sublimation will not be sufficient. It is better to 
perform the first sublimation with a moderate 
heat, and afterwards bruise the remainder and 
expose it to a stronger heat. The addition of 
charcoal is useful. 

In the Humid Way. 

Digest the ore in muriatic acid, adding nitric 
by degrees, to help the solution. The sul|)hiir 
will be found on the filter; the arsenic will remain 
in the solution, and may be precipitated in its 
metallic form by boiling with a strip of copper. 
Nickel Ore. 

The ores must be well roasted to expel the sul- 
phur and arsenic; the greener the calx proves 
during this torrefaction, the more it abounds in 
the nickel; but the redder it is, the more iron it 
contains. The proper quantity of this roasted ore 
is fused in an open crucible, with twice or thrice 
its weight of black flux, and the whole covered 
with common salt. By exposing the crucible to 
the strongest heat of a forge fire, and making the 
fusion complete, a regulus will be produced. This 
regulus is not pure, but contains a portion of ar- 
senic, cobalt, and iron. Of the first it may be 
deprived by a fresh calcination, with the addition 
of powdered charcoal ; and of the second by scori- 
fication. But it is with difficulty that it is entirely 
freed from the iron. 

In the Humid Way. 

By solution in nitric acid it is freed from its 
sulphur; and by adding water to the solution, 
bismuth, if any, may be precipitated; as may 
silver, if contained it, by muriatic acid; and cop- 
per, when any, by iron. 

To separate cobalt from nickel, the two oxides 
are dissolved in muriatic acid ; the solution diluted 
with distilled water. The liquor is saturated with 
chlorine, and when cold, an excess of precipitated 
carbonate of baryta added. It is then set aside 
for 18 hours, when the cobalt will be precipitated 
as sesquioxide, while the nickel will remain in 
solution. 

Cobalt Ores. 

Free them as much as possible from earthy mat- 
ters by well washing, and from sulphur and arse- 
nic by roasting. The ore thus prepared is to be 
mixed with 3 parts of black flux, and a little de- 
crepitated sea-salt; put the mixture in a lined 
crucible, cover it, and place it in a forge-fire, or 
in a hot furnace, for this ore is very difficult of 
fusion. 

When well fused, a metallic regulus will be 
found at the bottom, covered with a scoria of a 
deep blue color; as almost all cobalt ores contain 
bismuth, this is reduced by the same operation as 
the regulus of cobalt; but as they are incapable 
of chemically uniting together, they are always 
found distinct from each other in the crucible. 
The regulus of bismuth, having a greater specific 
gravity, is always at the bottom, and may be 
separated by a blow with a hammer. 
In the Humid Way. 

Make a solution of the ore in nitric acid, or 



366 



METALLURGY. 



aqua regia, and evaporate to dryness; the resi- 
duum, treated with the acetic acid, will yield to it 
the cobalt ; the arsenic should be first precipitated 
by the addition of water. 

Mercurial Ores, 
The calciform ores of mercury are easily re- 
duced without any addition. A quintal of the ore 
is put into a retort, and a receiver luted on, con- 
taining some water; the retort is placed in a 
sand-bath, and a sufficient degree of heat given it, 
to force over the mercury which is condensed in 
the water of the receiver. 

Sulphuretted Mercurial Ores. 
The sulphurous ores are assayed by distillation 
in the manner above, only these ores require an 
equal weight of clean iron -filings to be mixed with 
them, to disengage the sulphur, while the heat 
volatilizes the mercury, and forces it into the re- 
ceiver. These ores should likewise be tried for 
cinnabar, to know whether it will answer the pur- 
pose of extracting it from them ; for this a deter- 
minate quantity of the ore is finely powdered and 
put into a glass vessel, which is exposed to a gen- 
tle heat at first, and gradually increased till 
nothing more is sublimed. By the quantity thus 
acquired, a judgment may be formed whether the 
process will answer. Sometimes this cinnabar is 
not of so lively a color as that which is used in 
trade; in this case it may hf, refined by a second 
sublimation, and if it be still of too dark a color, 
it may be brightened by the addition of a quantity 
of mercury, and subliming it again. 

Humid Assay of Cinnabar. 
The stony matrix should be dissolved in nitric 
Bcid, and the cinnabar being disengaged, should 
be boiled in 8 or 10 times its weight of aqua regia, 
composed of 3 parts of nitric, and 1 of muriatic 
acid. The mercury may be precipitated in the 
metallic form by zinc. 

Silver Ores. 
Take the assay quantity of the ore finely pow- 
dered, and roast it well in a proper degree of 
heat, frequently stirring it with an iron rod; then 
add to it about double the quantity of granulated 
lead, put it in a covered crucible, and place it in a 
furnace ; raise the fire gently at first, and continue 
to increase it gradually, till the metal begins to 
work ; if it should appear too thick, make it thin- 
ner by the addition of a little more lead ; if the 
metal should boil too rapidly, the fire should be 
diminished. The surface will be covered by de- 
grees with a mass of scoria, at which time the 
metal should be carefully stirred with an iron 
hiiok heated, especially towards the border, lest 
any of the ore should remain undissolved ; and if 
what is adherent to the hook when raised from the 
crucible melts quickly again, and the extremity 
of the hook, after it is grown cold is covered with 
a thin, shining smooth crust, the scorification is 
perfect; but, on the contrary, if, while stirring it, 
any considerable clamminess is perceived in the 
scoria, and when it adheres to the hook, though 
red hot, and appears unequally tinged, and seems 
dusty or rough, with grains interspersed here and 
there, the scorification is incomplete; in conse- 
quence of which the fire should be increased a 
little, and what adheres to the hook should be 
gently beaten off, and returned with a small ladle 
into the crucible again. When the scorification is 
perfect, the metal should be poured into a cone, 
previously rubbed with a little tallow, and when 
it becomes cold, the scoria may be separated by a 
few strokes of a hammer. The button is the pro- 
duce of the assay. 



By Cupellation. 

Take the assay quantity of ore, roast and grind 
it with an equal portion of litharge, divide it into 
2 or 3 parts, and wrap each up in a small piece of 
paper; put a cupel previously seasoned under a 
inufile, with about 6 times the quantity of lead 
upon it. When the lead begins to work, carefully 
put one of the papers upon it, and after this is ab- 
sorbed, put on a second, and so on till the whole 
quantity is introduced; then raise the fire, and as 
the scoria is formed it will be taken up by the 
cupel, and at last the silver will remain alone. 
This will be the produce of the assay, unless the 
lead contains a small portion of silver, which may 
be discovered by putting an equal quantity of the 
same lead on another cupel, and working it off at 
the same time ; if any silver be produced it must 
be deducted from the assay. This is called the 
witness. 

In the Humid Way — Gay Lnssac's Method. 

Dissolve the ore or coin in nitric acid. Prepare 
a standard solution of common salt; 542'74 of 
common salt will precipitate 1000 parts of silver. 
It is convenient to have, also, solutions of 1-lOth 
the standard strength for the final precipitations. 
Add the solution until no precipitate appears. 
From the amount of solution, and consequently of 
salt used, the amount of silver is at once deter- 
mined without further weighing. To correct the 
result a standard silver solution is used at the 
same time, and any correction it may require is 
applied to the rest of the assay. 

To Assay the Value of Silver. 

The general method of examining the purity of 
silver is by mixing it with a quantity of lead pro- 
portionate to the supposed portion of alloy ; by 
testing this mixture, and afterwards weighing the 
remaining button of silver. This is the same pro- 
cess as refining silver by cupellation. 

It is supposed that the mass of silver to be ex- 
amined consists of 12 equal parts, called penny- 
weights ; so that if an ingot weighs 1 oz., each of 
the parts will be l-12th oz. Hence, if the mass 
of silver be pure, it is called silver of 12 dwts. ; if 
it contain l-12th of its weight of alloy, it is called 
silver of 11 dwts. ; if 2-12ths of its weight be alloy, 
it is called silver of 10 dwts; which parts of pure 
silver are called 5 dwts. It must be observed 
here that assayers give the name dwt. to a weight 
equal to 24 real grs., which must not be con- 
founded with their ideal weight. The as.sayers* 
grs. are called fine grs. An ingot of fine silver, 
or silver of 12 dwts., contains, then, 288 fine grs.; 
if this ingot contain l-288th of alloy, it is said to 
be silver of 11 dwts. and 23 grs. ; if it contain 
4-288th of alloy, it is said to be 11 dwts., 20 grs., 
etc. Now a certain real weight must be taken to 
represent the assay- weights; for instance, 36 real 
grs. represent 12 fine dwts. ; this is subdivided into 
a sufficient number of other smaller weights, 
which also represent fractions of fine dwts. and 
grs. Thus, 18 real grs. represent 6 fine dwts ; 3 
real grs. represent 1 fine dwt., or 24 grs; li real 
grs. represent 12 grs.; l-32d of a real gr. repre- 
sents i of a fine gr., which is only l-752d part of 
a mass of 12 dwt. 

Double Assay of Silver. 

It is customary to make a double assay. Tho 
silver for the assay should be taken from opposite 
sides of the ingot, and tried on a touch stone. 
Assayers know pretty nearly the value of silver 
merely by the look of the ingot, and still better 
by the test of the touch-stone. The quantity of 
lead to be added is regulated by the portion of 
alloy, which being in general copper, will be 
nearly as follows ; 



PARTING. 



867 



Of silver 

dwt. gr. dwt. gr. 

11 6 to 

12 to 



S 



19 18 to 
8 6 to 
6 18 to 
3 to 
1 12 to 



9 
7 12 
6 
1 12 
18 



Requires from 
5 to 61 

8 to 9 

12 to 13 

13 to 14 ;■ S ° 

14 to 15 £S 
to Ifi H.|= 
to 20 ^ 



The cupel must be heated red-hot for half an 
hour before any metal is put upon them, by which 
all moisture is expelled. When the cupel is almost 
white by heat the lead is put into it, and the fire 
increased till the lead becomes red-hot, smoking, 
and agitated by a motion of all its parts, calle<l 
its circulation. Then the silver is to be put on 
the cupel, and the fire continued till the silver has 
entered the lead; and when the mass circulates 
well, the heat must be diminished by closing more 
or less the door of the assay furnace. The heat 
should be so regulated, that the metal on its sur- 
face may appear conve.\ and ardent, while the 
cupel is less red ; that the smoke shall rise to the 
roof of the muffle ; that undulations shall be made 
in all directions; and that the middle of the metal 
shall appear smooth, with a small circle of litharge, 
which is continually imbibed by the cupel. By 
this treatment the lead and alloy will be entirely 
absorbed by the cupel, and the silver become 
bright and shining, when it is said to lighten; 
after which, if the operation has been well per- 
formed, the silver will be covered with rainbow 
colors, which quickly undulate and cross each 
other, and then the button becomes fixed and 
•olid. 

The diminution of weight shows the quantity 
of alloy. As all lead contains a small portion of 
silver, an equal weight with that used in the assay 
is tested off, and the product deducted from the 
assay-weight. This portion is called the witness. 
-^Richardson' s Metallic Arts. 

By Specific Gravity. 
The approximate weight of silver or gold in a 
nugget may be determined by calculation from its 
specific gravity. See Miscellaneous. 

Ores and Earths Containing Gold. 

That which is now most generally used is by 
amalgamation. The proper quantity is taken and 
reduced to a powder ; about one-tenth of its wei,';ht 
of pure quicksilver is added, and the whole tritu- 
rated in an iron mortar. The attraction subsisting 
between the gold and quicksilver, quickly unites 
them in the form of an amalgam, which is pressed 
through shamoy leather; the gold is easily sepa- 
rated from this amalgam, by exposure to a proper 
degree of heat, which evaporates the quicksilver, 
and leaves the gold. This evaporation should be 
made with luted vessels. 

This is the foundation of all the operations by 
which gold is obtained from the rich mines of 
Peru, in South America. 

Another Method. 

Take a quantity of the gold-sand and heat it 
red-hot; quench it in water; repeat this two or 
three times, and the color of the sand will become 
a reddish brown. Then mix it with twice its 
weight of litharge, and revive the litharge into 
lead, by adding a small portion of charcoal-dust, 
and exposing it to a proper degree of heat; when 
the lead revives, it separates the gold from the 
Band ; and the freeing of the gold from the lead 
must be afterwards performed by cupellation. 

Another. — Bergmann assayed metallic ores con- 
taining gold, by mixing 2 parts of the ore, well 
pounded and washed, with 1^ of litharge, and 3 



of glass; covering the whole with common salt, 
and melting it in a smith's forge, in a covered 
crucible; he then opened the crucible, put a nail 
into it, and continued to do so till the iron was no 
longer attacked. The lead was thus precipitated 
which contained the gold, and was afterwards 
separated by cupellation. 

Humid Assay of Gold mixed with Iron Pyrites. 
Dissolve the ore in 12 times its weight of diluted 
nitric acid, gradually added; place it in a proper 
degree of heat; this takes up the soluble parts, 
and leaves the gold untouched, with the insoluble 
matrix, from which it may be separated by aqua 
regia. The gold may be again separated from the 
aqua regia by pouring ether upon it; the ether 
takes up the gold, and by being burnt off leaves 
it in its metallic state. The solution may contain 
iron, copper, manganese, calcareous earth, or argil; 
if it he evaporated to dryness, and the residuum 
heated to redness for i an hour, ammonia will 
extract the copper; fuming nitric acid the earths; 
the acetic acid the manganese; and ihe muriatic 
acid the oxide of iron. The sulphur floats on the 
first solution, from which it should be separated 
by filtration. 



PARTING. 

By this process gold and silver are separated 
from each other. These two metals equally re- 
sisting the action of fire and lead, must therefore 
be separated by other means. This is effected oy 
different menstrua. Nitric acid, muriatic a< id, 
and sulphur, which cannot attack gold, operate 
upon silver; and these are the principal agents 
employed in this process. 

Parting by nitric acid is most convenient, con- 
sequently most used; indeed, it is the only cae 
employed by goldsmiths. This is called simply 
parting. 

That made by the muriatic acid is by cementa- 
tion, and is called cemented parting; and parting 
by sulphur is made by fusion, and called dry 
parting. 

Parting hy Aqria-fortis. 

This process cannot succeed unless we attend to 
some essential circumstances : 1st. The gold and 
silver must be in a proper proportion, viz. the silver 
ought to be three parts to one of gold ; though a 
mass containing two parts of silver to one of gold 
may be parted. To judge of the quality of the 
metal to be parted, assayers make a comparison 
upon a touch-stone, between it and certain needles 
composed of gold and silver, in graduated propor- 
tions, and properly marked ; which are called 
proof needles. If this trial shows that the silver 
is not to the gold as three to one, the mass is im- 
proper for the operation, unless more silver be 
added. And 2dly, that the parting may be exact, 
the aqua-fortis must be very pure, especially free 
from any mixture of the sulphuric or muriatic 
acid. For if this were not attended to, a quantity 
of silver proportional to these two foreign acids 
would be separated during the solution ; and this 
quantity of silver would remain mingled with th« 
gold, which consequently would not be entirely 
purified by the operation. 

The gold and silver to be parted ought pre- 
viously to be granulated by melting it in a cruci- 
ble, and pouring it into a vessel of water, giving 
the water at the same time a rapid circular motion, 
by quickly stirring it round with a stick. The 
vessels generally used in this operation are called 
parting glasses, which ought to be very well an- 
nealed, and chosen free from flaws; as one of the 
chief inconveniences attending the operation is, 



868 



METALLURGY. 



that the glasses are apt to crack by exposure to 
cold, or even when touched by the hand. Some 
operators secure the bottom of the glasses by a 
coating composed of a mixture of new-slaked lime, 
with beer and whites of eggs, spread on a cloth, 
and wrapped round the glasses at the bottom ; 
over which they apply a composition of clay and 
hair. The piirting glasses should be placed in 
vessels containing water supported by trivets, with 
afire under them ; because if a glass should break, 
the contents are caught in the vessel of water. 
If the heat communicated to the water be too 
great, it may be projjerlj' regulated bj- pouring 
cold water gradually and carefully down the side 
of the vessel into a parting glass 15 inches high, 
and 10 or 12 inches wide at the bottom; placed 
in a copper pan 12 inches wide at bottom, 15 
inches wiile at top, and 10 inches high, there is 
usually put about 80 oz. of metal, with twice as 
much of aqua-fortis. 

The nitric acid ought to be of 22° B., afterwards 
of 32° B. Little heat should be applied at first, 
as the liquor is apt to swell and rise over the ves- 
sel; but when the acid is nearly saturated, the 
heat may safely be increased. When the solution 
ceases, which is known by the effervescence dis- 
continuing, the liquor is to be poured off; if any 
grains appear entire, more aqua-fortis must be 
added, till the silver is all dissolved. If the ope- 
ration has been performed slowly, the remaining 
gold will have the form of distinct masses. The 
gold appears black after parting; its parts have 
no adhesion together, because the silver dissolved 
from it has left many interstices. To give them 
more solidity, and improve their color, they are 
put into a test under a muffle, and made red-hot, 
after which they contract and become more solid, 
and the gold resumes its color and lustre. It is 
then called grain gold. If the operation has been 
performed hastily, the gold will have the appear- 
ance of black mud or powder, which, after well 
washing, must be melted. 

The silver is usually recovered by precipitating 
it from the aqua-fortis by means of pure copper, 
or by precipitation by muriatic acid and reduction. 
If the solution be perfectly saturated, no precipi- 
tation can take place till a few drops of aqua-fortis 
are added to the liquor. The precipitate of silver 
must be well washed with boiling water, and may 
be fused with nitre, or tested off with lead. 

Parting hy Cementation. 

A cement is prepared, composed of 4 parts of 
bricks powdered and sifted; of 1 part of green 
vitriol calcined till it becomes red; and of 1 part 
of common salt. This is to be made into a firm 
paste with a little water. It is called the cement 
royal. 

The gold to be cemented is reduced into plates 
as thin as money. At the bottom of the crucible 
or cementing pot, a stratum of cement, of the 
thickness of a finger, is put, which is covered with 
plates of gold; and so the strata are placed alter- 
nately. The whole is covered with a lid, which 
is luted with a mixture of clay and sand. This 
pot must be placed in a furnace or oven, heated 
gradually till it becomes red-hot, in which it must 
be continued during 24 hours. The heat must not 
melt the gold. The pot or crucible is then suffered 
to cool; and the gold carefully separated from the 
cement, and boiled at different times in a large 
quantity of pure water. It is then assayed upon 
a touch-stone, or otherwise; and if it be not suffi- 
ciently pure, it is cemented a second time. In 
this process the sulphuric acid of the calcined vit- 
riol decomposes the common salt during the ce- 
mentation, by uniting to its alkaline base, while 



the muriatic acid becomes concentrated by th« 
heat and dissolves the silver alloyed with the gold. 
This is a very troublesome process, though it suc- 
ceeds when the portiim of silver is so small that 
it would be defended from the action of aqua-fortis 
by the superabundant gold; but is little used, 
except to extract silver, or base metals, from the 
surface of gold, and thus giving to an alloyed 
metal the color and appearance of pure gold. 

Pattinson's Process 
For separating silver from lead ores, enables us to 
reduce profitably ores containing but 1 oz. of sil- 
ver to the ton. It depends upon the fact that an 
alloy of lead and silver when cooled, with occa- 
sional stirring, to near the point of solidification, 
crystallizes in part, and these crj'stals are found 
to contain much less lead than the original fused 
mass. Eight or ten cast-iron pots are arranged 
m line and heated. Into the centre one a charge, 
say 5 tons, of the original alloy is put; as the 
crystals form they are removed by means of a 
perforated ladle, and put in the pot to the right 
until about four-fifths have been removed ; the 
remaining enriched lead is transferred to the pot 
to the left. This process is continued with the 
remaining pots, thus gradually enriching to the 
left and becoming poorer to the right. The rich 
alloy, termed lead riches, is then cupelled. 



ALLOYS, OR COMPOUND METALS. 

Metals, in general, will unite with each other 
by fusion or amalgamation, and acquire new pro- 
perties. Brass is a compound of copper and zinc; 
and possesses a different color to either of the 
component parts. 

As metals fuse in different degrees of heat, care 
should be taken not to add those metals which 
fuse easily, to others which require a greater de- 
gree of heat, while they are too hot, because the 
former may evaporate and leave the compound 
imperfect. Or, if they are brought into fusion to- 
gether, it should be under a flux to prevent the 
volatile metals from evaporating before the union 
is effected. 

Or-moulu — Mosaic Gold. 

Melt together equal parts of copper and zinc, 
at the lowest temperature that will fuse the former, 
stir them well to produce an intimate mixture of 
the metals, and a(ld by degrees small quantities of 
zinc; the alloy first assumes a yellow color like 
brass, on adding a little more zinc it becomes pur- 
ple, and lastly perfectly white, which is the pro- 
per appearance of the desired product when fused. 
The quantity of zinc to be used altogether, should 
be from 52 to 56 parts out of the hundred. 

Talmi Gold. 
A beautiful gold-colored alloy, sold under the 
above name, gives on analysis: Copper, 86.4; 
zinc, 12.2; tin, 1.1; iron, 0.3. The presence of 
the iron was probably accidental. 

Queen's Metal. 

Melt together 4J lbs. of tin, ^ lb. of bismuth, i 
lb. of antimony, and i lb. of lead. A very excel- 
lent alloy will be formed by using these propor- 
tions ; it is used for making tea-pots and other 
vessels which are required to imitate silver. They 
retain their brilliancy to the last. 

Another. — A very fine silver-looking metal is 
composed of 100 lbs. of tin, 8 of regulus of anti- 
mony, 1 of bismuth, and 4 of copper. 
Tombac. 

Melt together 16 lbs. of copper, 1 lb. of tin, and 
1 lb. of zinc. 



ALLOYS. 



369 



Bed Tomhae. 

Put into a crucible 5 J lbs. of copper; when fused 
add J lb. of zinc ; these metals will combine, form- 
ing an alloy of a reddish color, but possessing 
more lustre than copper, and also greater dura- 
bility. 

White Tombac. 

When copper is combined with arsenic, by melt- 
ing them together in a close crucible, and cover- 
ing the surface with common salt to prevent oxi- 
dation, a white brittle alloy is formed. 
Common Peicter. 

Melt in a crucible 7 lbs. of tin, and when fused 
throw in 1 lb. of lead, 6 oz. of copper and 2 oz. 
of zinc. This combination of metals will form an 
alloy of great durability and tenacity j also of con- 
siderable lustre. 

Best Pewter. 

The best sort of pewter consists of 100 parts of 
tin, and 17 of regulus of antimony. 

Hard Peicter. 

Melt together 12 lbs. of tin, 1 lb. of regulus of 
antimony, and 4 oz. of copper. 

Common Solder. 

Put into a crucible 2 lbs. of lead, and when 
melted throw in 1 lb. of tin. This alloy is that 
generally known by the name of solder. When 
heated by a hot iron and applied to tinned iron 
with powdered rosin, it acts as a cement or solder j 
it is also used to join leaden pipes, etc. 

Hard Solder. 
Melt together 2 lbs. of copper, and 1 lb of tin. 

Soft Solder. 
Melt together 2 lbs. of tin, and 1 of lead. The 
lining of tea chests makes a good solder for tin 
ware, being made of tin and lead in about the 
proper proportions. 

Gold Solder 
Consists of 24 parts gold, 2 silver, and 1 of copper. 
Silver Solder^ 
Hard — 4 parts of silver to 1 of copper. Soft — 
2 parts of silver to 1 of brass wire. 
Shot Metal. 
Lead, 1000 parts ; metallic arsenic, 3 parts. 

Printers' Types. 
Put into a crucible 10 lbs. of lead, and when it 
18 in a state of fusion, throw in 2 lbs. of antimony ; 
these metals, in such proportions, form the alloy 
of which common printing types are made. The 
antimony gives a hardness to the lead^ without 
which the type would speedily be rendered use- 
less in a printing press. Different propcrtions of 
lead, copper, brass, and antimony, frequently con- 
stitute this metal. Every artist has his own pro- 
portions, so that the same composition cannot be 
obtained from different foundries \. each boasts of 
tlie superiority of his own mixture. 

Small Types and Stereotype Plates. 

Melt 9 lbs. of lead, and throw into the crucible 
2 lbs. of antimony and 1 lb. of bismuth j these 
metals will combine, forming an alloy of a pecu- 
liar quality. This quality is expansion as it cools, 
it is therefore well suited for the formation of 
small printing types (particularly when many are 
oast together to form stereotype plates), as the 
whole of the mould is accurately filled with the 
alloy ; consequently there can be no blemish in 
the letters. If a metal or alloy liable to contract 
in cooling were to be used, the effect of course 
would be very different. 

Another. — The proprietors of different foundries 
21 



adopt different compositions for stereotype plate*. 
Some form an alloy of 8 parts of lead, 2 parts of 
antimony, and J part of tin. 

Mode of Casting. 
For the manufacture of stereotype plates, plas- 
ter of Paris, of the consistence of a batter-pudding 
before baking, is poured over the letter-press page, 
and worked into the interstices of the types with 
a brush. It is then collected from the sides by a 
slip of iron or wood, so as to be smooth and com- 
pact. In about 2 minutes the whole muss is hard- 
ened into a solid cake. This cake, which is to 
serve as the matrix of the stereotype plate, is now 
put upon a rack in an oven, where it undergoes 
great heat, so as to drive off superfluous moisture. 
When ready for use, these moulds, according to 
their size, are placed in flat cast-iron pots, and 
are covered over by another piece of cast-iron per- 
forated at each end to admit the metallic composi- 
tion intended for the preparation of the stereotype 
plates. The flat cast-iron pots are now fastened 
in a crane, which carries them steadily to the me- 
tallic bath, or melting pot, where they are im- 
mersed and kept for a considerable time, until all 
the pores and crevices of the mould are completely 
and accurately filled. When this has taken place 
the pots are elevated from the bath by working 
the crane, and are placed over a water trough, to 
cool gradually. When cold the whole is turned 
out of the pots, and the plaster being separated by 
hammering and washing, the plates are ready for 
use ; having received the most exact and perfect 
impression. 

White Metal. 
Melt together 10 oz. of lead, 5 oz. of bismuth, 
and 4 drs. of regulus of antimony. 

Another. — Melt together 2 lbs. of regulus of anti- 
mony, 8 oz. of brass, and 10 oz. of tin. 
Common Hard White Metal 
Melt together 1 lb. of brass, li oz. of spelter, 
and i oz. of tin. 

Tutenag. 
Melt together 2 parts of tin and 1 of bismuth. 

Fusible Alloy. 
Put into a crucible 4 oz. of bismuth, and when 
in a state of fusion throw in 2i oz. of lead, and li 
oz. of tin ; these metals will combine, forming an 
alloy fusible at the temperature of boiling water. 
Mould this alloy in bars, and take them to a sil- 
versmith's to be made into a half-a-dozen tea- 
spoons. If one of these be given to a stranger to 
stir his tea, as soon as it is poured from the tea- 
pot, he will be not a little surprised to find the 
spoon melt in the tea,-cup. 

The fusibility of this alloy is certainly surpris- 
ing, for the fusing temperature of each of its com- 
ponents, singly, is higher than twice that of boil- 
ing water. Bismuth fiises at 476°, lead at 612**, 
and tin at 442° ; whilst water boils at 212°. 

Another. — Melt together 1 oz. of zinc, 1 oz. of 
bismuth, and 1 oz. of lead. This alloy will be 
found to be remarkably fusible (although each of 
the metals, separately, requires considerable heat 
to melt it), and will melt even in hot water; it 
will likewise remain in a fused state on a sheet of 
paper, over the flame of a lamp or candle. Both 
of these alloys expand on cooling, and are well 
adapted for taking casts of medals, etc. 
Wood's (patent) Fusible Metal 
Melts between 150° and 160° Fahr. It consists 
of 3 parts cadmium, 4 tin, 8 lead, and Ih bismuth. 
It has a brilliant metallic lustre, and does not 
tarnish readily. 

Casts from Fusible Metal. 
A combination of 3 parts of lead, with 2 of tin 



370 



METALLURGY. 



and 5 of bismuth, forms an alloy which melts at 
the temperature of 197° Fahr. 

In making casts with this and similar alloys it 
is important to use the metal at a temperature as 
low as possible; as, if but a few degrees elevated, 
the water which adheres to the things from which 
casts are to be talien forms vapor, and produces 
bubbles. The fused metal must be allowed to cool 
in a teacup until just ready to set at the edges, 
and then pour it into the moulds, procuring in 
this way beautiful casts from moulds of wood, or 
of other similar substances. When taking im- 
pressions from gems, seals, etc. the fused alloy 
should be placed on paper or paste-board, and 
stirred about till it becomes pasty, from cooling, 
at which moment the gem, die, or seal should be 
suddenly stamped on it, and a very sharp impres- 
sion will then be obtained. 

Metallic Injection. 

Melt together equal parts of bismuth, lead, and 
tin, with a sufficient quantity of quicksilver. 

This composition, with the addition of a small 
proportion of mercury, is used for injecting the 
vessels of many anatomical preparations; also for 
taking ecrrent casts of various cavities of the body, 
as those of the ear. The animal structure may 
be corroded and separated by means of a solution 
of potassa in water, and the metallic cast will be 
preserved in an isolated state. 

For Cushions of Electrical MacMnes, 

Melt together in a crucible 2 drs. of zinc and 1 
of tin ; when fused, pour them into a cold crucible, 
containing 5 drs. of mercury. The mercury will 
combine with those metals and form an alloy (or 
amalgam, as it is called) fit to be rubbed on the 
cushions which press the plate or cylinder of an 
electrical machine. Before the amalgam is applied 
it is proper to rub the cushion with a mixture of 
tallow and beeswax. 

For Varnishing Figures. 

Fuse i oz. of tin with the same quantity of bis- 
muth in a crucible; when melted add J oz. of mer- 
cury. When perfectly combined take the mixture 
from the fire and cool it. This substance, mixed 
with the white of an egg, forms a very beautiful 
Tarnish for plaster figures, etc. 

Moirie Metallique. — A Method of Ornamenting the 
Snr/uce of Tin Plate by Acids. 

The plates are washed by an alkaline solution, 
then in water, heated, and sponged or sprinkled 
with the acid solution. The appearance varies 
with the degree of heat and the nature and 
strength of the acids employed. The plates, after 
the application of the acids, are plunged into 
water slightly acidulated, dried, and covered with 
white or colored varnishes. The following are 
some of the acid mixtures used : Nitro-muriatic 
acid, in different degrees of dilution; sulphuric 
acid, with 5 parts of water; 1 part of sulphuric 
acid, 2 of muriatic acid, and 8 of water; a strong 
solution of citric acid; 1 part nitric acid, 2 sul- 
phuric, and 18 of water. Solution of potash is 
also used. 

To Plate Looking-glasses. 

This art is erroneously termed silvering, for, as 
will be presently seen, there is not a particle of 
silver present in the whole composition. 

On tin-foil, fitly disposed on a flat table, mer- 
cury is to be poured, and gently rubbed with a 
hare's-foot: it soon unites itself with the tin, 
which then becomes very splendid, or, as the 
workmen say, is quickened. A plate of glass is 
then cautiously to be slid upon the tin-leaf, in 
such a manner as to sweep off the redundant mer- 
cury which is not incorporated with the tin; leaden 



weights are then to be placed on (he glass, and in 
a little time the quicksilvered tin foil adheres so 
firmly to the glass that the weights may be re 
moved without any danger of its falling off. Th« 
glass thus coated is a common looking-glass. 
About 2 oz. of mercury are sufficient for covering 
3 square feet of glass. 

The success of this operation depends much on 
the clearness of the glass; and the least dirt or 
dust on its surface will prevent the adhesion of 
the amalgam or alloy. 

Liquid Foil for Silvering Glass Globes. 

Melt together 1 oz. of clean leiid, and 1 oz. of 
fine tin, in a clean iron ladle; then immediately 
add 1 oz. of bismuth. Skim off the dross, remove 
the ladle from the fire, and before it sets add 10 
oz. of quicksilver. Now stir the whole carefully 
together, taking care not to breathe over it, as the 
fumes of the mercury are very pernicious. Pour 
this through an earthen pipe into the glass globe, 
which turn repeatedly round. 

Another. — To 4 oz. of quicksilver add as much 
tin-foil as will become barely fluid when mixed. 
Let the globe be clean and warm, and inject the 
quicksilver by means of a pipe at the aperture, 
turning it about till it is silvered all over. Let 
the remainder run out, and hang the globe up. 

Another. — For this purpose 1 part of mercury 
and 4 of tin have been used ; but if 2 parts of 
mercury, 1 of tin, 1 of lead, and 1 of bismuth are 
melted together, the compound which they form 
will answer the purpose better. Either of them 
must be made in an iron ladle, over a clear fire, 
and must be frequently stirred. 

Martin's Process for Silvering Glass. 

Prepare, 1. A solution of 10 grammes of nitrato 
of silver in 100 grammes of distilled water. 2. 
Take solution of ammonia of 13° Cartier's areom- 
eter. 3. A solution of 20 grammes of pure caustio 
soda in 500 grammes of distilled water. 4. A so- 
lution of 25 grammes of ordinary white sugar ia 
200 grammes of distilled water. Pour into this 1 
cubic centimetre of nitric acid, of 36°, and boil 
for 20 minutes; then make up the volume of 500 
cubic centimetres with distilled water and 50 cubic 
centimetres of alcohol at 36°. This done, prepare 
an argentiferous solution, by mixing in a flask 12 
cubic centimetres of solution 1, then 8 cubic cen- 
timetres of solution 2, then 20 centimetres of so- 
lution 3; and, lastly, make up a volume of 100 
centimetres by 60 centimetres of distilled water. 
If the directions have been properly observed the 
liquid will remain limpid, and a drop of solution 
of nitrate of silver will produce a permanent pre- 
cipitate. After being left quiet for 24 hours the 
solution is ready fot use. Clean the surface to be 
silvered with a cotton plug moistened with a few 
drops of nitric acid; then wash with distilled 
water, drain, and place it on supports on the sur- 
face of a bath composed of the argentiferous 
liquid, to which has been added 1-lOth or l-12th 
of the solution of sugar (4). Under the influence 
of diffused light the liquid becomes yellow, then 
brown, and, after from 2 to 6 minutes, the whole 
surface of the glass will have been silvered. After 
10 or 15 minutes it will have attained the required 
thickness. Wash first with ordinary water, then 
with distilled water; drain, dry, and polish with 
rouge on chamois. (A table of French Weights 
and Measures will be found at the end of the 
volume.) 
Mode of Repairing the Silvering of Looking-glasses. 

Uncover and clean the damaged spot by very 
careful rubbing with fine cotton until there is no 
trace of grease or dust; then with the point of a 



ALLOYS. 



871 



knife cut, the size of the required piece on the sil- 
verinf; of another glass ; a small globule of mer- 
cury (the size of a pin's head fur a surface the size 
of the finger nail) is dropped upon the cut piece. 
The mercury penetrates as far as the cut, and al- 
lows the piece to be removed. It is then gently 
pressed on the spot with a piece of cotton. 
Buth-metnl. 
Melt together 1 lb. of brass and i\ oz. of spelter. 

Brans. 
Put 4i lbs. of copper into a crucible, expose it 
to heat in a furnace, and when perlectly fused add 
IJ lbs. of zinc. The metals will combine, forming 
that generally used alloy culled biiiss. 

Another. — For brass which is to be cast into 
plates, from which pans and kettles are to be 
made, and wire is to be drawn, braziers use cala- 
mine of the finest sort instead of pure zinc, and 
in a greater proportion than when common brass 
is made ; generally 66 lbs. of calamine to 34 lbs. 
of copper. Old brass, which has frequently been 
exposed to the action of the fire, when mixed with 
the copper and calamine, renders the brass far 
more ductile and fitter for the making of fine wire 
than it would be without it. 

Pinchbeck. 
Put into a crucible 5 oz. of pure copper; when 
it is in a state of fusion add 1 oz. of zinc. These 
metals combine, forming an alloy not unlike jew- 
eller's gold; pour it into a mould of any shape. 
This alloy is used for inferior jewellery. 

Some use only half this quantity of zinc, in 
■which proportion the alloy is more easily worked, 
especially in the making of jewellery. 

Another. — Melt together 1 oz. of brass with IJ 
or 2 oz. of copper, fused under a coat of charcoal- 
dust. 

Oreide, a New Brass. 
M. M. Mourier and Valient, of Paris, have 
succeeded in making an alloy which imitates gold 
sufficiently near to merit the name Oreide. The 
properties are as follows : Pure copper, 100 parts, 
by weight; zinc, 17; magnesia, 6; sal ammoniac, 
3.6; quicklime, 1.80 ; tartar of commerce, 9. The 
copper is first melted, then the magnesia, sal am- 
moniac, lime and tartar in powder, little by little; 
the crucible is briskly stirred for about J an hour, 
so as to mix thoroughly, and then the zinc is ad- 
ded in small grains by throwing it on the surface 
and stirring until it is entirely fused; the crucible 
is then covered and fusion maintained for about 35 
minutes; the crucible is then uncovered, skimmed 
carefully and the alloy cast in a mould of damp 
sand or metal. The oreide melts at a tempera- 
ture low enough to allow its application to all 
kinds of ornamentation ; it has a fine grain, is 
malleable, and capable of taking the most bril- 
liant polish; when, after a time, it becomes tar- 
nished from oxidation, its brilliancy may be re- 
stored by a little acidulated water. If the zinc is 
replaced by tin, the metal will be still more bril- 
liant. 

Prince's Metal. 
Melt together 3 oz. of copper, and 1 oz. of zinc; 
or, 8 oz. of brass and 1 oz. of zinc. 

Another. — Melt in a crucible 4 oz. of copper, and 
when fused, add 2 oz. of zinc; they will combine, 
and form a very beautiful and useful alloy, called 
Prince Rupert's metal. 

Bronze. 
Melt in a clean crucible 7 lbs. of pure copper; 
when fused, throw into it 3 lbs. of zinc and 2 lbs. 
of tin. These metals will combine, forming bronze, 
which, from the exactness of the impression which 
it takes from a mould, has, in ancient and modern 



times, been generally used in the formation of 
busts, medals and statues. 

Specula of Telescopes. 
Melt 7 lbs. of copper, and when fused add 3 '.ha. 
of zinc and 4 lbs. of tin. These metals will com- 
bine to form a beautiful alloy of great lustre, and 
of a light yellow color, fitted to be made into 
specula for telescopes. Mr. Mudge used only 
co[iper and grain tin, in the proportion of 2 lbs. 
to 14i oz. 

Gun-metal. 
Melt together 112 lbs. of Bristol brass, 14 lbs. 
of spelter, and 7 lbs. of block tin. 

Another. — Melt together 9 parts of copper and 
1 part of tin ; the above compounds are those used 
in the manufacture of small and great brass guns, 
swivels, etc. 

The pieces of ordnance used by the besiegers at 
the battle of Prague, were actually melted by the 
frequency of the firing; the mixture of which 
they were made contained a large portion of lead; 
it would hiive been less prone to melt, and conse- 
quently preferable, had it contained none. A 
mixture of copper amd tin is preferred to pure 
copper, not only for the casting of cannon, but of 
statues, etc., for pure copper, in running through 
the various parts of the mould, would lose so 
much of its heat as to set, or become solid too soon. 

Austrian Gun-metal (Aich's Metal), 
Remarkable for great strength, being stronger 
than gun-metal or wrought-iron, consists of cop- 
per, 66.04; zinc, 42.36; tin, .83; iron, 1.77. 

Aluminum Bronze 
Resembles gold in appearance; is said to be twice 
as strong as the best gun-metal ; as light as 
wrought-iron ; is not easily tarnished. It is easily 
stamped and engraved. It is composed of 10 parts 
of aluminum and 90 of copper. It requires to bo 
re-melted, as the first melting is brittle. 
Babbitt's Anti-friction Metal, 
Mix together 24 parts of copper, 24 of tin and 
8 of antimony. The tin, best quality of Bancoa, 
is to be added gradually to the melted compo- 
sition. 

Bell-metal. 
Melt together 6 parts of copper and 2 of tin. 
These proportions are the most approved for bells 
throughout Europe and in China. 

Another. — Some bells are made in the propor- 
tion of 10 parts of copper to 2 of tin. It may be 
in general observed, that a less proportion of tin 
is used for making church bells than clock bells, 
and that a little zinc is added for the bells of re- 
peating watches and other small bells. 
Blanched Copper. 
Melt together 8 oz. of copper and i oz. of neu- 
tral arsenical salt, fused together, under a flux 
composed of calcined borax, charcoal dust, and 
finely-powdered glass. 

Composition of Ancient Statues. 
According to Pliny, the metal used by the Ro- 
mans for their statues, and for the plates on which 
they engraved inscriptions, was composed in the 
following manner: They first melted a quantity 
of copper, into which they put a third of itg 
weight of old copper, which had been long in use; 
to every 100 lbs. weight of this mixture they added 
12i lbs. of an alloy composed of equal parts of 
lead and tin. 

Muntz Metal 
Can be rolled and worked at a red heat. It con- 
sists of 6 parts of copper and 4 of zinc. 
Mock-platina. 
Melt together 8 oz. of brass ani i of rpelter. 



372 



METALLURGY. 



Fine Casting of Brass, etc. 
The principal object in fine casting is to have a 
mould that shall receive a beautiful impression, 
and at the same time sufficiently adhesive to re- 
sist the force of the fluid metal, that shall neither 
wash nor be injured by the heat. The sand that 
covers or surrounds the model should be fine, close 
sand; after removing the mould, the model must 
bo faced with burnt rotten-stone, and covered with 
loam, each dusted through a bag, and the mould 
laid down upon it; this facing may be repeated, 
the mould must be dried and smoked with a torch; 
in lieu of water, the sand is moistened with a so- 
lution of tartar, or the lees of wine, or with cream 
of tartar. Care must be taken to loosen the band 
quickly, viz. : loosen the first mould while the 
second is pouring, etc. On removing the work 
every particle of the facing should be carefully 
scraped from the mould and thrown away. Part 
the moulds with coal and black rosin. 
Gilding-metal. 
Melt together 4 parts of copper, 1 of Bristol old 
brass and 14 oz. of tin to every lb. of copper. 
For Common Jeioellery. 
Melt together 3 parts of copper, 1 of Bristol old 
brass and 4 oz. of tin to every !b. of copper. 

If this alloy is for fine polishing, the tin may be 
omitted, and a mixture of lead and antimony sub- 
stituted. Paler polishing metal is made by re- 
ducing the copper to two or to one part. 
Yellow J)i]^2)ing-7netal. 
Melt together 2 parts of brass, 1 part of cop- 
per, with a little old brass, and i oz. of tin to 
every lb. of copper. This alloy is almost of the 
color, etc., of gold coin. 

Another. — Good dipping-metal may be made of 
1 lb. of copper to 5 oz. of spelter; the copper 
should be tough cake, and not tile. 

When antimony is used instead of tin, it should 
be in smaller quantity, or the metal will be brittle. 
Imitation of Silver. 
When copper is melted with tin, about J oz. of 
tin to 1 lb. of copper, will make a pale bell- metal; 
it will roll and ring very near to sterling silver. 
Tutania or Britannia Metal. 
Melt together 4 oz. of plate-brass and 4 oz. tin. 
When in fusion, add 4 oz. bismuth and 4 oz. regu- 
lus of antimony. 

This is the hardening, which is to be added at 
discretion to melted tin, until it has the requisite 
color and hardness. 

Another. — Melt together 2 lbs. of plate-brass, 2 
lbs. of a mixture of copper and arsenic, either by 
cementing or melting, 2 lbs. of tin, 2 lbs. of bis- 
muth and 2 lbs. regulus of antimony. 

This is to be added at discretion to melted tin. 
Another. — Melt together 1 lb. of copper, 1 lb. 
tin and 2 lbs. regulus of antimony, with or with- 
out a little bismuth. 

Another. — Melt together 8 oz. Shruff brass, 2 lbs. 
regulus of antimony and 10 lbs. tin. 
This is fit for use as Britannia metal. 

German Tutania, 
Melt together 2 drs. of copper, 1 oz. of regulus 
•f antimony and 12 oz. of tin. 

Spanish Tutania. 
To 8 oz. of scrap-iron or steel, at a white heat, 
add 1 lb. of antimony in small portions, with 3 
9z. of nitre. Melt and harden 1 lb. of tin with 2 
oz. of this compound. 

German Silver. 
Melt together 20 parts of copper, 15.8 of nickel, 
12.7 of zinc. 



Another. — Melt together 4 oz. tf antimony, 1 

oz. arsenic, and 2 lbs. tin. This compound is 

ready for use. The first of these Spanish alloya 

would be a beautiful metal, if arsenic were added. 

Engestroom Tutania. 

Melt together 4 parts copper, 8 parts regulus of 
antimony, and 1 part bismuth. 

When added to 100 parts of tin, this compound 
will be ready for use. 

Kustitien's Metal for Tinning. 

To 1 lb. of malleable iron, at a white heat, add 
5 oz. regulus of antimony, and 24 lbs. of the purest 
Molucca tin. 

This alloy polishes without the blue tint, and is 
free from lead or arsenic. 

Solder for Steel Joints. 

Take of fine silver, 19 dwts. ; copper, 1 dwt. ; 
and brass, 2 dwts. Melt these under a coat of 
charcoal-dust. 

This solder possesses several advantages over 
the usual spelter solder, or brass, when employed 
in soldering cast-steel, etc., as it fuses with less 
heat, and its whiteness has a better appearance 
than brass. 

Brass Solder for Iron. 

Thin plates of brass are to be melted between 
the pieces that are to be joined. If the work be 
very fine, as when two leaves of a broken saw are 
to be brazed together, cover it with pulverized bo- 
rax, melted with water, that it may incorporate 
with the brass powder which is added to it ; the 
piece must be then exposed to the fire without 
touching the coals, and heated till the brass is 
seen to run. 

Tungsten Steel. 

Experiments have been made at Vienna, Dres- 
den, and other places, in the use of tungsten or 
wolfram, in the alloying of steel, and some extra- 
ordinary results are stated to have been achieved. 
It is said that steel alloyed with 20 per cent, of 
tungsten produces a mixture, which, while it re- 
tains all the general qualities of steel, is so exces- 
sively hard, that tools made of it will cut, without 
difiiculty, the hardest cast-steel. 

A New Silver Alloy, 
M. De Ruolz and De Fontenay, of France, have 
lately obtained, after several years' experiments, 
a new alloy, which may be very useful for small 
coin and for many industrial uses. It is composed 
of i silver, 25 to 30 per cent, of nickel, and from 
37 to 50 per cent, of copper. Its inventors pro- 
pose to call it tiers-argent, or tri-silver. Its pre- 
paration is said to be a triumph of metallurgical 
science. The 3 metals when simply melted to- 
gether form a compound which is not homogeneous j 
and to make the compound perfect, its inventors 
have been compelled to use phosphorus and cer- 
tain solvents which they have not yet specified. 
The alloy thus obtained is at first very brittle; it 
cannot be hammered or drawn, and lacks those 
properties which are essential in malleable metals. 
But after the phosphorus is eliminated, the alloy 
perfectly resembles a simple metal, and possesses, 
in a very high degree, the qualities to which the 
precious metals owe their superiority. In color it 
resembles platinum, and is susceptible of a very 
high polish. It possesses extreme hardness and 
tenacity. It is ductile, malleable, very easily 
fused, emits when struck a beautiful sound, is not 
affected by exposure to the atmosphere, or to any 
but the most powerful re-agents. It is without 
odor. Its specific gravity is a little less than that 
of silver. An alloy possessing these qualities 
must be very useful to gold and silversmiths. It 



FOILS. 



873 



can be supplied at a price 40 per cent, less than 
Bilver, and its greater hardness will give it a mark- 
ed superiority. It may also serve as a substitute 
for gold-platei or silver-plated articles, which are 
now si> C(uumon on account of their cheapness, but 
which will not bear replating more than a few 
times, and which are, in the long run, sometimes 
more expensive than the pure metal. The new 
alloy, however, will be most useful for small coin. 
Its preparation and coinage are so difficult that 
the coin made of it cannot easily be counterfeited. 
Its hardness would render it more durable than 
silver; and thus the expense of re-coining, and 
the heavy loss arising from the wearing of our 
silver coinage, would be greatly diminished. 
Silver Teit. 

Silver coins, jewelry, or any other rich alloy, 
when moistened with a solution of chromic acid, 
or a mixture of bichromate of potassaand sulphu- 
ric acid, become covered with a red purple spot of 
bichromate of silver. This spot does not occur 
on poor alloj's or metals imitating silver. 

Useful Allot/ of Gold with Platinum. 

Put into a clean crucible 7i drs. of pure gold, 
and when perfectly melted, throw in i a dr. of 
platinum. The 2 metals will combine intimately, 
forming an alloy rather whiter than pure gold, 
but remarkably ductile and elantic ; it is also less 
perishable than pure gold or jewellers' gold; but 
more readily fusible than that metal. 

These excellent qualities must render this alloy 
an object of great interest to workers in metals. 
For springs, where steel cannot be used, it will 
prove exceedingly advantageous. 

It is a curious circumstance, that the alloy of gold 
and platinum is soluble in nitric acid, which does 
not act on either of the metals in a separate state. 
It is remarkable, too, that the alloy has verj' nearly 
the color of platinum, even when composed of 11 
parts of gold to 1 of the former metal. 
Ring Gold. 

Melt together of Spanish copper, 6 dwts. and 12 
grs. ; fine silver, 3 dwts. and 16 grs., to 1 oz. 5 
dwts. of gold coin. 

Gold from 358 to 40s per oz. 

Melt together 8 oz. 8 dwts, of Spanish copper, 
10 dwts. of fine silver, to 1 oz. of gold coin. 

Manheim-Gold, or Similar. 
Melt together 3^ oz. of copper, 1^ oz. of brass, 
and 15 grs. of pure gold. 



PREPARATION OF FOILS. 

Foils are thin plates or leaves of metal that are 
put under stones, or compositions in imitation of 
stones, when they are set. 

The intention of foils is either to increase the 
lustre or play of the stones, or more generally to 
improve the color, by giving an additional force 
to the tinge, whether it be natural or artificial, by 
that of a ground of the same hue, which the foil 
is in this case made to be. 

There are consequently two kinds of foils ; the 
one is colorless, where the effect of giving lustre 
or play to the stone is produced by the polish of 
the surface, which makes it act as a mirror, and, 
by reflecting the light, prevents that deadness 
which attends the having a duller ground under 
the stiine, and brings it by the double refraction of 
the light that is caused, nearer to the effect of the 
diamond. The other is colored with some pig- 
ment or stain of the same hue as the stone, or of 
some other which is intended to modify and change 
the hue of the stone in some degree; as, where a 
yellow foil may be pnt under green, which is too 



much inclined to the blue, or under crimson, where 
it is desired to have the appearance more orange 
or scarlet. 

Foils may be made of copper or tin ; and silrer 
has been sometimes used, with which it has been 
advised, for some purposes, to mix gold ; but the 
expense of either is needless, as copper may be 
made to answer the same end. 

To Prepare Copper /or Foils. 

Where colored foils are wanted, copper may 
therefore be best used, and may be prepared for 
the purpose, by the following means : 

Take copper plates beaten to a proper thickness, 
and pass them betwixt a pair of fine steel mllera 
very close set, and draw them as thin as is possi- 
ble to retain a proper tenacity. Polish them with 
very fine whiting, or rotten-stone, till they shine, 
and have as much brightness as can be given them, 
and they will then be fit to receive the color. 

To Whiten Foils. 

Where the yellow, or rather orange-color of the 
ground would be injurious to the effect, as in the 
case of purples, or crimson red, the foils should be 
whitened, which may be done in the following 
manner: 

Take a small quantity of silver and dissolve it 
in aqua-fortis, and then put bits of copper into the 
solution, and precipitate the silver; which being 
done the fluid must be poured off, and fresh water 
added to it, to wash away all the remainder of the 
first fluid ; after which the silver must be dried, an 
equal weight of cream of tartar and common salt 
must then be ground with it, till the whole be re- 
duced to a very fine powder; and with this mix- 
ture, the foils, being first slightly moistened, must 
be rubbed by the finger, or a bit of linen rag, till 
they be of the degree of whiteness desired ; after 
which, if it appear to be wanted, the polish must 
be refreshed. 

The tin foils are only used in the case of color- 
less stones, where quicksifver is employed; and 
they may be drawn out by the same rollers, but 
need not be further polished, as that effect is pro- 
duced by other means in this case. 

Foils for Crystals, Pebbles, or Paste, to give the 
Lustre and Play of Diamonds. 

The manner of preparing foils, so as to give 
colorless stones the greatest degree of play and lus- 
tre, is by raising so high a polish or smoothness on 
the surface, as to give them the effect of a mirror, 
which can only be done, in a perfect manner, by 
the use of quicksilver, applied in the same general 
way as in the case of looking-glasses. The method 
by which it may be best performed is as follows: 

Take leaves of tin, prepared in the same man- 
ner as for silvering looking-glasses, and cut them 
into small pieces of such size as to cover the sur- 
face of the sockets or the stones that are to be 
set. Lay three of these then, one upon another, 
and having moistened the inside of the socket 
with thin gum-water, and suffered it to become 
again so dry that only a slight stickiness remains, 
put the three pieces of leaves, lying on each other, 
into it, and adapt them to the surface in as even 
a manner as possible. When this is done, heat 
the socket and fill it with warm quicksilver, which 
must be suffered to continue in it 3 or 4 minutes, 
and then gently poured out. The stone must 
then be thrust into the socket, and closed with it, 
care having been taken to give such room for it 
that it may enter without stripping off the tin and 
quicksilver from any part of the furnace. The 
work should be well closed round the stone, to 
prevent the tin and quicksilver contained in the 
socket from being shaken out by any violence. 



874 



METALLURGY. 



The lustre of stones set in this manner will con- 
tinue longer than when tliey are set in the com 
men wn.>% as, the cavity round them being tilled, 
there will bo no passage found for moisture, which 
is so injurious to the wear of stones treated in 
any other way. 

This kind of foil likewise gives some lustre to 

glass or other transparent mutter, which has little 

of itself; but to stones or pastes that have some 

•bare of play it gives a most beautiful brilliance. 

To Color Foils. 

Two methods have been invented for coloring 
foils : the one by tingeing the surface of the copper 
of the color required by means of smoke, the 
other by staining or painting it with some pig- 
ment or other coloring subst:ince. 

The colors used for painting foils may be tem- 
pered with either oil, water rendered duly viscid 
by gum Arabic, size or varnish. Where deep co- 
lors are wanted, oil is most proper, because some 
pigments become wholly transparent in it, as lake, 
or Prussian blue; but yellow and green may be 
better laid on in varnish, as these colors may be 
had in perfection from a tinge wholly dissolved in 
spirit of wine, in the same manner as in the case 
of lacquers, and the most beautiful green is to be 
produced by distilled verdigris, which is .apt to 
lose its color and, turn black with oil. In common 
eases, however, any of the colors may be, with 
least trouble, laid on with isinglass size, in the 
same manner as the glazing colors used in minia- 
ture painting. 

Ituby Colors. 

For red, where the ruby is to be imitated, car- 
mine, a little lake used in isinglass size, or shellac 
Tarnish is to be employed, if the glass or paste be 
of a full crimson, verging towards the purple; 
but if the glass incline to the scarlet or orange, 
Tery bright lake (that is, not purple) may be used 
alone in oiL 

Garnet Red. 

For the garnet red, dragon's blood dissolved in 
seed-lac varnish may be used : and for the vinegar 
garnet, the orange lake, tempered with shellac 
varnish, will be found excellent. 
Amethyst. 

For the amethyst, lake, with a little Prussian 
blue, used with oil, and very thinly spread on the 
foil, will completely answer the end. 
Blue. 

For blue, where a deep color, or the effect of 
the sapphire is wanted, Prussian blue, that is not 
too deep, should be used in oil, and it should be 
spread mure or less thinly on the foil, according 
to the lightness or deepness of which the color is 
required to be. 

Engle Marine. 

For the eagle marine, common verdigris with a 
little Prussian blue, tempered in shellac varnish, 
may be used. 

YelloiD. 

Where a full yellow is desired, the foil may be 
colored with yellow lacquer, laid on as for other 
purposes; and for the slighter color of topazes 
the burnish and foil itself will be sufficiently strong 
without any addition. 

Green. 

For green, where a deep hue is required, the 
crystals of verdigris, tempered in shellac varnish, 
should be used, but where the emerald is to be 
imitated, a little yellow lacquer should be added 
to bring the color to a truer green, and less verg- 
ing to the blue. 

Other Colors. 

The stones of more diluted color, such as the 



amethyst, topaz, vinegar-garnet and eagle-ma. 
rinc, maj' be very cheaply imitated by transparent 
white glass or paste, even without foils. This is 
to be done by tempering the colors above enu- 
merated with turpentine and mastic, and paint- 
ing the socket in which the counterfeit stone is to 
be set with the mixture, the socket and stone it- 
self being previously heated. In this case, how- 
ever, the stone should be immediately set, and 
the socket closed upon it before the mixture cools 
and grows hard. The orange lake above men- 
tioned was invented for this purpose, in which it 
has a beautilul efTect, and was used with great 
success by a considerable manufacturer. The co- 
lor it produces is that of the vinegar-garnet, which 
it affords with great brightness. The colors be- 
fore directed to be used in oil should be extremely 
well ground in oil of turpentine, and tempered 
with old nut or poppy-oil ; or, if time can be 
given for the drying, with strong fat oil diluted 
with spirit of turpentine, which will gain a fine 
polish of itself. 

The colors used in varnish should be likewise 
thoroughly well ground and mixed; and, in the 
case of the dragon's blood in the seed-lac varnish 
and the lacquer, the foils should be warmed before 
they are laid out. All the mixtures should be 
laid on the foils with a broad, soft brush, which 
must be passed from one end to the other, and no 
part should be crossed or twice gone over, or, at 
least, not till the first coat can be dry; when, if 
the color do not lie strong enough, a second coat 
may be given. 

ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 

Galvnnoplasty or Electrotype, is the art of cold 
casting of metals by the agency of electricity. Its 
applications are extensive. It is used to multiply 
engravings and photographs ; to cover the faces of 
types with harder metal ; to deposit gold, silver, 
and aHoys on other metals, etc. The process de- 
pends upon the fact that an electrical current 
passed through a metallic solution properly pre- 
pared, will cause a decomposition of the solution; 
the metal being deposited upon any conducting 
body attached to the negative pole (cathode) of a 
voltaic cell or battery. This is the pole attached 
to the zinc plate in all cases. 

The Battery. 

The term battery is properly applied to several 
voltaic cells united. Frequently, however, it is 
used to designate a single cell. The forms usually 
employed in practice are Smce's, Daniell's, and 
the nitric acid battery. In order to avoid con- 
fusion, the following points must be well under- 
stood. In all the batteries named, there are two 
plates and av exciting fluid. One of these plates 
is of zinc, wnich must be amalgamated by dip- 
ping it into weak sulphuric acid and rubbing the 
surface with mercury ; or better still, immersing 
the whole plate in a bath of mercury. This must 
be repeated from time to time, when the battery is 
in use. This zinc pl.ate is alone acted on by the ex- 
citing fluid. It is called the/)os///ue plate. Attached 
to it is a binding screw, by which a wire may be 
connected with the plate. This screw, or the end 
of the attached wire, is called the pole or electrode. 
The name of the pole is opposite to that of the 
}>late. The positive pole or anode being attached 
to the negative plate, and the negative pole or 
cathode to the positive (zinc) plate. 
The Decomposing Cell. 

Usually the liquid to be decomposed (electro- 
lyte) is kept in a separate vessel, and the current 
conveyed to it Viy wires. To the anode is usually 
attached a piece of metal of the same character 



ELECTRO-METALLURGY. 



875 



as that to be depositel. This is gradually eaten 
away whi!e the deposition ia going on, on the 
cathmle, and the solution thus kept of uniform 
strength. The current may be regulated hy alter- 
ing the distance between the poles. With the 
sacie battery power, the amount of electricity 
passing will be less as the distance of the poles 
in the electrolyte is greater. Too powerful a cur- 
rent must be avoided, as it renders the coating 
brittle and non-adherent. It should not be strong 
enough to cause bubbles of gas to arise from the 
object. A large number of objects can be plated 
by one battery if they are suspended on copper 
_rod8, the ends of which are connected with the pole. 

Smee'a Cell 
Consists of two plates of amalgamated zinc, sep- 
arateil by a piece of baked and varnished wood, 
and between them a plate of silver having depos- 
ited on it by the electric current finely divided 
platinum; so as to roughen it and prevent the 
adhesion of hydrogen. The silver plate is fixed 
in the wood separating the zinc plates ; to the 
zinc and to the silver plates are attached binding 
screws lor the wires. The exciting fluid is dilute 
sulphuric acid; 1 part of aoid to 20 of water, is 
Strong enough. When more intensity is required, 
several cells are joined by passing wires from the 
anode of one cell to the cathode of the ne.Kt. This 
form of battery is generally preferred on account 
of its simplicity, constancy, and ease of manage- 
ment. 

Baniell's Cell. 
In delicate operations, as in copying engraved 
plates, where great constancy is required, this 
form of cell is employed. It consists of a plate 
of amalgamated zinc, one of copper, generally of 
cylindrical form separated by a cell of porous 
earthenware (a flower-pot with the h"le closed 
by a cork, makes a very good porous cell J. The 
plates and cell are enclosed in a glass or earthen- 
ware vessel ; the zinc is excited by dilute sulphuric 
acid; the copper is kept immersed in saturated 
solution of sulphate of copper (blue-stone). The 
solution of co|)per is gradually decomposed ; the 
copper being deposited in the copper plate. Hence 
there should always be a quantity of crystals of 
the sulphate at the bottom of the cell, and the 
solution should be stirred from time to time; or 
the crystals may be suspended in a basket near 
the top of the solution. 

Nitric Acid Batteries. 

When great intensity is required, as in the de- 
position of copper on iron, and of certain alloys, 
the decomposition of fused chlorides for the pur- 
pose c)f obtaining certain metals, these batteries 
are used. In all cases the positive plate is of 
amalgamated zinc excited by dilute sulphuric 
acid; which may be as strong as 1 in 10 with 
1-lOth of nitric acid. This is separated by a 
porous cell from the negative plate, which may be 
of platinum ((irove), carbon fBunsen), or pa.'-sive 
iron iCallan). The negative plate is immersed 
in strong nitric acid. Iron may be rendered pas- 
sive by dipping it once or twice into strong nitric 
acid, and then washing with water and carefully 
drying. 

To Prepare Articles for Plating., 

Wash in weak lye to remove grease. Dip into 
dilute nitric acid to remove oxide. Scour with a 
hard brush and fine sand. Then having fastened 
to a wire, dip in strong nitric acid and immerse 
in the electrolyte as quickly as possible. 

Solution for Silvering. 
Add to a solution of nitrate of silver (made by 
dissulving silver in pure nitric acidj, a solution 



of cyanide of potassium until no further precipi- 
tate is formed; but not enough to rc-dissolvo 
the precipitate already thrown down. Pour o£F 
the supernatant liquid, wash with water, and 
then re-dissolve the precipitate in cyanide of po- 
tassium. The anode should be of silver. Should 
the solution change on keeping, add a little fresh 
cyanide. Use a moderate current. An ounce and 
a half of silver will give to a surface a foot square, 
a coating as thick as common writing-paper. And 
since silver is worth $1.25 per ounce, the value of 
the silver covering a foot square, would be about 
$1.87. At this rate, a well plated tea-pot or coffee- 
pot is plated at a cost in silver of not more than 
$1.50 to S2. The other expenses, including labor, 
would hardly be more than half that amount. 

To Recover the Silver from a Bnth. 

Add muriatic acid, carefully avoiding the fumes 
which are given off. Dilute the liquid, decant 
from the precipitate formed, dry the precipitate, 
and reduce in a black lead crucible with carbonate 
of soda. 

Solution for Gilding. 

Electro-gilding is done in like manner. The 
gold is dissolved in nitro-hydrochloric acid, 
washed with boiling nitric acid, and then digested 
with calcined magnesia. The gold is deposited 
in the form of an oxide, which after being washed 
in boiling nitri- acid, is dissolved in cyanide of 
potassium, in v. hich solution the articles to be 
plated with u "Id, after due preparation, are placed. 
Iron, steel, hi. id, and some other metals that do not 
readily re<i;ive the gold deposit, require to be first 
lightly plated with copper, or dipped in a solution 
of nitrate of siver, 1 part; nitrate of mercury, I 
part; nitric acid (n.g. ViS4) 4 parts; water, 120 
parts. The positive plate of the battery must be 
of gold, the other plate of iron or copper. The 
process is the same as that above described ; use a 
feeble current. 

The popular notion is, that genuine electro- 
gilding must necessarily add a good deal to the 
cost of the article plated. This is erroneous. A 
silver thimble may be so handsomely plated as to 
have the appearance of being all gold for 5 cents, 
a pencil-case for 20 cents, and a watch-case for 1 
dollar. An estimate of the relative value of elec- 
tro-gilding, as compared with silver-plating, con- 
sidering the cost of material alone, is about 15 to 1. 
To Deposit Brass, 

Dissolve 5 oz. powdered acetate of copper in J 
gall, of water, add 1 jit. of solution of atr~'n'.a. 
Dissolve 10 oz. sulphate of zinc (white vitrio.; .n 
1 gall, of water, at 180° Fahr., and when cool add 
1 pt. of solution of ammonia. Dissolve 4i lbs. 
potassa in 1 gall, of water. Lastly, dissolve 8 oz. 
cyanide of potassium in 1 gall, of hot water. Mix 
in the following order : add the copper solution to 
that of zinc, then the potash and cyanide, digest 
for an hour or so, and add water to make up 8 
gall. Work with a brass anode and an active 
battery power, occasionally adding more ammonia 
and cyanide. 

To Coj)y Medals. 

Casts of the medals may be made in fosible 
metal, plaster, wax, etc. In case of a non-metallio 
mould it must have its face brushed over with 
black lead. The metallic mould is to be coated 
on the back with wax or varnish. The wire is 
usually attached to the edge by soldering or twist- 
ing. A decomposing cell is not necessary. A 
water-tight box is divided by a porous (plaster or 
leather) partition. On one side is a plate of zino 
immersed in diluted, 1 to 20, sulphuric acid; on 
the other a solution, kept saturated, of sulphate 
of copper. A wirf frr.r.- ■ ' j zinc is attached to » 



376 



METALLURGY. 



copper rod. from which the medals are suspended, 
dipping into the copper solution. 

To Bronze Copper Mednls. 

1. Broicu. — Moisten the surface, well cleaned, 
with wcik nitric acid, allow it to dry, and apply a 
gentle heat. 

2. Block. — Use, instead of nitric acid, sulphy- 
drate of ammonia or liver of sulphur. 

3. Green. — Expose in a close box to the fumes 
of chloride of lime, or to the vapor of acetic or 
muriatic acid. 

4. For bronzing all sorts of fine copper or brass 
work a weak solution of bichloride of platinum is 
used. By varying the temperature and color, 
between a steel gray and de«p black may be 
obtained. 

To Deposit Copper on Iron. 

Prepare a solution of cyanide of cojiper, by dis- 
solving oxide of copper in cyanide of potassium, 
or by adding cyanide of jiotassium to a solution 
of sulphate of copper, and re-dissolving the pre- 
cipitate formed. Work with a strong battery 
power. The copper will not deposit unless the 
current be strong e* ough to evolve hydrogen at 
the cathode, which evolution should always be 
avoided in depositing the other metals. 
Voltaic Protection of Metnh. 

When two metals are united and exposed to a 
corrosive agent, which would a^r unequally upon 
them if separate, the one which v.ould be most 
acted on receives most of the force o! ;he corrosion, 
while the other escapes. Thus iron i.'>ated with 
sine (galvanized iron) will last for ye;i, - exposed 
to the atmosphere. Copper points on lightning- 
rods remain bright for a long time, when screwed 
into a zinc ball. 

Coating Elcctrotype-plntes with Iron. 

The following has been successfully employed in 
floating electrotype deposits with a coating of pure 
iron, thereby rendering them little inferior to 
itcel-plate engravings as regards durability: — 

Dissolve 1 lb. of sal ammoniac in 1 gall, of rain- 
water, then add 2 lbs. of neutral awMate of iron ; 
toil the solution in an ir(m-kettle for 2 hours, re- 
placing the water lost by evaporation ; when cold, 
filter the solution, and keep it in close-covered 
Tats (when not in use) to prevent oxidation. 

The iron plate used in the decomposition-cell 
must be of the same surface as the plate to be 
coated with iron; a Smec's battery, of at least 3 
cells, charged with 1 part sulphuric acid, and 60 
parts water, Ixeing used for the decomposition. 

To insure success the following rules must be 
observovi: 1st. Tl>e plate must be thoroughly freed 
from any greasy matter by immersing in a solu- 
tion of caustic soda, then rinsed in clean cold rain- 
water, after which dip it in dilute acetic acid, and 
immediately transfer it to the solution of iron ; 
this will insure perfect adhesion between the 
metals. 2nd. The solution must be filtered pre- 
vious to use to remove the oxide of iron formed by 
exposure to the atmosphere. Aft-er the plates have 
been coated with iron they must be well rinsed in 
clear warm rain-water, then in a weak alkaline 
solution, well dried with a piece of clean soft cot- 
ton, and slightly oiled to prevent oxidation. 

The coating of iron is very hard and brittle, re- 
sembling the white iron used by manufacturers of 
(ualleable iron. Should any of the surface be 
damaged, the whole coating of iron may be re- 
moved by immersion in dilute sulphuric acid, and 
re-coated again by the above process. 

Copper Tubes made by Galvanic Process, 

Le Genie Industrial publishes the details of a 
proccBS for making copper-tubes without soldering, 



which consists simply in depositing copper upon 
lead patterns by the galvanic battery, and then 
melting out the lead. It is said to work perfectly, 
and of course tubes could be made vf any desired 
form — straight, curved, or right-angled. This 
suggests the idea of forming tubes in the same 
manner with cores of wax or elay. The clay may 
bo forced into the size of the pii)c through a draw- 
plate, then allowed to harden slightly, when it 
may be covered with plumbago and an electro- 
deposit of copper made upon it with a galvanic 
battery. When the copper is deposited in suffi- 
cient thickness the clay may be removed from the 
interior by boiling the pipe in water. To conduct 
this manufacture it would require long depositing- 
troughs, and the expense would probably be too 
great for making straight cop]ier-tulies ; but for 
<^irved tubes, such as the worms of stills, it would 
perhaps pay. Curved copper-tubes are commonly 
made by filling straight tubes with hot resin, then 
twisting the entire tube into its curved form. 
When the rosin becomes cool it is driven out by 
striking the pipe, which breaks the resin-core into 
small pieces. 



GILDING, SILVERING, AND TINNING. 

To Gild Glass and Porcelain. 
Drinking and other glasses are sometimes gilt 
on their edges. This is done, either by an adhe- 
sive varnish, or by heat. The varnish is prepared 
by dissolving in boiled linseed-oil an equal weight 
either of copal or amber. This is to be diluted by 
a proper quantity of oil of turpentine, so as to be 
applied as thin as possible to the parts of the glass 
intended to be gilt. When this is done, which 
will be in about 24 hours, the glass is to be placed 
in a stove, till it is so warm as almost to burn the 
fingers when handled. At this temperature tbe 
varnish will become adhesive, and a piece of leaf- 
gold, applied in the usual way, will immediately 
stick. Sweep off" the superfluous i>ortions of the 
leaf; and when quite cold it may be burnished, 
taking care to interpose a piece of very thin paper 
(Indian paper) between the gold and the burnisher. 
If the varnish is very good, this is the best method 
of gilding glass, as the gold is thus fixed on more 
evenly than in any other way. 

Another Method. 

It often happens, when the varnish is but indif- 
ferent, that by repeated washing the gold wears 
off; on this account the practice of burning it in 
is sometimes had recourse to. 

For this purpose some gold powder is ground 
with borax, and in this state applied to the clean 
surface of the glass by a camel's-hair pencil. 
When quite dry the glass is put into a stove 
heated to about the temperature of an annealing 
oven ; the gum burns off, and the borax, by vitre- 
fying, cements the gold with great firmness to the 
glass, after which it may be burnished. The gild- 
ing upon porcelain is in like manner fixed by heat 
and the use of borax ; and this kind of ware being 
neither transparent nor liable to soften, and thus 
to be injured in its form, in a low red heat, is freo 
from the risk and injury which the finer and more 
t'usible kinds of glass are apt to sustain from such 
treatment. Porcelain and other wares may be 
platinized, silvered, tinned, and bronzed in a sim- 
ilar manner. 

Preparation /or Gilding Porcelain. 

This preparation, the invention of the brothers 
Dutuste, is reported on by Salvetat. The peculiar 
advantage of it is, that after burning the gold is 
so bright as not to require polishing. Thirty-two 
grammes of gold are gently warmed with I2S 



GILDING; SILVERING, AND TINNING. 



377 



gramniP5 of nitrio acid and the same weight of 
hydrochloric acid. To the solution are added 1'2 
grammes of tin and 1'2 grammes of butter of an- 
timony, and, when all are dissolved, the solution 
is diluted with 500 grammes of water. 

A mixture is now prepared by heating together 
80 grammes of oil of turpentine, 16 grammes of 
sulphur, and 16 grammes of Venice turpentine. 
When the sulphur is dissolved 60 grammes of oil 
of lavender is added. The gold solution is now 
added, nnd the two are well stirred together, until 
the aqueous solution becomes decolorized, showing 
that all the gold has united with the balsam. The 
watery portion is then poured away, and the oily 
fluid is washed with warm water, and th^n heated. 
When the last trace of moisture has disappeared, 
65 grammes more of lavender oil and 100 grammes 
of oil of turpentine are added, and the whole 
warmed to insure the perfect admixture. While 
quite fluid 5 grammes of subnitrate of bismuth 
are added. Afterwards the clear r>art is decanted 
from any reduced gold and other insoluble raat- 
and the balsam is concentrated to a fit consistence 
for painting with. The balsam so prepared is a 
thick fluid, of a pale-green color, the gold being 
perfectly dissolved. When proper care is taken 
to remove all moisture this prepa* ition never blis- 
ters in burning. 

To Gild Leathery 
In order to impress gilt figures, letters, and 
other marks upon leather, as on the covers of 
books, edgings for doors, etc., the leather must 
first be dusted over with very finely powdered 
yellow resin or mastic gum. The iron tools or 
stamps are now arranged on a rack before a clear 
fire, so as to be well heated, without becoming red 
hot. If the tools are letters, they have an alpha- 
betical arrangement on the rack. Each letter or 
stamp must be tried, as to its heat, by imprinting 
its mark on the raw side of a piece of waste leather. 
A little practice will enable the workman to judge 
of the heat. The tool is now to be pressed down- 
wards on the gold-leaf, which will of course be 
indented, and show the figure imprinted on it. 
The next letter or stamp is now to be taken and 
Stamped in like manner, and so on with the others, 
taking care to keep the letters in an even line with 
each other, like those in a book. By this opera- 
tion the resin is melted, consequently the gold ad- 
heres to the leather. The superfluous gold may 
then be rubbed ofi" by a cloth, the gilded impres- 
sions remaining on the leather. In this, as in 
every other operation, adroitness is acquired by 
practice. 

The cloth alluded to should be slightly greasy, 
to retain the gold wiped ofi' (otherwise there will 
be great waste in a few months); the cloth will 
thus be soon completely saturated or loaded with 
the gold. When this is the case, these cloths are 
generally sold to the refiners, who burn them and 
recover the gold. Some of these aff"ord so much 
gold by burning as to be worth from seven to ten 
dollars. 

To Gild Writingi), Drawings, etc. on Paper or 
Parchment, 
Letters written on velum or paper are gilded in 
3 ways : in the first, a little size is mixed with the 
ink, and the letters are written as usual; when 
they are dry, a slight degree of stickiness is pro- 
duced by breathing on them, upon which the gold 
leaf is iuuuediately applied, and by a little press- 
ure may be made to adhere with sufficient firm- 
ness. In the second method, some white-lead or 
chalk is ground up with strong size, and the let- 
ters are made with this by, means of a brush; 
vheu the mixture is almost dry the gold leaf may 



be laid on, and afterwards burnished. The last 
method is to mix up some gold powder with size, 
and to form the letters of this by means of a brush. 
It is supposed that this latter method was that used 
by the monks in illuminating their missals, psal- 
ters, and rubrics. 

To Gili the Edges of Paper. 

The edges of the leaves of books and letter 
paper are gilded whilst in a horizontal position in 
the bookbinder's press, by first applying a com- 
position formed of four parts of Armenian bolo, 
and one of candied sugar, ground together with 
water to a proper consistence, and laid on by a 
brush, with the white of an egg. This coating, 
when nearly dry, is smoothed by the burnisher, 
which is generally a crooked piece of agate, very 
smooth, and fixed in a handle. It is then slightly 
moistened by a sponge dipped in clean water, and 
squeezed in the hand. The gold-leaf is now taken 
upon a piece of cotton from the leathern cushion, 
and applied on the moistened surface. When dry 
it is to be burnished by rubbing the agate over it 
repeatedly from end to end, taking care not to 
wound the surface by the point of the burnisher. 
A piece of silk or India-paper is usually inter- 
posed between the gold and the burnisher. 

Cotton-wool is generally used by bookbinders to 
take the leaf up from the cushion, being the best 
adapted for the purpose on account of its pliabil- 
ity, smoothness, softness, and slight moistness. 

To Gild Silk, Satin, Ivory, etc., by Hydrogen Gas. 

Immerse a piece of white satin, silk, or ivory in 

a solution of chloride of gold, in the proportion of 

1 part of the chloride to .S of distilled water. 
Whilst the substance to be gilded is still wet, im- 
merse it in ajar of hydrogen gas; it will soon bo 
covered by a complete coat of gold. 

Another Method. 

The foregoing experiment may be very prettily 
and advantageously varied as follows : Paint flow- 
ers or other ornaments with a very fine camel-hair 
pencil, dipped in the above-mentioned solution of 
gold, on pieces of silk, satin, etc., and hold them 
over a Florence flask, from which hydrogen gas 
is evolved, during the decomposition of the water 
by sulphuric acid and iron filings. The painted 
flowers, etc., in a few minutes, will shine with all 
the splendor of the purest gold. A coating of this 
kind will nut tarnish on exposure to the air or in 
washing. 

Oil Gilding on Wood. 

The wood must first be covered, or primed, by 

2 or .3 coatings of boiled linseed-oil and carbonate 
of lead, in order to fill up the pores and conceal 
the irregularities of the surface occasioned by the 
veins in the wood. When the priming is quite 
dry a thin coat of gold size must be laid on. This 
is prepared by grinding together some red oxide 
of lead with the thickest drying oil that can be 
procured, and the older the better. That it may 
work freely, it is to be mixed, previously to being 
used, with a little oil of turpentine, till it is brought 
to a proper consistence. If the gold-size is good 
it will be sufficiently dry in 12 hours, more or less, 
to allow the artist to proceed to the last part of the 
process, which is the application of the gold. For 
this purpose a leaf of gold is spread on a cushion 
(formed by a few folds of flannel secured on a 
piece of wood, about 8 inches square, by a tight 
covering of leather), and is cut into strips of a 
proper size by a blunt pallet-knife; each strip, 
being then taken upon the point of a fine brush, 
is applied to the part intended to be gilded, and is 
then gently pressed down by a ball of soft cotton. 
The gold immediately adheres to the sticky sur- 



878 



METALLUEGT. 



face of the size, and, after a few ininutes, the dex- 
terous aiiplioation of a lars;e camel's-hiiir brush 
sweeps awiiy tlie loose particles of the jjold-li-af 
■without disturbing the rest. In a day or two the 
»ize will be completely dried, and the operation 
will be finished. 

The advantages of this method of gilding are 
that it is very simple, very durable, and not readily 
injured by changes of weather, even when exposed 
to the open air; and when soiled it may be cleaned 
by a little warm water and a soft brush. Its chief 
employment is in out-door work. Its disadvan- 
tage is that it cannot be burnished, and therefore 
wants the high lustre produced by the following 
method : 

To Gild by Biirnighing. 

This operation is chietly performed on picture 
frames, mouldings, headings, and fine .«tucco-work. 
The surfai-e to be gilt must be carefully covered 
with a strong size, made by boiling down pieces 
of white leather or clippings of parchment till 
they are reduced to a stiff jelly. This coating 
being dried, 8 or 10 more must be applied, con- 
aisting of the same size, mi.xed with fine Paris 
plaster or washed chalk. When a suflScient num- 
ber of layers have been put on, varying according 
to the nature of the work, and the whole is be- 
come quite dry, a moderately thick layer must be 
applied, composed of size and Armenian bole, or 
yellow oxide of lead. While this last is yet moist 
the gold-leaf is to be put on in the usual manner. 
It will immediately adhere on being pressed by 
the cotton ball ; and, before the size is become 
perfectly dry, those parts which are intended to 
be the most brilliant are to be carefully burnished 
by an agate or a dogs' tooth, fixed in a handle. 

In order to save the labor of burnishing, it is a 
common, but bad practice, slightly to burnish the 
brilliant parts, and to deaden the rest by drawing 
a brush over them dipped in size ; the required 
contrast between the jiolished and the unpolished 
gold is indeed thus obtained ; but the general effect 
is much inferior to that produced in the regular 
way, and the smallest drop of water falling on the 
sized part occasions a stain. This kind of gilding 
can only be applied on in-door work; as rain, and 
even a considerable degree of dampness, will occa- 
sion the gold to peal off. When dirty it may be 
cleaned by a soft brush, with hot spirit of wine, or 
oil of turpentine. 

3faitnig. 

The parts to be burnished (in gilding on metals) 
beins covered with the usual i/uardiii;/, the piece 
is fastened by five iron wires to the end of an ircm 
rod ; it is then to be highly heated until the guard- 
ing becomes brown, when the gilding will be found 
to have acquired a fine gold color. It is now to 
be covered with a mixture of common salt, nitre, 
and alum, liquefied in the water of crystallization 
they contain ; the piece to be carried again to the 
fire and heated until the saline coating is in a 
state of fusion and becomes nearly transparent, 
when it must be withdrawn and suddenly plunged 
into cold water, which removes both coating and 
guarding. Dip it afterwards in very weak nitric 
acid, and wash it repeatedly in several separate 
tubs of water. It may bo dried either by exposure 
to air, or yently wiping it with clean, soft, dry 
linen. 

To Oild Copper, etc., by Anudgnm. 

Immerse a very clean bright piece of copper in 
a diluted solution of nitrate of mercury. By the 
affinity of copper for nitric acid, the mercury will 
be precipitated; now spread the amalgam of gold 
rather thinly over the coat of mercury just given 
to the copper. This coat unites with the amal- 



gam, but of course will remain on the copper. I- 
Now place the piece or pieces so operated on in a ■ 
clean oven or furnace, where there is no smoke. 
If the heat is a little greater than 660°, the mer- 
cury of the amalgam will be volatilized, and the 
copper will be beautifully gilt. 

In the large way of gilding, the furnaces are so 
contrived that the volatilized mercury is .again 
condensed and preserved for further use, so that 
there is no loss in the operation. There is alsc a 
contrivance by which the volatile particles of mer- 
cury are prevented from injuring the gilders. 

To Gild &'teel. 

Pour some of the ethereal solution of chloride 
of gold into a wineglass, and dip therein the blade 
of a new penknife, lancet, or razor; withdraw the 
instrument and allow the ether to evaporate. The 
blade will be found to be covered by a very beau- 
tiful coat of gold. A clean rag, or small piece of 
very dry sponge, may bo dipped in the other and 
used to moisten the blade with the same result. 

In this ease there is no occasion to pour the 
liquid into a glass, which must undoubtedly lose 
by evaporation ; but the rag or sjiongc may be 
moistened by it by applying ether to the mouth 
of the phial. This coating of gold will remain on 
the steel for a great length of time, and will pre- 
serve it from rusting. 

This is the wa.y in which swords and other cut- 
lery are ornamented. Lancets too are in this way 
gilded with great advantage to secure them from 
rust. 

Gold Powder /or Gilding. 

Gold powder may be prepared in three different 
ways : Put into an earthen mortar some gold-leaf 
with a little honey or thick gum-water, and grind 
the mixture till the gold is reduced to extremely 
minute particles. When this is done, a little warm 
water will wash out the honey or gum, leaving the 
gold behind in a pulverulent state. 

AiKiltier. — Another way is, to dissolve pure gold 
(or the leaf) in nitro-muriatic acid, and then to 
precipitate it by a piece of copper, or by a solution 
of sulphate of iron. The precipitate (if by cop- 
per) must be digested in distilled vinegar and then 
washed (by pouring water over it repeateilly) and 
dried. This precipitate will be in the form of a 
very fine powder; it works better and is more 
easily burnished than gold-leaf ground with honey 
as above. 

Another. — The best method of preparing gold 
powder is by heating a prepared amalgam of gold 
in an open clean crucible, and continuing the 
strong heat until the whole of the mercury is 
evaporated; at the same time constantly stirring 
the amalgam with a glass rod. When the mer- 
cury has completely left the gold, the rcmairiing 
powder is to be ground in a AVedgwood mortar, 
with a little water, and afterwards dried. It is 
then fit for use. 

Although the last mode of operating has been 
here given, the operator cannot be too much re- 
minded of the danger attending the sublimation 
of mercury. In the small way hero described, it is 
impossible to operate without danger; it is there- 
fore better to prepare it according to the former 
directions, than to risk the health by the latter. 

To Cover Bars of Copper, etc.. with Gold, so a» to 
be Rolled out into Sheets. 
This method of gilding was invented by Mr. 
Turner of Birmingham. Mr. Turner first pre- 
pares ingots or pieces of copper or brass, in con- 
venient lengths and sizes. He then cleans them 
from impurity, and makes their surfaces level, and 
prepares plates of pure gold, or gold mixed with 



GILDING, SILVERING AND TINNING. 



579 



a portkn of alloy, of the same size as the ingots 
of metal, and of suitiible thicUness. HaviriL' placed 
a piece of ffoid upon an ingot intended ti> Ko pliitcd, 
he hammers and compresses them both together, 
BO that they may have their surfaces as nearly 
equal to each other as possible; and then binds 
them togethf r with wire, in order to keep them in 
the same position during the process required to 
attach them. Afterwards he takes silver-filings 
which he mixes with borax to assist the fusion of 
the silver. This mixture he lays upon the edge of 
the plate of gold, and next to the ingot of metal. 

Having thus prejiared the two bodies, he places 
them on a fire in a sti>ve or furnace, where they 
remain until the .silver and V)orax placed along the 
edges of the metals melt, and until the adhesion 
of the gold with the metal is fierfect. He then 
takes the ingot carefully out of the stove. I5y this 
process the ingot is placed with gold, and prepared 
ready for rolling into sheets. 

To Silver Copper Tnr/ots. 

The principal difficulties in plating copper in- 
gots are, to bring the surfaces of the copper and 
silver into fusion at the same time; and to prevent 
the copper from scaling ; for which purposes fluxes 
are used. The surface of the copper on which the 
silver is to Vie fixed must be made flat by filing, 
and should be left rough. The silver is first an- 
nealed, and afterwards pickled in weak muriatic 
acid: it is planished, and then scrnfied on the sur- 
face to be fitted on the copper. These prepared 
surfaces are anointed with a solution of borax, or 
strewed with fine powdered borax itself, and then 
confined in contact with each other, by binding 
wire. When they are exposed to a sufficient de- 
gree of heat, the flux causes the surfaces to fuse at 
the same time, ami after they become cold they 
are found firmly united. 

Copper may likewise be plated by heating it, 
and burnishing leaf-silver upon it; so may iron 
and brass. This process is called French-plating. 
Grecian Gilding. 

Equal parts of sal-ammoniac and corrosive sub- 
limate, are dissolved in spirit of nitre, and a solu- 
tion of gold made with this menstruum. The silver 
is brushed over with it, which is turned black, but 
on exposure to a red beat, it assumes the color of 
gold. 

To Dissolve Gold in Aqua Regia. 

Take an aqua regia, composed of 2 parts of 
nitric acid, and 1 of muriatic acid ; let the gold be 
granulated, put into a sufficient quantity of this 
menstruum, and exposed to a moderate degree of 
heat. During the solution an effervescence takes 
place, and it acquires a beautiful yellow color, 
which becomes more and more intense, till it has 
a golden or even orange color. When the men- 
struum is saturated, it is very clear and trans- 
parent. 

To Gild, hy Dissolving Gold in Aqua Regia. 

Fine linen rags are soaked in a saturated solu- 
tion of gold in aqua regia, gently dried, and after- 
wards burnt to tinder. The substance to bo gilt 
must be well jiolished ; a piece of cork is first dip- 
ped into a solution of common salt in water, and 
afterwards into the tinder, which is well rubbed 
on the surface of the metal to be gilt, and the gold 
appears in all its metallic lustre. 

Aninlgam of Gold in the large way. 

A quantity of quicksilver is put into a crucible 
or iron ladle, which is lined with clay and exposed 
to beat till it begins to smoke. The gold to be 
mixed should be previously granulated, and heated 
red hot, when it should be added to the quicksil- 
Ter, and stirred about with an iron rod till it is 



perfectly dissolved. If there should be any super- 
fluous mercury, it may be separated by passing it 
through cle;in soft leather; and the rcm;iining 
amalgam will h;ive the consistence of butter, and 
contain about .3 parts of mercury to i cf gold. 

To Gild hy Amah/omntion. 

The metal to be gilt is previously well cleaned 
on its surface, by boiling it in a weak pickle, which 
is a very dilute nitrous acid. A quantity of a(|ua- 
fortis is poured into an earthen vessel, and quick- 
silver put therein; when a sufficient quantity of 
mercury is dissolved, the articles to be gilt aro 
put into the solution, and stirred about with a 
brush till they become white. This is called quick- 
ing. But, as during quicking by this mode, a nox- 
ious vapor continually arises, which proves very 
injurious to the henlth of (he workman, they have 
adopted another method, by which they, in a, great 
measure, avoid that danger. They now <lissolve 
the quicksilver in a bottle containing atpia-fortis, 
and leave it in the open air during the solution, so 
that the noxious vapor escapes into the air. Then 
a little of this solution is poured into a basin, and 
with a brush dipped therein, they stroke over the 
surface of the metal to be gilt, which immediately 
becomes quickod. The amalgam is now applied 
by one of the followin'.; methods, viz: 

1st. IJy proportioning it to the quantity of arti- 
cles to be gilt, and putting them into a white hat 
together, working tliem about with a soft brush, 
till the amalgam is uniformly spread. 

Or, 2dly. IJy applying a portion of the amalgam 
upon one part, and spreading it on the surface, if 
flat, by working it about with a harder brush. 

The work thus managed is put into a pan, and 
exposed to a gentle degree of heat ; when it becomes 
hot, it is fretpiently put into a hat, and worked 
about with a painter's large brush, to prevent an 
irregular dissipation of the mercury, till at last the 
quicksilver is entirely dissifiated by a repetition of 
the heat, and the gold is attached to the surface of 
the metal. This gilt surface is well cleaned by a 
wire V)rush, and then artists heighten the color of 
the gold by the application of various compositions, 
this part of the process is called coloring. 

Silvering Powders. 
For silvering copper, covering the worn parts 
of plated goods, etc. 

1. Nitrate of silver, common salt, each .30 grs. ; 
cream of tartar, .3i drs. Mix. Moisten with cold 
water and rub on the article to be silvered. 

2. Pure silver (precipitated from the nitrate by 
copper), 20 grs. ; alum 30 grs. ; cream of tartar, 2 
drs. ; salt, 2 drs. 

3. Precipitated silver, \ oz. ; common salt, sal 
ammoniac, each 2 oz. ; corrosive sublimate, 1 dr. 
Make into a paste with water. Copper utensils 
are previously boiled with cream of tartar and 
alum, rubbed with this paste made red hot and 
afterwards polished. 

4. Nitrate of silver, 1 part; cyanide of potas- 
sium, 3 parts; water enough to make a paste. 

Removing Silver from Injured Plated Ware. 
Among the many branches of manufacturing at 
Nurembergv in Germany, that of metals into va- 
rious articles has obtained considerable impor- 
tance. They include silver-plated ware of difl'erent 
styles and quality ; which necessarily produce 
large quantities of spoiled materials and clippings, 
the recovery of which has hitherto been very im- 
perfectly accomplished ; thus causing annually a 
considerable loss. The reason of it Has, the want 
of a method by which the silver might be removed 
without much expense, and the copper thus forced 
from its coating used again. 



880 



METALLURGY. 



Repnated experiments have led to a very simple 
process, by the action of concentrated nitric acid 
on silver and copper when present together. If 
these metals are placed into common commercial 
acid, (sp. gr. 1'47) they will both be strongly acted 
on; but a separation of the two is unattainable, 
since the copper, so long as any remains undis- 
solved, will precipitate the silver from its solution 
by galvanic action. Nitric acid of the highest 
specific gravity (TS), however, acts on the silver, 
but ncit on the copper ; it renders the copper more 
electro-negative than before, less oxidizable, and 
deprives it of the property of decomposing the 
acid, and precipitating the silver. 

To produce this passive condition of copper, it 
is not absolutely necessary to employ directly acid 
of that specific gravity ; for any concentrated 
nitric acid can be made to answer the purpose by 
the addition of a sufficient quantity of the oil of 
vitriol, which deprives it of a portion of its water, 
and thus contributes to make it stronger. A mix- 
ture of one volume of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1,47) and 
si.x of vitriol does not dissolve copper at the tem- 
perature of boiling water ; but with a smaller pro- 
portion of sulphuric acid, evolution of nitrous acid 
takes place. The same end and much cheaper, 
is obtained by employing a mixture of oil of vitriol 
and nitrate of soda, which are the materials used 
in the practice. The following is the method now 
generally employed: Oil of viiriol, together with 
five per cent, of nitrate of soda, is heated in a 
cast-iron boiler; or better, a stoneware pan, to 
212° Fahr. The silver-plated clippings are placed 
in a sheet-iron bucket or colander, which is fast- 
ened to a pulley that may be moved about in the 
acid. As soon as the silver is removed, the colan- 
der IB raised, allowed to drain, then immersed in 
cold water and emptied, to be again used in the 
saino manner. When the acid-bath is fresh, the 
desilvering proceeds very rapidly, and even with 
heavy plated ware takes but a few minutes; with 
the gradual saturation of the bath more time is 
required, and it is readily perceived when the acid 
must be renewed. The small amount of acid solu- 
tion adhering to the copper, precipitates its silver 
when brought into the water. To obtain its com- 
plete removal, the clippings, when raised from the 
desilvering bath and before immersion in water, 
may be dipped into a second bath prepared in the 
same manner, which is afterwards to be used in 
place of the first. 

The saturated bath, on cooling, congeals to a 
crystalline semi fluid mass of sulphate of copper 
and of soda. The silver is removed by chloride 
of sodium, which is added in small portions at a 
time, while the solution is yet warm. The chloride 
of silver separates readily, and is washed and re- 
duced in the usual manner. The acid solution 
contains but a very small portion of copper, hardly 
enough to pay for recovering. 

Another Method. 

This process is applied to recover the silver from 
the plated metal, which has been rolled down for 
buttons, toys, etc., without destroying any large 
portion of the copper. For this purpose, a men- 
Btruum is composed of 3 lbs. of oil of vitriol, IJ 
oz. of nitre, and 1 lb. of water. The plated uietal 
is boiled in it till the silver is dissolved, and then 
the silver is recovered by throwing common salt 
into the solution. 

To Plate Iron. 

Iron may be plated by three different modes. 

1. By polishing the surface very clean and level 
with a burnisher, and afterwards by exposing it 
to a blueing heat, a leaf of silver is properly placed 
and carefully Wurnished down. This is repeated 



till a suflScient number of leaves are applied, to 
give the silver a proper body. 

2. By the use of a solder; slips of thin solder 
are placed between the iron and silver, with a little 
flux, and secured together by binding wire. It is 
then placed in a clear fire, and continued in it till 
the solder melts ; when it is taken out, and on 
cooling is found to adhere firmly. 

3. By tinning the iron first, and uniting the 
silver by the intermedia of slips of rolled tin, 
brought into fusion in a gentle heat. 

To Heighten the Color of Yellow Gold. 

Take of saltpetre, 6 oz. ; green copperas, 2 oz. ; 
white vitriol and alum, of each, 1 oz. 

If it be wanted redder, a small portion of 
blue vitriol must be added. These p,re to be 
well mixed, and dissolved in water as the color 
is wanted. 

To Heighten the Color of Green Gjld. 

Take of saltpetre, 1 oz. 10 dwts. ; sai ammoni- 
ac, 1 oz. 4 dwts.; Roman vitriol, 1 oz. 4 dwts.; 
verdigris, 18 dwts. Mix them well together and 
dissolve a portion in water, as occasion requires. 

The Work must be dipped in these compositions, 
applied to a proper heat to burn them ofi', and 
then quenched in water or vinegar. 

To Heighten the Color of Red Gold. 
To 4 oz. of melted yellow wax, add, in fine 
powder, 1^ ox. of red ochre, IJ oz. of verdigris, 
calcined till it yield no fumes, and ^ oz. of calcined 
borax ; mix them well together. It is necessary 
to calcine the verdigris, or else by the heat applied 
in burning the wax, the vinegar becomes so con- 
centrated as to corrode the surface, and make it 
appear speckled. 

To Separate Gold from Gilt, Copper and Silver. 

Apply a solution of borax, in water, to the gilt 
surface, with a fine brush, and sprinkle over it 
some fine powdered sulphur. Make the piece red- 
hot, and quench it in water. The gold may be 
easily wiped off with a scratch-brush, and recov- 
ered by cupellation. 

Gold is taken from the surface of silver by 
spreading over it a paste made of powdered sal 
ammoniac, with aqua-fortis, and heating it till the 
matter smokes, and is nearly dry, when the gold 
may be separated by rubbing it with a scratch- 
brush. 

To Tin Copper and Brass. 

Boil 6 lbs. of cream of tartar, 4 galls, of water, 
and 8 lbs. of grain-tin, or tin shavings. After 
the materials have boiled a suflncient time, the sub- 
stance to be tinned is put therein and the boiling 
continued, when the tin is precipitated in its me- 
tallic form. 

To Tin Iron or Copper-plate. 

Iron which is to be tinned is first steeped in acid 
materials, such as sour whey, distillers' wash, etc., 
then scoured and dipped in melted tin, having 
been first rubbed over with a solution of sal am- 
moniac. The surface of the tin is prevented from 
calcining by covering it with a coat of fat. Cop- 
per vessels must be well cleansed, and then a suf- 
ficient quantity of tin with sal ammoniac is put 
therein and brought into fusion, and the copper 
vessel moved about. A little resin is sometimes 
added. The sal ammoniac prevents the copper 
from scaling, and causes the tin to be fixed wher- 
ever it touches. 

To prepare the Leaden Tree. 

Put i oz. of the sugar of lead, in powder, into a 
clear glass globe or wine decanter, filled to the 
bottom of the neck with distilled water and 10 
drops of nitric acid, and shake the mixture well. 



IRON AND STEEL. 



381 



Prepare a rod of sine with a hammer and file, so 
that it may be a quarter of an inch thick and 1 
inch long, at the same time form notches in each 
aide for a thread, by which it is to be suspended, 
and tie the thread so that the knot shall be up- 
permost when the metal hangs quite perpendicu- 
lar. When it is tied, pass the two ends of the 
thread through a perforation in the cork, and let 
them be again tied over a small splinter of wood 
which may pass between them and the cork. 
When the string is tied, let the length between 
the cork and the zinc be such that the precipitant 
(the zinc) may be at equal distances from the 
sides, bottom and top of the vessel, when immersed 
in it. When all things are thus prepared, place 
the vessel in a place where it may not be disturbed, 
and introduce the zinc, at the same time fitting in 
the cork. The metal will very soon be covered 
■with the lead, which it precipitates from the solu- 
tion, and this will continue to take place until the 
whole be precipitated upon the zinc, which will 
assume the form of a tree or bush, the leaves and 
branches of which are laminal, or plates of a 
metallic lustre. 

To prepare the Tin Tree, 
Into the same, or a similar vessel to that used 
m the last e.xperiment, pour distilled water as be- 
fore, and put in 3 drs. of chloride of tin, adding 
10 drops of nitric acid, and shake the vessel until 
the salt is completely dissolved. Replace the 
zinc (which must be cleared from the effects of the 
former experiment) as before, and set the whole 
aside to precipitate without disturbance. In a 
few hours the effect will be similar to the last, only 
that the tree of tin will have more lustre. 

To prepare the Silver Tree, 
Pour into a glass globe or decanter 4 drs. of ni- 
trate of silver dissolved in a lb. or more of dis- 
tilled water, and lay the vessel on the chimney- 
piece, or in some place where it may not be dis- 
turbed. Now pour in 4 drs. of mercury'. In a 
short time the silver will be precipitated in the 
mqst beautiful arborescent form, resembling real 
vegetation. This has been termed the Arbor 
Dianae. 

Chinese Sheet-lead. 

The operation is carried on by two men ; one 
is seated on the floor with a large flat stone before 
him, and with a movable flat stone-stand at his 
side. His fellow-workman stands beside him with 
a crucible filled with melted lead, and having 
poured a certain quantity upon the stone, the 
other lifts the movable stone, and dashing it on 
the fluid lead presses it out into a flat and thin 
plate, which he instantly removes from the stone. 
A second quantity of lead is poured in a similar 
way, and a similar plate formed, the process being 
carried on with singular rapidity. The rough 
edges of the plates are then cut off, and they are 
soldered together for use. 



IRON AND STEEL. 
Expeditious Mode of Reducing Iron Ore into Mal- 
leable Iron. 

The way of proceeding is by stamping, wash- 
ing, etc., the calcine and materials, to separate the 
ore from extraneous matter ; then fusing the pre- 
pared ore in an open furnace, and instead of cast- 
ing it, to suffer it to remain at the bottom of the 
furnace till it becomes cold. 
Ifew Method of Shingling and Manufacturing Iron, 

The ore being fused in a reverberating furnace, 
is conveyed, while fluid, into an air-furnace, where 
it is exposed to a strong heat till a bluish flame 



is observed on the surface, it is then agitated on 
the surface till it loses its fusibility and is collected 
into lumps called loopi. These loups are then put 
into another air-furnnce, brought to a white or 
welding heat, and then shingled into half hloom* 
or slabes. They are again exposed to the air-fur- 
nace, and the half-blooms taken out and forged 
into anconips, bars, half-flats, and rods for wire ; 
while the slabes are passed, when of a welding 
heat, through the grooved rollers. In this way 
of proceeding, it matters not whether the iron is 
prepared from cold or hot-short metal, nor is there 
any occasion for the use of finery, charcoal, coke, 
chafery or hollow-fire; or any blast by bellows or 
otherwise, or the use of fluxes in any part of the 
J rocess. 

Approved Method of Welding Iron. 

This consists in the skilful bundling of the iron 
to be welded, in the use of an extraordinarily large 
forge-hammer, in employing a baUing-fnrnace, in- 
stead of a hollow-fire or chafery, and in passing 
the iron, reduced to a melting heat, through 
grooved mill rollers of different shapes and sizes, 
as required. 

Welding Steel, or Iron and Cast Steel. 

Melt borax in an earthen vessel, and add 1- 
10th of pounded sal ammoniac. When well mixed, 
pour it out on an iron plate, and as soon as it ia 
cold, pulverize and mix it with an equal quantity 
of unslaked lime. To proceed to the operation, 
the iron or steel must be first heated to a red 
heat, and the powder strewed over it; the pieces 
of metal thus prepared are to be again put in tho 
fire, and raised to a heat considerably longer than 
the usual welding one, when it is to be withdrawn 
and well beaten by a hammer till the surfaces are 
perfectly united. 

Welding by Pressure, 

Soft metals can be welded cold by great pres- 
sure, and recently hydraulic pressure has been 
applied by M. Duportail to the welding of heated 
masses of iron. The advantage of pressure over 
hammering, is that it reaches the centre of the 
bar and produces a homogeneous weld. 
Common Hardening. 

Iron by being heated red-hot, and plunged into 
cold water, acquires a great degree of hardness. 
This proceeds from the coldness of the water 
which contracts the particles of the iron into less 
space. 

Case-hardening. 

Case-hardening is a superficial conversion of 
iron into steel by cementation. It is performed 
on small pieces of iron by enclosing them in an 
iron box containing burnt leather, bone-dust, or 
ferrocyanide of potassium, and exposing them for 
some hours to a red heat. The surface of the iron 
thus becomes perfectly hardened. Iron thus 
treated is susceptible of the finest polish. 

To Convert Iron into Steel by Cementation. 

The iron is formed into bars of a convenient 
size, and then placed in a cementing furnace with 
a suflicient quantity of cement, which is composed 
of coals of animal or vegetable substances, mixed 
with calcined bones, etc. The following are excel- 
lent cements: 1st, 1 part of powdered charcoal 
and i a part of wood-ashes well mixed together; 
or, 2nd, 2 parts of charcoal, moderately pow- 
dered, 1 part of borax, horn, hair, or skins of 
animals, burnt in close vessels to blackness, and 
powdered, and i a part of wood-ashes; mix them 
well together. The bars of iron converted into 
steel, are placed upon a stratum of cement, and 
covered all over with the same, and the vessel 
which contains them, closely luted, must be ex 



882 



METALLUBGY. 



posed to a red heat for 8 or 10 hours, when the 
iron will he converted into steel. 

Steel is prepared from bar-iron by fusion ; 
which consisti of plungins; a bar into melted iron, 
and keeping it there for some time, by which pro- 
cess it is converted into good steel. 

All inin which becomes harder by suddenly 
quenching in cold water is called steel; and that 
Bteel which in quenching acquires the greatest de- 
gree of hardness in the lowest degree of heat, and 
retains the greatest strength in and after indura- 
tion, ought to be considered as the best. 

Improved Process of Hardening Steel 

Articles manufactured of steel for the purposes 
of cutting, are, almost without an exception, hard- 
ened from the anvil ; in other words, they are 
taken from the forger to the hardener without un- 
dergoing any intermediate process ; and such is 
the accustomed routine, that the mischief arising 
has escaped observation. The act of forging pro- 
duces a strong scale or coating, which is spread 
over the whole of the blade; and to make the evil 
still more formidable, this scale or coating is un- 
equal in substance, varying in proportion to the 
degree of heat communicated to the steel in forg- 
ing ; it is, partially, almost impenetrable to the 
action of water when immersed for the purpose of 
hardening. Hence it is that different degrees of 
hardness prevail in nearly every razor manufac- 
tured; this is evidently a positive defect , and so 
long as it continues to exist, great difference of 
teuiperature must exist likewise. Razor-blades 
not unfrequently exhibit the fact here stated in a 
very striking manner; what are termed clouds, or 
parts of unequal polish, derive their origin from 
this cause; and clearly and distinctly, or rather 
distitictly though not clearly, show how far this 
partial coating has extended, and where the ac- 
tion of the water has been yielded to, and where 
resisted. It certainly cannot be matter of aston- 
ishment, that so few improvements have been 
made in the hardening of steel, when the evil here 
complained of so universally obtains, as almost to 
warrant the supposition that no attempt has ever 
been made to remove it. The remedy, however, is 
easy and simple in the extreme, and so evidently 
efficient in its application, that it cannot but ex- 
cite surprise, that, in the present highly improved 
state of our manufactures, such a communication 
should be made as a discovery entirely new. 

Instead, therefore, of the customary mode of 
hardening the blade from the anvil, let it be 
passed immediately from the hands of the forger 
to the grinder ; a slight application of the stone 
will reraeve the whole of the scale or coating, and 
the razor will then be properly prepared to undergo 
the operation of hardening with advantage. It 
will be easily ascertained, that steel in this state 
heats in the fire with greater regularity, and that 
when immersed, the obstacles being removed to 
the immediate action of the water on the body of 
the steel, the latter becomes equally hard from one 
extremity to the other. To this may be added, 
that, as the lotoest possible heat at which steel be- 
comes hard is indubitably the best, the mode here 
recommended will be found the only one by which 
the process of hardening can be effected with a 
less portion of fire than is, or can be, required in 
any other way. These observations are decisive, 
and will, in all probability, tend to establish in 
general use, what cannot but be regarded as a 
very important improvement in the manufacturing 
of edged steel instruments. — Rhodes' Essay on the 
Manufacture of a Razor, 

Improved Mode of Hardening Steel by Hammering. 
Gravers, axes, and in fact all steel instruments 



that require to be excessively hard, may be easily 
rendered so by heating them to the tempering de- 
gree and hammering them till cold. If a graver, 
it is to be heated to a straw-color, hammered on 
the acute edge of the belly, tempered to the straw- 
color again, ground and whetted to a proper 
shape. A graver thus prepared will cut into steel, 
without previous decarbonization. If the point 
should on trial be found not sufliciently hard, the 
operation of heating, hammering, and tempering, 
etc., may be repeated as often as necessary. 

English Cast-Steel. 

The finest of steel, called English cast-steel, is 
prepared by breaking to pieces blistered steel, and 
then melting it in a crucible with a flux composed 
of carbonaceous and vitrifiable ingredients. The 
vitrifiable ingredient is used only inasmuch as it 
is a fusible body, which flows over the surface of 
the metal in the crucibles, and prevents the access 
of the oxygen of the atmosphere. Broken glass is 
sometimes used for this purpose. 

When thoroughly fused it is cast into ingots, 
which, by gentle heating and careful hammering, 
are tilted into bars. By this process the steel be* 
comes more highly carbonized in proportion to 
the quantity of flux, and in consequence is more 
brittle and fusible than before. Hence it sur- 
passes all other steel in uniformity of texture, 
hardness, and closeness of grain, and is the mate- 
ria) employed in all the finest articles of English 
cutlery. 

To make Edge-tools from Cast-Steel and Iron. 

This method consists in fixing a clean piece of 
wrought iron, brought to a welding-heat, in tho 
centre of a mould, and then pouring in melted 
steel, so as entirely to envelop the iron ; and then 
forging the mass into the shape required 

To Color Steel Blue. 
The steel must be finely polished on its surface, 
and then exposed to a uniform degree of heat. 
Accordingly, there are three ways of coloring: 
first, by a flame producing no soot, as spirit of 
wine; secondly, by a hot plate of iron; and 
thirdly, by wood-ashes. As a very regular degree 
of heat is necessary, wood-ashes for fine work 
bears the preference. The work must be covered 
over with them, and carefully watched ; when tho 
color is sufficiently heightened, the work is per- 
fect. This color is occasionally taken off with a 
very dilute muriatic acid. 

To Distinguish Steel from Iron. 
The principal characters by which steel may b6 
distinguished from iron, are as follows : — 

1. After being polished, steel appears of a 
whiter light gray hue, without the blue cast ex- 
hibited by iron. It also takes a higher polish. 

2. The hardest steel, when not annealed, ap- 
pears granulated, but dull, and without shining 
fibres. 

3. When steeped fn acids the harder the steel 
is, of a darker hue is its surface. 

4. Steel is not so much inclined to rust as iron. 

5. In general, steel has a greater specifio 
gravity. 

6. By being hardened and wrought, it may bo 
rendered much more elastic than iron. 

7. It is not attracted so strongly by the magnet 
as soft iron. It likewise acquires magnetic pro- 
perties more slowly, but retains them longer; for 
which reason, steel is used in making needles for 
compasses and artificial magnets. 

8. Steel is ignited sooner, and fuses with less 
degree of heat than malleable iron, which can 
scarcely be made to fuse without the addition of 



STEEL. 



383 



powdered charcoal; by wbicb it is converted into 
steel, and afterwards into crude iron. 

9. P(ilished steel is sooner tinged by heat, and 
that with higher colors than iron. 

10. In a ciilrining heat, it suffers less loss by 
burning th:in so't iron does in the same heat, and 
the same time. In calcination a light blue flame 
hovers over the steel, either with or without a sul- 
phureous odor. 

11. The scales of steel are harder and sharper 
than those of iron ; and consequently more fit for 
polishing with. 

12. In a white heat, when exposed to the blast 
of the bellows among the coals, it begins to sweat, 
wet, or uieU, partly with light-colored anxl bright, 
and partly with red sparkles, but less crackling 
than those of iron. In a melting heat, too, it con- 
sumes faster. 

1.3. In the sulphuric, nitric, and other acids, 
steel is violently attacked, but is longer in dis- 
fiolving than iron. After maceration, according 
as it is softer or harder, it appears of a lighter or 
darker gray color; while iron on the other hand 
is white. 

The Bessemer Process of Making Steel. 
Hematite pig-iron smelted with coke and hot- 
blast has chiefly been used. The metal is melted 
in a reverberatory furnace, and is then run into a 
founder's ladle, and from thence it is transferred 
to the vessel in which its conversion into steel is 
to be effected. It is made of stout plate iron and 
lined with a powdered argillaceous stone found in 
this neighborhood below the coal, and known as 
ganister. The converting vessel is mounted on 
axes, which rest on stout iron standards, and by 
means of a wheel and handle it may be turned 
into any required position. There is an opening 
at the top for the inlet and pouring out of the 
metal, and at the lowest part are inserted 7 fire- 
clay tuyeres, each having five openings in them; 
these openings communicate at one end with the 
interior of the vessel, and at the other end with a 
box called the tuyere-box, into which a current of 
air from a suitable blast engine is conveyed under 
a pressure of about 14 lbs. to the square inch, a 
pressure more than suflScient to prevent the fluid 
metal from entering the tuyeres. Before com- 
mencing the first operation, the interior of the 
vessel is heated by coke, a blast through the 
tuyeres being used to urge the fire. When sufii- 
ciently heated, the vessel is turned upside down, 
and all the unburned coke is shaken out. The 
molten pig-iron is then run in from the ladle 
before referred to; the vessel, during the pouring 
in of the iron, is kept in such a position that the 
orifices of the tuyeres are at a higher level than 
the surface of the metal. When all the iron has 
run in the blast is turned on, and the vessel 
quickly moved round. The air then rushes up- 
wards into fluid metal from each of the 35 small 
orifices of the tuyeres, producing a most violent 
agitation of the whole mass. The silicium, always 
present in greater or less quantities in pig-iron, is 
first attacked. It unites readily with the oxygen 
of the air, producing silicic acid; at the same 



time a small portion of the iron undergoes oxida- 
tion, hence a fluid silicate of the oxide of iron is 
formed, a little carbon being simultaneously elim- 
inated. The heat is thus gradually increased 
until nearly the whole of the silicium is oxidized; 
this generally takes place in about 12 minutes 
from the commencement of the process. The 
carbon now begins to unite more freely with the 
oxygen of the air, producing at first a small flame, 
which rapidly increases, and in about three min- 
utes from its first appearance we hav« a most in- 
tense combustion going on : the metal rises higher 
and higher in the vessel, sometimes occupying 
more than double its former space. The frothy 
liquid now presents an enormous surface to the 
action of the oxygen of the air, which unites 
rapidly with the carbon contained in the crude 
iron, and produces a most intense combustion, the 
whole, in fact, being a perfect mixture of metal 
and fire. The carbon is now eliminated so rapidly 
as to produce a series of harmless explosions, 
throwing out the fluid slags in great quantities, 
while the union of the gases is so perfect that a 
voluminous white flame rushes from the mouth of 
the vessel, illuminating the whole building, and 
indicating to the practised eye the precise condi- 
tion of the metal inside. The workman may thus 
leave off whenever the number of minutes he has 
been blowing and the appearance of the flame in- 
dicate the required quality of the metal. This is 
the mode preferred in working the process in 
Sweden. But here we prefer to blow the metal 
until the flame suddenly stops, which it does just 
on the approach of the metal to the condition of 
malleable iron : a small quantity of charcoal pig- 
iron, containing a known quantity of carbon, is 
then added, and steel is produced of any desired 
degree of carburation, the process having occupied 
about 28 minutes from the commencement. The 
vessel is then turned, and the fluid steel is run 
into the casting ladle, which is provided with a 
plug rod covered with loam : the rod passes over 
the top of the ladle, and works in guides on the 
outside of it, so that, by means of a lever handle, 
the workmen may move it up and down as desired. 
The lower part of the plug, which occupies the 
interior of the ladle, has fitted to its lower end a 
fire-clay cone, which rests in a seating of the same 
material let into the bottom of the ladle, thus 
forming a cone valve, by means of which the fluid 
steel is run into different-sized moulds, as may be 
required, the stream of fluid steel being prevented 
by the valve plug from flowing during the move- 
ment of the casting ladle from one mould to an- 
other. By tapping the metal from below, no scoria 
or other extraneous floating matters are allowed 
to pass into the mould. 

Uchatiiis Steel. 
Pig-iron is first granulated by running it in a 
small stream into cold water kept constantly 
agitated. The granulated metal is mixed with 
sparry iron ore, and if necessary a small portion 
of manganese, and heated in crucibles in the or- 
dinary cast-steel blast furnace. 



B84: 



PYROTECHNY, MATCHES, ETC. 



FYROTECHNY, M:A^TCHES, etc. 



To make Gunpowder. 

Take of refined nitre, 75 parts ; sulphur, 10 
parts; best refined willow charcoal, 15 parts. 
Powder each separately, and mix intimately with 
a little water in a mortar. The paste may be 
rolled out into thin rods, cut into grains and dried 
on a board in the sun. On the large scale the 
grains are made by forcing the paste through 
sieves, dried by steam-heat and polished by roll- 
ing' against each other in a barrel. Meal-powder 
is ungrained powder. 

To maJce Gun-cotton. 

Immerse clean cotton wool in a mixture of equal 
parts of the strongest nitric and sulphuric acids, 
allowed to cool for one minute, wash in plenty of 
cold water, and dry in the sun or by a very gen- 
tle artificial heat. For soluble gun-cotton used in 
making collodion, see Photography. 
Lenk's Gun-cotton. 

This process gives a gun-cotton which is con- 
stant in composition, not liable to change, and of 
a moderate rapidity of explosiveness. It has been 
favorably reported on by the Imperial Commis- 
sion. The following directions are extracted from 
the specifications of his patent: 

First. The cotton or other vegetable fiber is first 
taken and spun into loose' threads of suflBcient 
strength to be easily handled. 

Second. The cotton must then be thoroughly 
boiled in a solution of potash or of soda, in order 
to remove all greasy substances which the cotton 
may contain, and after thus boiled it may be ex- 
posed to the sun, or wind, or in a heated room, to 
dry. 

Third. The cotton must now be taken into a 
room heated to 100° Fahr. in order to make it per- 
fectly dry. 

Fourth. A mixture is now made containing 1 
part weight of nitric acid of 1.48 to 1.50 specific 
gravity, and 3 parts weight of common sulphuric 
acid. This mi.xture must stand in closed earthen 
or glass jars for several days, or until the two 
acids become fully mixed and cooled. 

Fifth. This mixture of acids is now put into an 
apparatus containing three apartments, one for 
the main bulk of the acids, one for the immersion 
of the cotton, and one for receiving the cotton af- 
ter being immersed. This apparatus may be made 
of cast-iron. 

Sixth. The cotton is now taken and dipped in 
the acid-bath, in said apparatus, in such a man- 
ner that every .3 oz. of the cotton must come in 
contact with 60 lbs. of the mixture of acids, or in 
other words, the bath must contain fully 60 lbs. 
of the mixture while parcels of 3 oz. of cotton are 
being dipped. The parcels thus dipped must be 
gently pressed, and the acids allowed to flow back 
into the acid-bath, and the parcels are then put 
into the third apartment of the apparatus, where 
for every 1 lb. of cotton there must be lOJ lbs. of 
the said mixture of the acids. The cotton must 
remain in this state subject to the action of the 
acids for 48 hours, and the mixture must al- 
ways have an equally strong concentration, and 
must be kept under a uniform temperature by a 
cooling process. 



Seventh. The cotton is now taken out from tho 
acids and pressed, and then put into a centrifugal 
machine to remove all surplus acids. 

Eighth. The cotton is again put into another 
centrifugal machine, into which a constant stream 
of fresh water is admitted. This process is in- 
tended to remoye the last particles of adherent 
acids. 

Ninth. The cotton is now taken and put into a 
flume or trough, and secured in such a manner 
that a running stream of fresh water may pass 
through and over it; and the same must remain 
in this situation for at least 14 days. To lessea 
the time for this operation the cotton may be im- 
mersed or saturated in alcohol for the space of 24 
hours. This process is also intended to extract 
all and the last particles of acids that may possi- 
bly adhere to the cotton. 

Tenth. Th'e cotton is now taken from the stream 
of water, or if from the alcohol it must be washed, 
and then boiled in a solution of common soap 
and again dried. This process is intended to re- 
store the cotton to its original softness and ap- 
pearance. 

Eleventh. The cotton is now taken and im- 
mersed in a solution of water-glass of 1 lb. to 2 
lbs. of soft water which must be 1.09 specific 
gravity of concentration. To 1 lb. of cotton 
19S-1000ths of a lb. of this solution of 46° Beaumfr 
is required. The cotton is then taken out of this 
solution and exposed to the action of the atmos- 
phere for at least 4 days. This process has the 
tendency to preserve the material, and also to 
make its explosive qualities less rapid. 

Twelfth. The gun-cotton is again washed in 
soft water free from lime, dried, and then packed 
in wood or metal boxes for storage or exportation ; 
and may be used for artillery, torpedoes, shells, 
mining,, blasting, small arms, and for all purposea 
where explosive power is required. 

Thirteenth. All other vegetable fibres may bo 
treated and manufactured as herein stated, which 
process will make the same explosive, like the gun- 
cotton and adapted to the same purposes. 

White Gunpowder (Auyendre'a). 
Ferrocyanide of potassium, 28 parts ; sugar,. 
23 parts ; chlorate of potassa, 49 parts. This does 
not require granulating or glazing. 

New Explosive Compound, 

Invented by Reynaud de Net. It consists of ni- 
trate of soda, 52.5 ; spent tan-bark, 27.5 ; pounded 
sulphur, 20. It is cheap, and applicable to work- 
ing mines and quarries. 



COLORED FIRES. 
Bed. 
Sixty-one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sul- 
phur, 23 carbonate of strontia. 
Purple-red. 
Sixty-one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sul- 
phur, 23 chalk. 

Mose-red. 
Sixty- one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sul- 
phur, 23 chloride of calcium. 



COLORED FIRES. 



385 



Orange-red. 
Ninety-two per cent, chlorate of potash, 14 sul- 
phur, 34 chalk. 

Yellow. 
Sixty-one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sul- 
phur, 23 <lry soda. 

Or, 50 per cent, nitre, 16 sulphur, 20 soda, 14 
gunpowder. 

Or, 61 per cent nitre, 17i sulphur, 20 soda, IJ 
charcoal. 

Light Blue. 
Sixty-one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sul- 
phur, 23 strongly-calcined alum. 
Dark Blue. 
Sixty per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sulphur, 
22 carbonate of copper, 12 alum. 
Dark Violet. 
Sixty per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sulphur, 
12 carbonate of potash, 12 alum. 
Pale Violet. 
Fifty-four per cent, chlorate of potash, 14 sul- 
phur, 16 carbonate of potash, 16 alum. 
Green. 
Seventy-three per cent, chlorate of potash, 17 
sulphur, 10 boracic acid. 

Light Green. 
Sixty per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sulphur, 
24 carbonate of baryta. 

For Theatrical Illumination. — White. 
Sixty-four per cent, nitre, 21 sulphur, 15 gun- 
powder. 

Or, 76 per cent, nitre, 22 sulphur, 2 charcoaL 

Red. 
Fifty-six per cent, nitrate of strontia, 24 sul- 
phur, 20 chlorate of potash. 
Green. 
Sixty per cent, nitrate of baryta, 22 sulphur, 18 
chlorate of potash. 

Pink. 
Twenty per cent, sulphur, 32 nitre, 27 chlorate 
of potash, 20 chalk, 1 charcoal. 
Blue. 
Twenty-seven per cent, nitre, 28 chlorate of pot- 
ash, 15 sulphur, 15 sulphate of potash, 15 ammo- 
nio-sulphate of copper. 

The dark blue is rendered still darker by the 
addition of some sulphate of potash and ammo- 
nio-sulphate of copper. It must be borne in mind 
that the red and purple fires are liable to ignite 
spontaneously, and serious accidents have hap- 
pened from this cause. 

Sulphide of Cadmium in Fireworks. 
In the following composition it is said that sul- 
phide of cadmium gives a white flame, which is 
surrounded by a magnificent blue margin : Salt- 
petre, 20 parts; sulphur, 5; sulphide of cadmium, 
4; powdered charcoal, 1. 

Iron Sand, 
Used to give corruscations in fireworks, is far 
better than iron or steel-filings. It is made by 
beating cast steel or irbn into small pieces on an 
anvil. These are sifted into 4 sizes, the smallest 
for the smallest pieces; and vice versa. The cor- 
ruscations produced by these are exceedingly 
briliianc. The sand should be kept in a dry place 
in a well-closed bottle, as any rust damages it. 
Fireworks containing it should not be made very 
long before using. 

Touch-Paper. 

Soak unglazed paper in a solution of nitre in 

vinegar or water. The stronger the solution, the 

faster will it burn. A good plan is to dip it in a 

we&k solution, dry it, try it, and if it burns too 

25 



slowly, make the solution stronger and dip it 
again, 

Quick-JIfatch 
Is made by immersing lamp-wick in a solutien of 
saltpetre with meal powder, winding it on a frame, 
and afterwards dusting with meal powder. To 1 
lb. 12 oz. of cotton, take saltpetre, 1 lb. ; alcohol, 
2 qts. ; water, 3 qts. ; solution of isinglass (1 oi. 
to the pint), 3 galls. ; mealed powder, 10 lbs. 

Port Fires. 

Take of sulphur, 2 parts ; saltpetre, 6 parts ; 
mealed powder, 1 part. This is rammed into 
cases of from 6 inches to 2 feet long, and J inch 
internal diameter. They should be lightly rammed. 
To give a brilliant flame, add 1 part of iron sand; 
for a dark flame, 1 part of powdered charcoal. 
Stars. • 

Common. — Saltpetre, 1 lb. ; sulphur, 4J oz. ; 
antimony, 4 oz. ; isinglass, i oz. j camphor, i oz.; 
alcohol, J oz. 

White. — Mealed powder, 4 oz. ; saltpetre, 12 oz. ; 
sulphur, 6Jt oz. ; oil of spike, 2 oz. ; camphor, 
5 oz. 

The above are to be made into balls, rolled in 
grained powder and dried in the sun. Used in 
Roman candles, rockets, etc. 

Trailed Stars, 

Saltpetre, 4 oz. ; sulphur, 6 oz. ; sulphate of 
antimony, 2 oz. ; rosin, 4 oz. 

With Spfxrks. — Mealed powder 1 oz. ; saltpetre, 
1 oz. ; camphor, 2 oz. 

Colored Stars 
May be made by using any of the receipts for 
colored fires, with a solution of isinglass, i oz. ; 
camphor, i oz. ; and alcohol, | oz. Make into 
balls of the requisite size, roll in gunpowder, dry 
in the sun. 

Roman Candles. 
Meal-powder, i lb. ; saltpetre, 2^ lbs. ; sulphur, 
glass dust, each, J lb. This is rammed in cases 
as follows : Put at the bottom of the case a small 
quantity of clay, then some gunpowder, then a 
wad of paper, then J of the height of the case of 
the composition, then a wad and powder and a 
star or ball, then more composition, and so on till 
the case is filled. The wads must be loose (only 
to prevent the mixing of the composition and 
gunpowder), and the ramming should not be be- 
gun until the case is J filled, and then should b« 
gentle 1' tt the stars be broken. 

Chinese Fire. 
Red. — Saltpetre, 1 lb. ; sulphur, 3 oz. ; charcoal, 
4 oz. ; iron sand, 7 oz. 

White. — Saltpetre, 1 lb. ; mealed powder, 12 oa. ; 
charcoal, 7i oz. ; iron sand, fine, 11 oz. 

Golden Rain. 
Mealed powder, 4 oz. ; saltpetre, 1 lb. ; snlphor, 
4 oz. ; brass-filings, 1 oz. ; sawdust, 2^ oz. ; glaM 
powder, 6 drs. 

Silver Rain. 
Mealed powder, 2 oz. ; saltpetre, 4 oz. ; bt>1- 
phur, 1 oz. ; steel-dust, | oz. 

Wheel Cases. 

Mealed powder, 2 lbs. ; saltpetre, 4 oz. ; steel- 
filings, 6 oz. 

For Rockets, 

Four- Ounce. — Mealed powder, 1 lb. ; cbarcoa^ 1 
oz. ; saltpetre, 4 oz. 

Eight-Ounce. — Mealed powder, 1 lb. 1 oz.; salt- 
petre, 4 oz. ; sulphur, 3J oz. ; charcoal 1 oz. 

One-Pound. — Mealed powder, 1 lb. ; charcoal, 3 
oz. ; sulphur, 1 oz. 



386 



TANNING. 



Two-Pound. — Mealed powder, 1 lb. 4 oz. ; salt- 
petre, 2 oz. ; cbarcoal, 3 oz. ; sulphur, 1 oz.; irou- 
filings, 2 oz. 

Four-PoHiid. — Mealed powder, i lb. ; saltpetre, 
15 lbs. ; sulphur, 2 lbs. ; charcoal, 6 lbs. 

Matches for Instantaneous Light. 

1. Chlorate matches, without sulphur. Chlo- 
rate of potash, separately powdered, 6 drs. : ver- 
milion, 1 dr. ; lycopodium, 1 dr. ; fine flour, 2 drs. ; 
mix caretuUy the chlorate with the flour and lyco- 
podium, avoiding much fripticn, then add the ver- 
milion, and mi.\ the whole with a-unicilage made 
with 1 dr. powdered gum Arabic, 10 grs. of traga- 
canth, 2 drs. of flour, and 4 oz. of hot water; mi.^, 
add sufficient water to bring it to a proper con- 
sistence, and dip in it the wood, previously dipped 
in a solution of 1 oz. of gum copal, and i oz. of 
camphor, in 6 oz. of oil of turpentine. 

2. With sulphur. Chlorate of potash, 9 grs.; 
sulphur, 2 grs. ; sugar, 3 grs.; vermilion, 1 gr. ; 
flour, 2 grs. ; spirit of wine, q. s. The chlorate of 
pot;ish, etc., must be separately reduced to powder, 
and the whole mixed with as little friction as pos- 
sible. The wood should be previously prepared 
as above, or with camphorated spirit. [These are 
ignited by dipping thoui in sulphuric acid, and 
instantly withdrawing them. The acid should 
be absorbed by asbestos.] They are now become 
obsolete having given place to 

Lucifer ^latches. 

These contain phosphorus in a finely divided 
state, to which it is reduced by agitating it in 
some warm solution of gum or glue, then adding 
the other ingredients, so as to form a paste, into 
which the wood or card is dipped. It is said that 
urine and artificial urea have the property of 
readily dividing phosphorus when warmed and 
agitated together. The following are some of the 
published recipes: 

1. Form 6 parts of glue into a smooth jelly, iind 
rub with it 4 parts of phosphorus, at a tempera- 



ture of 140O or 150° Fahr. ; add 10 parts of nitre, 6 
of red ochre, and 2 of fine smalts. The matches 
are dipped in melted wax to the depth of 1-lOth 
of an inch, first rubbing their ends on a hot iron 
plate. 

2. Xoiiieless Congreres. — Triturate 9 parts of 
phosphorus with a solution of 16 parts of gum, 
and add 14 parts of nitre and lli of vermilion. 

3. Glue, t) parts; phosphorus, 4; nitre, 10; red 
lead, 5 ; smalts, 2 ; the glue is soaked in water for 
24 hours, then liquefied in a warm mortar, and 
the phosphorus added, taking care that the tem- 
perature is not above 167° Fahr. 

4. Glue, 21; phosphorus, 17; nitre, 38; red 
lead, 24 ; proceed as before. 

Safely Matches. 
Will only ignite upon the prepared surface. For 
the splints take of chlorate of potassa, 6 parts: 
sulphuret of antimony, 3 parts ; glue, 1 part. For 
the friction surface, amorphous phosphorus, 10 
parts; sulphuret of antimony, or blark oxide of 
manganese, 8 parts; glue, 3 to 6 parts. Spread 
evenly upon the surface, previously made rough 
with glue and sand. 

Matches without Phosphorus. 
The dangers arising from the universal adop- 
tion of the common lucifer match have induced 
chemists to seek a substitute for it. M. Poitzer 
has recently proposed a compound which is ob- 
tained in the shape of a violet powder, by mixing 
together equal volumes of solutions of sulphate of 
cojiper, one of which is supersaturated with am- 
monia, and the other with hyposulphite of soda. 
A mixture of chlorate of potash and the above 
powder will catch fire by percussion or rubbingj 
it burns like gunpowder, leaving a black residue. 
M. Viederhold proposes a mixture of hyposulphite 
of lead or baryta, or chlorate of potash for matches 
without phosphorus. The only inconvenience of 
this compound is that it attracts moisture too 
easily. 



T.ANisri]N"a. 



The art of tanning is that by which animal 
skins are converted into leather, a product pos- 
sessing certain properties differing from those of 
the raw material, and eminently adapted to the 
purposes for which it is employed. Chemically 
considered leather is a compound of tannin and 
gelatine, possessing the requisites of durability, 
pliability, insolubility in water, and great power 
of resisting the action of chemical reagents. 

The name of tan is applied to coarsely powdered 
bark which is obtained mostly from oak and hem- 
lock trees, although all barks contain more or less 
tannin, and in some countries the extract of others 
is used. 

To tan a skin is to saturate it with tannin in 
such a manner as to promote the slow combina- 
tion of this principle with the gelatine, albumen, 
and fibrine contained in the former. 

The principal steps in the manufacture of lea- 
ther are, 

1. 7'lie washing and soaking in pure water, for 
the purpose of cleansing and softening the skins, 
and preparing them for 

2. The unhairinj/. — This is efifectod by the use 



of lime, or by sweating the hides, which dissolves 
or softens the bulbous roots of the hairs, and thus 
facilitates their removal by mere mechanical 
scraping with a blunt-edged knife. 

M' lien lime is employed, about 4 bus. are slacked 
and put into a large vat of clean water, capable 
of holding 40 hides or 2 hundred calf-skins ; the 
lime is well mixed by a plunger, and the hides or 
skins are then put into it and allowed to remain 
from 7 to 10 days for the former, and 10 to 14 
days for the latter, drawing them out daily to 
facilitate the process. 

When the hair will slip they are taken out of 
the lime and plunged into clean water, from which 
they go to the beam where the hair is scraped off 
with a long curved blunt-edged knife; they are 
immersed in water again and taken back to the 
beam, and all the flesh removed from the inside 
of the hide or skin with a sharp knife similar in 
shape to the one used in unhuiring, after which 
they are ready for 

3. Uateitig. — As it is all important to have the 
skins soft and in a condition to absorb the tan- 
ning liquor readily ; this is accomplished by put- 



TANNING. 



387 



ting thcx In water impregnated with pigeon'g- 
du3g, 1 bu. being enough for the number of hides 
or d]<in8 above named. This is called a bate, and 
ac(g by means of the muriate of ammonia which 
it contains, the lime taking the acid becomes muri- 
ate of lime, which is soluble and ea-^ily worked 
and wiished out of the skins, while the ammonia 
passes off in a gaseous state. 

Hides intended for sole-leather should remain 
24 hours in this bath, when they may be worked 
out and arc ready for the bark extract; calf-skins, 
or other upper leather, should remain in the bate 
from 3 to 5 days, according to the weather (a 
longer time being required in cold than in hot 
weather), and during this time they are taken out 
2 or 3 times and placed on the beam where they 
are scraped first on the grain side, ami lastly on 
both flesh and grain with a worker similar to the 
one used in unhairing, after which they are 
ready for 

4. T'iniiitif/. — When the bidea or skins are taken 
from the beam-house they are 7>ut into vats con- 
taining a weak solution of ground bark, and should 
be handled two or three times a day until they are 
evenly colored, when they should go into a stronger 
]i(|Uor, or ooze, where they may remain a week, 
being taken out daily and allowed to drain off, at 
the same time strengthening the ooze. They may 
now be considered ready for laying away. For 
this purpose a vat is half filled with a very strong 
extract of bark, and the hides or skins are care- 
fully laid in, one at a time, each being covered 
with finely-ground bark to the depth of half an 
inch, until all are thus laid away. About a foot 
in thickness of spent tan is put on for a heading, 
and the vat covered with boards. 

The hides or skins may be allowed to remain in 
this their first layer for two weeks, at the expira- 
tion of which time they must be taken up, washed 
clean in the liquor, and the same process repeated, 
using a new liquor and fresh bark, as the strength 
has been absorbed from the other. As the tan- 
ning proceeds the extract is exhausted more 
elowly, and from 'i weeks to 1 month may be al- 
lowed for each successive layer, after the first — 3 
layers being enough for calfskins, and 4 to 6 for 
sole-leather, according to the thickness of the 
hides. 

When the sole-leather is tanned it is taken out 
of the vats, washed clean, and hung up to dry in 
the rolling loft. When nearly dry it is rolled on 
the grain with a brass roller until it is quite 
smooth, hung up again, and thoroughly dried, 
and is ready for the market. 

Currying or Finishing Calfekins. 
When calfskins are sufficiently tanned they 
should be rinsed in the liquor in the vats, and 
hung over poles and slightly hardened, being 



ready the skin is laid on a wooden table and 
slicked on the flesh side. The stretch is in this 
manner taken out, and the skin should be per- 
fectly smooth on the t;ible before the dubbing is 
coated on; for which purpose a brush or pad is 
used, the quantity put on varying, according to 
the thickness of the skin. They are next hung 
up by the hind shanks, and allowed to dry. When 
entirely dry, they must be taken down, and filed 
flesh to flesh and grain to grain, and should re- 
main for a week or two, so as to become an evet 
color, and also to absorb the strength of the 
grease. When ready to finish the grease must be 
slicked oft' on a finishing table (made of cherry or 
mahogany wood), and the skins are softened by 
rolling them with a board having fine grooves cut 
in it. The surface of the flesh side is smoothed 
by shaving over it with a currier's knife which 
has a very fine and delicate edge turned <m it, so 
that the smallest quantity only is taken off. This 
process is termed whitening. The skins are then 
stoned on the grain side, and all wrinkles and 
breaks taken out, and a fine grain is turned on 
them with a smooth board, or with very fine 
grooves cut in it. They are matched for size, 
laid down in a pile, the larger ones in the bottom, 
and blacked on the flesh side with a compound of 
lampblack, tanner's oil, and dubbing, and a small 
quantify of water, to prevent it striking through. 
As they are blacked they are laid over a strip. 
They must now be pasted, to prevent the black 
rubbing off. The paste is composed of wheat-flour 
and boiling water, stirring in a small quantiry of 
soap and tallow, and is applied with a brush, 
coating them with as small a quantity as possible. 
They are hung up by the loop in the head and 
dried, then glassed with a polished glass «li.;ker 
on the flesh side, and are ready lor the last pro- 
cess, gumming. The gum u.<ed is gum traga^ 
canth, dis.<olved in water, and is applied with a 
sponge, on the flesh side, hung up, and when thor- 
oughly dry, they are ready for sale, or cutting into 
boots and shoes. 

To Convert Sheep-HhiM into Leather. 
Sheep-skins, which are used for a variety of 
purposes, such as gloves, book-covers, etc., and 
which, when dyed, are converted into mock Mo- 
rocco leather, are dressed as f<dlows : They are 
first to be soaked in water and handled, to ^e)la- 
rate all impurities, which may be scraped off l»y a 
blunt knife on a beam. They are then to be hung 
up in a close warm room to putrefy. This putre- 
faction loosens the wo(d, and causes the exudation 
of an oily and slimy matter, all which are to be 
removed by the knife. The skins are now to be 
steeped in milk of lime, to harden and thicken; 
here they remain for 1 month or 6 weeks, accord- 
ng to circumstances, and when taken ont, they 



careful not to e-xpose them to the direct rays of are to be smoothed on the fleshy side with a sh 



the sun in the summer months. Put into piles, 
BO that they will not dry out, dampening any part 
that may have become too dry. They are now 
shaved over a currier's beam, during which pro- 
cess the rough flesh is taken off, and the butts and 
beads are leveled and the rough edges trimmed 
off. The skins are then rinsed off, slicked on a 
marble table with a steel slicker and stiff brush 
on the flesh side, the dirt and coloring matter of 
the bark stoned, brushed, and slicked out on the 
grain side. They should then be hung up, by a 
loop cut in the head, for a few hours, that the 
water may be partially dried out of them ; they 
must be then taken down and placed in a pile, 
and are ready for ntuffiug. _ _ „ 

The grease called dubbing is composed of equal | become transparent, it is a proof that the skins 
parte of cod-liver oil and melted tallow, and when ' have absorbed the glazing matter. The pelt may 



arp 

knife. They are now to be steeped in a bath of 
bran and water, where they undergo a partial fer- 
mentation, and become thinner in their substance. 
The skins, which are now called pelts, are to be 
immersed in a solution of alum and common salt 
in water; in the proportion of 120 skins to 3 lbs. 
of alum and 5 lbs. of salt. They are to be much 
agitated in this compound saline bath, in order to 
become firm and tough. From this bath they are 
to be removed to another, composed of bran and 
water, where they remain until quite pli.-int by a 
slight fermentation. To give their upper surfaces 
a gloss, they are to be trodden in a wooden tub, 
with a solution of yolks of eggs in water, pre- 
viously well beaten up. When this solution has 



TANNING. 



1 



now be said to be converted into leather, -which is 
to be drained from moisture, hung upon hooks in 
a warm apartment to dry, and smoothed over with 
warm hand-irons. 

Morocco. 
The goat-skins being first dried in the air, are 
steeped in water 3 days and nights ; then stretched 
on a tanner's horse, beaten with a large knife, and 
steeped afresh in water every day ; they are then 
thrown into a large vat on the ground, full of 
water, where quicklime has been slaked, and there 
lie 15 days, whence they are taken, and again re- 
turned every night and morning. They are next 
thrown into a fresh vat of lime and water, and 
shifted night and morning for 15 days longer; 
then rinsed in clean water, and the hair taken off 
on the leg with the knife, returned into a third 
vat, and shifted as before for 18 days ; steeped 12 
hours in a river, taken out, rinsed, put in pails, 
where they are pounded with wooden pestles, 
changing the water twice; then laid on the horse, 
and the flesh taken off; returned into pails of new 
water, taken out, and the hair-side scraped; re- 
turned into fresh pails, taken out, and thrown into 
a pail of a particular form, having holes at bot- 
tom ; here they are beaten for the space of an 
hour, and fresh water poured on from time to time ; 
then being stretched on the leg, and scraped on 
either side, they are returned into pails of fresh 
water, taken out, stretched, and sewed np all 
round, in the manner of bags, leaving out the 
hinder legs, as an aperture for the conveyance of 
a mixture described below. 

The skins thus sewed are put to luke-warm 
water, where dog's excrements have been dis- 
solved. Here they are stirred with long poles for 
i an hour, left at rest for 12 hours, taken out, 
rinsed in fresh water, and filled by a tunnel with 
a preparation of water and sumach, mixed and 
heated over the fire till ready to boil; and, as they 
are filled, the hind legs are sewed up to stop the 
passage. In this state they are let down into the 
vessel of water and sumach, and kept stirring for 
4 hours successively ; taken out and heaped on one 
another ; after a little time their sides are changed, 
and thus they continue H hours till drained. This 
done, they are loosened, and filled a second time 
with the same preparation, sewed up again, and 
kept stirring 2 hours, piled up and drained as 
before. This process is again repeated, with this 
diflTerence, that they are then only stirred \ of an 
hour; after which they are left till next morning, 
when they are tiiken out, drained on a rack, un- 
sewed, the sumach taken out, fidded in two from 
head to tail, the hair-side outwards, laid over 
each other on the leg, to perfect their draining, 
stretched out and dried; then trampled under 
foot by two and two, stretched on a wooden table, 
what flesh and sumach remains scraped off, the 
hair-side rubbed over with oil, and that again with 
water. 

. They are then wrung with the hands, stretched, 
and pressed tight on the table with an iron instru- 
ment like that of a currier, the flesh-side upper- 
most; then turned, and the hair-side rubbed 
strongly over with a handful of rushes, to squeeze 
ont as much of the oil remaining as possible. The 
first coat of black is now laid on the hair-side, by 
means of a lock of hair twisted and steeped in a 
kind of black dye, prepared of sour beer, wherein 
pieces of old rusty iron have been thrown. When 
half-dried in the air they are stretched on a table, 
rubbed over every way with a pauinelle, or wood- 
en-toothed instrument, to raise the grain, over 
which is passed a light couche of water, then 
Kleeked by rubbing them with rushes prepared for 



the purpose. Thus sleeked, they have a second 
couche of black, then dried, laid on the table, 
rubbed over with a paumelle of cork, to raise the 
grain again ; and after a light couche of water, 
sleeked over anew ; and to raise the grain a third 
time, a paumelle of wood is used. 

After the hair-side has received all its prepara- 
tions, the flesh-side is pared with a sharp knife 
for the purpose; the hair-side is strongly rubbed 
over with a woollen cap, having before given it a 
gloss with barberries, citron or orange. The whole 
is finished by raising the grain lightly, for the 
last time, with the paumelle of cork; so that they 
are now fit for the market. 

To Prepare Red Morocco. 

After steeping, stretching, scraping, beating 
and rinsing the skins as before, they are at length 
wrung, stretched on the log, and passed after each 
other into water where alum has been dissolved. 
Thus alunied, they are left to drain till morning, 
then wrung out, pulled on the leg, and folded from 
head to tail, the flesh inwards- 

In this state they receive their first dye, by 
passing them after one another into a red liquor, 
described hereafter.' This is repeated again and 
again, till the skins have got their first color; then 
they are rinsed in clean water, stretched on the 
leg, and left to drain 12 hours; thrown into water 
through a sieve, and stirred incessantly for a day 
with long poles ; taken out, hnng on a bar across 
the water all night, white against red, and red 
against white, and in the morning the water stirred 
up, and the skins returned into it for 24 hours. 
Ltgredients for the Red Color. 

The following is the quantity and proportions 
of the ingredients required for the red color, for a 
parcel of 3fi skins : 

Cochineal, 130 drs. ; ground suchet (crocus in- 
dieus)) 45 drs. ; gutta gamba, 15 drs. ; gum Ara- 
bic, 10 drs. ; white alum, ]nilverized, 10 drs.; bark 
of the pomegranate tree, 10 drs.; citron juice, 2 
drs. ; common water, 120 lbs. 

The alum is gradually added to the other arti- 
cles, and boiled in a copper for about 2 hours, till 
one-tenth part of the water is consumed. 

To Manufacture Leather in Imitation of Morocco, 
from South American Horse Hides. 

Soften the hide in water; then spread it on a 
tanner's beam, and let it be wrought with a knife 
on the flesh-side, and subjected to the action of 
lime-water. In the succeeding process it is treated 
as goat-skins for making morocco, /. e. put it into 
hot water, with dog's dung, to purify the animal 
juices; then let it be again wrought with a knife 
on both si<les, on a tanner's beam ; afterwards put 
it into blood-warm water with bran; and, finally, 
tan it with sumach. 

To Manufacture Russia Leather. 

Calf-skins steeped in a weak bath of carbonpte 
of potass and water, are well cleaned and scraped, 
to have the hair, etc., removed. They are n'-w 
immersed in another bath, containing dog a»id 
pigeon's dung in water. Being thus freed fnm 
the alkali, they are thrown into a mixture of oat- 
meal and water, to undergo a slight fermentatioii. 
To tan these hides, it is necessary to use birch bark 
instead of oak bark ; and during the operation they 
are to be frequently handled or agitated. When 
tanned, and perfectly dry, they are made pliable 
by oil and much friction; they are then to be rub- 
bed over gently with birch tar, which gives thnm 
that agreeable odor peculiar to this kind of leather, 
and which secures them against the attacks of 
moths and worms. This odor will preserve the 
leather fur many years; and, on account of It, 



TANNING. 



889 



Rnftia leather Is much ufled in binding hnndiiome 
and costly books. The marks, or intersecting 
lines on this lenther, are given to it by passing 
over its grained surface a heavy iron cylinder, 
bound round by wires. 

To Tan or Dreis Skins in While for Glooes. 

Clean the skins from wool or hair, by laying 
them in a vat of slaked lime-water for 5 or 6 
weeks. During this operation the lime and water 
are to be twice changed, and the skins are to be 
shifted every day, and when taken out for good, 
they are to be laid all night in a running water, to 
clear them from the forcing qualities of the lime; 
next lay them on a wooden leg by sixes, to get 
the flesh off; then they are to he laid in a Vat 
with a little water, and to be fulled with wooden 
pestles for a quarter of an hour, after which rinse 
them well in a full vat of water; place them next 
on a clean pavement to drain, and afterwards cast 
them into a fresh pit of water, rinse them again, 
and re-lay them on the wooden leg, with their hair 
outsi<le, over which a whetstone is to be briskly 
rubbed, to fit them for further preparations. 
They are next to be put into a pit of water, mixed 
with wheaten bran, and stirred until the bran 
sticks to the wooden poles. They now arrive to 
a kind of fermentation, and as often as they rise 
on the top of the water, are to be plunged down 
at the same time the liquor, now highly fermented, 
is to be fined. When the skins have done ri.sing, 
take them out, and scrape away the bran with a 
knife on the leg: when sufficiently druined give 
them their feeding. For 100 large sheep-skins, 
take 8 lbs. of alum, and 3 lbs. of sea-salt, and melt 
the whole with water in a vessel. Pour the solu- 
tion out, while lukewarm, into a trough in which 
is 20 lbs. of the finest wheat flour, with the yolks 
of 8 dozen of eggs, of which mixed materials is 
formed a kind of paste, somewhat thicker than 
children's pap ; next pour hot water into the trough 
■where the paste was, mixing 2 spoonfuls of the 
paste with it, with a wooden spoon, which will 
contain a sufficiency for 12 skins, and when the 
whole is well incorporated, put 2 dozen of the 
ekins into it, taking care that the water is not too 
hot. After they have been in some time, take 
them severally out of the trough, and stretch 
them twice well out. After they have absorbed 
the paste, jjut them into tubs, and full as before. 
Let them lie in a vat 6 days, and hang them out 
to dry; in fair weather, on cords or racks. When 
dry, put them into bundles, just dipped in clean 
water, and drained; throw them into an empty 
tub, and having lain some time they are to be 
taken out and trampled under foot; hang them 
up a second time on the cords to dry, and finally 
smooth them upon a table ready for sale. 
To I'lepar* Sheep, Goal, or Kid Skin* in Oil, in 
Imitation of Chumois. 
Sheep SIciut. 

The skins, smeared with quicklime on the 
fleshy side, are folded lengthways, the wool out- 
wards, and laid on heaps, to ferment 8 days; or 
if they had been left to dry after flaying, for 15 
days. 

Then they are washed out, drained, and half 
dried, laid on a wooden horse, the wool stripped 
o9' with a round staff for the purpose, and laid in 
a weak pit of slacked lime. 

Alter 24 hours they are taken out, and left to 
drain 24 more; then put into another strong pit. 
Then they are taken out, drained, and put in 
again by turns; which begins to dispose them to 
take oil; and this practice is continued for 6 
weeks in summer, or 3 months in winter; at the 
end whereof they are washed out, laid on the wood- 



en horse, and the surface of the skin on the wool 
side peeled off, to render them the softer; (hen 
made into parcels, steeped a night in the river, in 
winter more; stretched 6 or 7, one over another on 
the wooden horse; and the knife passed strongly 
on the fleshy side, to take off anything superflu- 
ous, and render the skin smooth. 

Then they are stretched, as before, in the river, 
and the same operation repeated on the wool side; 
then thrown into a tub of water and bran, which is 
brewed among the skins till the greater part sticka 
to them; and then separated into distinct tubs, till 
they swell, and ri.se of themselves above the water. 

By these means, the remains of the lime are 
cleared out; they are then wrung out, hung up to 
dry on ropes, and sent to the mill, with the quan- 
tity of oil necessary to fill them; the best oil is 
that of cod-fish. 

Here they are first thrown in bundles into the 
river for 12 hours, then laid in the mill-trough, 
and fulled without oil, till they are well softened; 
then oiled with the hand, one by one, and thus 
formed into parcels of 4 skins each, which are 
milled, and dried on cords a second time, then a 
third; then oiled again and dried. 

This is repeated as often as necessary; when 
done, if any moisture remains they are dried in a 
stove, and made up in parcels wrapped up in wool; 
after some time they are opened to the air, but 
wrapped up again as before, till the oil seems to 
have lost all its force, which it ordinarily does in 
24 hours. 

To Scour the Skins, 

The skins are now returned to the chamoiser, 
to be scoured, by putting them into a lixivium of 
wood-ashes, working and beating them in it with 
poles, and leaving them to steep till the lye has had 
its effect; then wrung out, steeped in another lix- 
ivium, wrung again, and tkis repeated till the 
grease and oil are purged out. They are then 
half-dried, and passed over a sharp-edged iron in- 
strument, placed perpendicularly in a block, which 
opens and softens them ; lastly, they are thoroughly 
diicd, and passed over the same instrument again, 
which finishes the operation. 

Kid and Goat SJcins. 

Kid, and goat skins, are chamoised in the same 
manner as those of sheep, exce|)ting that the hair 
is taken off V>y heat: and that when brought from 
the mill they undergo a preparation called ramal- 
ling, the most diflSoult of all. 

It consists in this, that as soon as brought from 
the mill they arc steeped in a fit lixivium ; taken 
out, stretched on a round wooden leg, and the hair 
scraped offwith the knife; this makes them smooth, 
and in working cast a fine nap. The difficulty is 
scraping them evenly. 

To Dress Hare, Mole, or Rabbit Skins. 

Take a teaspoonful of alum, and 2 of saltpetre, 
both finely powdered; mix them well, sprinkle 
the powder on the flesh side of the skins, then lay 
the two salted sides together, leaving the fui out- 
ward ; roll the skin exceedingly tight, and tie it 
round with pack-thread ; hang it in a dry place for 
some days, then open it, and if sufficiently dry 
scrape it quite clean with a blunt knife, and keep 
it in a dry situation. This finishes the process. 

It may not be generally known, that the bitter 
apple bruised and put into muslin bags, will effec- 
tually prevent furs from being destroyed by moths. 
To make Parchment. 

This article is manufactured from sheep skins, 
cleared from lime. The skin is stretched on a 
frame where the flesh is pared off with an iron 
circular knife; it is then moistened with a rag, and 



390 



ENAMELLING. 



whiting spread over it ; the workman then, with a 
large pumice-stone, flat at the bottom, rubs over 
the skin, and scours oiT the flesh. He next goes 
over it with the iron instrument as before, and rubs 
it carefully with the pumice-stone without chalk; 
this serves to smooth the flesh side. He drains it 
again by passing over it the iron instrument as be- 
fore ; he passes it over the wool side, then stretches 
it tight on a frame. He now throws more whiting 
and sweeps it over with a piece of woolly lamb- 
ekin. It is now dried, and taken off the frame by 
cutting it all round. Thus prepared it is taken 
out of the skinner's hands by the parchment 
maker, who, while it is dry, pares it on a summer 
(which is a calf-skin stretched on a frame), with a 
sharper instrument than that used by the skinner, 
who, working it with tlie arm from the top to the 
bottom of the skin, takes away about half its sub- 
stance, which leaves the parchment finished. 

To Convert Old Parchment or Vellum into Leather. 

Soak and wash the skins well and often in soft 
water for 24 hours ; then remove them for the same 
period into a bath composed of li ibs. of white 
vitriol, 1 lb. of creanf of tartar, and 1 oz. of sal 
ammoniac, dissolved in 20 galls, of water. Next 
add 10 lbs. of vitriolic acid, 1 lb. of nitric acid, 
and 1 pt. of spirit of salt, in which steep the skins 
for a short time to purge away the old lime; next 
wash them clear of the acid, and rinse them as drj' 
as possible, without damaging the skins. They 
are then to be put into a tanning liquor, composed 
of 20 lbs. of oak bark, 7 lbs. sumach, 5 lbs. of 
elm-bark, 3 lbs. of sassafras, and the same quan- 
tity of lignum vitiB shavings, portioned to 20 galls. 
of water, and previously warmed for 12 hours, 
and cooled down to a new-milk warmth, before 
the skins are immersed. 

To make Vellum. 

This is a species of parchment made of the skins 
of abortives, or sucking calves ; it has a much finer 
grain, and is white and smoother than parchment, 
hut is prepared in the same manner, except its not 
being passed through the lime-pit. The article is 
used for binding superior books, and covering of 
drum heads. 

To Preserve Leather from Ifonld. 

Pyroligneous acid may be used with success in 
preserving leather from the attacks of mould, 
and is serviceable in recovering it after it has re- 
ceived that species of damage, by passing it over 
4ie surface of the hide or skin, first taking due 



care to expunge the mouldy spots, by the applica- 
tion of a dry cloth. This remedy will be of equal 
service if applied to boots, shoes, etc., when dam- 
aged in the same manner. 

To Dye Muroceo and Sheep Leather. 

The following colors may be imparted to lea- 
ther, according to the various uses for which it is 
intended. 

Blue. 

Blue is given by steeping the subject a day in 
urine and indigo, then boiling it with alum; or, 
it may be given by tempering the indigo with red 
wine, and washing the skins therewith. 

Another. — Boil elderberries or dwarf elder, then 
smear and wash the skins therewith and wring 
them out; then boil the elderberries as before in 
a solution of alum-water, and wet the skins in 
the same manner once or twice; dry them, and 
they will be very blue. 

Bed. 

Red is given by washing the skins and laying 
them 2 hours in galls, then wringing them out» 
dipping them in a liquor made with ligustrum, 
alum and verdigris ; in water, and lastly in a dye 
made of Brazil-wood boiled with lye. 
Purple. 

Purple is given by wetting the skins with a 
solution of roche alum in warm water, and when 
dry, again rubbing them with the hand, with a 
decoction of log-wood in cold water. 

Green. 
Green is given by smearing the skin with sap- 
green and alum-water boiled. 

Dark Green. 
Dark green is given with steel-filings and sal 
ammoniac, steeped in urine till soft, then smeared 
over the skin, which is to be dried in the shade. 
Yellow. 
Yellow is given by smearing the skin over with 
aloes and linseed-oil, dissolved and strained, or by 
infusing it in weld. 

Light Orange. 
Orange color is given by smearing it with fustic 
berries boiled in alum-water, or, for a deep orange, 
with turmeric. 

Sky-color. 
Sky-color i.s given with indigo steeped in boil- 
ing water, and the next morning warmed and 
smeared over the skin. 



Eisr^nsiELLiNa. 



The art of enamelling consists in the applica- 
tion of a smooth coating of vitrified matter to a 
bright polished metallic surface. It is, therefore, 
a kind of varnish made of glass, and melted upon 
the substance to which it is ai)plied; aflording a 
fine uniform ground lor an infinite variety of or- 
naments, which are also fixed L>y heat. 

The only metals that are enamelled are gold and 
copper; and with the latter the opaque enamels 
only are used. Where the enamel is transparent 
and colored, the metal chosen should not only 
have its surface unalterable when fully red hot, 
but also be in no degree chemically altered by 
the close contact of melted glass, containing an 
abundance of some kind of metallic oxide. This 
is the chief reason why colored enamelling on sil- 



ver is impracticable, though the brilliancy of its 
surface is not impaired by mere heat; for if an 
enamel, made yellow by oxide of lead or antimony, 
be laid on the surface of bright silver, and be kept 
melted on it for a certain time, the silver and the 
enamel act on each other so powerfully that the 
color soon changes from a yellow to an orange, 
and lastly to a dirty olive. Copper is equally 
altered by the colored enamels; so that gold is 
the only metal that can bear the long contact of 
the colored glass at a full red heat, without being 
altered by them. 

To Enamel Dial-Plates. 
A piece of thin sheet-copper, hammered to th» 
requisite convexity, is first accurately cut out, a 
hole drilled in the middle for the axis of the 



ENAMELLING. 



391 



hands, and both the surfaces made perfectly bright 
with a brush. A small rim is then made round 
the circuipf'erence with a thin brass band risinj; a 
little above the level, and a similar rim round the 
margin of the central hole. The use of these is 
to confine the enamel when in fusion, and to keep 
the edges of the plate quite neat and even. The 
substance of the enamel is a fine white opaque 
glass; this is bought in lump by the enamellers, 
and is first broken down with a haiiimor, then 
ground to a powder sufficiently fine with some 
water, in an agate mortar; the superfluous water 
being then poured off, the pulverized enamel re- 
mains of about the consistence of wetted sand, 
and is spread very evenly over the surface of the 
copper plate. In most enamellings, and especially 
on this, it is necessary also to counter enamel the 
under concave surface of the copper plate, to pre- 
vent its being drawn out of its true shape by the 
unequal shrinking of the metal and the enamel 
on cooling. For this kind of work, the counter- 
enamel is only about half the thickness on the 
concave, as on the convex side. For flat plates 
the thickness is the same on both sides. 

The j)late, covered with the moist enamel pow- 
der, is warmed and thoroughly dried, then gently 
Bet upon a thin earthen ring that supports it only 
by touching the outer rim, and put gradually 
into the red-hot muffle of the enameller's furnace. 
This furnace is constructed somewhat like the 
assay-furnace ; but the upper part alone of the 
muffle is much heated, and some peculiarities are 
observed in the construction, to enable the artist 
to govern the fire more accurately. 

The precise degree of heat to be given here, as 
in all enamelling, is that at which the particles 
of the enamel run together into a uniform pasty 
consistence and extend themselves evenly, show- 
ing a fine polished face; carefully avoiding on the 
other hand so great a heat as would endanger the 
melting of the thin metallic plate. When the 
enamel is thus seen to sweat down, as it were, to 
a uniform glossy glazing, the piece is gradually 
withdrawn and cooled ; otherwise it would fly by 
the action of cold air. 

A second coating of enamel is then laid on and 
fired as before ; but this time the finest powder of 
enamel is taken, or that which remains suspended 
in the washings. It is then ready to receive the 
figures anJ division marks, which are made of a 
black enamel ground in an agate mortar to a most 
impalpable powder, worked up on a pallet with oil 
of lavender, and laid on with an extremely fine 
hair brush. Th« plate is then stoved to evaporate 
the essential oil, and the figure is burnt in as be- 
fore. Polishing with tripoli, and minuter parts 
of the process, need not be here described. 

To make the Purple Enamel used in the Mosaic 
Pictures of St. Peter's at Rome. 

Take of sulphur, saltpetre, vitriol, antimony and 
oxide of tin, each, 1 lb. ; minium, or oxide of lead, 
60 lbs. Mix all together in a crucible and melt 
in a furnace; next take it out and wash it, to 
carry »S the salts ; after melting in the crucible, 
afld 19 oz. of rose copper, i oz. of prepared zaffre, 
li oz. of crocus mavtis, made with sulphur, 3 oz. 
of refined borax, and 1 lb. of a composition of 
gold, silver and mercury. 

When all are well combined, the mass is to be 
stirred with a copper rod. and the fire gradually 
diminished, to prevent the metals from burning. 
The composition thus prepared is finally to be put 
into crucibles and placed in a reverbcratory fur- 
nace, where they are to remain 24 hours. The 
same composition wdl answer for other colors, by 
merely changing the coloring matter. This com- 



position has almost all the characters of real stone, 
and when broken exhibits a vitreous fracture. 
To make White Enamel, for Porcelain. 
Mix 100 parts of pure lead with from 20 to 25 
of the best tin, and bring them to a low red heat 
in an open vessel. The mixture then burns nearly 
as rapidly as charcoal, and oxidizes very fast. 
Skim off the crusts of oxide successively formed, 
till the whole is thoroughly calcined. Then mix 
all the skimmings and again heat as before, till 
no flame arises from them, and the whole is of a 
uniform graj' color. Take 100 parts of this oxide, 
100 of white sand, and 25 or 30 of common salt, 
and melt the whole by a moderate heat. This 
gives a grayish mass, often porous and apparently 
imperfect; but which, however, runs to a good 
enamel when afterwards heated. 

for Metals and Finer Work. 

The sand is previously calcined in a very strong: 
heat with a fourth of its weight; or if a more 
fusible compound is wanted, as much of the oxides 
of tin and lead as of salt are taken, and the whole 
is melted into a white porous mass. This is then 
employed instead of the rough sand, as in th« 
preceding process. 

The above proportions, however, are not inva- 
riable ; for if more fusibility is wanted, the dose 
of oxide is increased, and that of the sand dimin- 
ished ; the quantity of common salt remaining the 
same. The snod employed in this process is not 
the common sort, however fine; but a micaceous 
sand, in whiL^h the mica forms about one-fourth 
of the mixture. 

New Enamel for Porcelain. 

Melt together pulverized feldspar, 27 parts; 
borax, 18 parts; sand, 4 parts; potash, nitre, and 
potter's earth, 3 parts each. Then add 3 parts of 
borax reduced to fine powder. 

From the trial which the Society of Arts in 
London ordered to be made of this enamel, it has 
been found superior to any hitherto known. It is 
easily and uniformly applied, and spreads without 
producing bubbles or spoutings out; it neither 
covers nor impairs even the most delicate colors. 
It incorporates perfectly with them, and the por- 
celain which is covered over with it may pass a 
second time through the fire without this enamel 
cracking or breaking out. 

Material for Opaque Enamels. 

Neri, in his valuable treatise on glass making, 
has long ago given the following proportions for 
the common material of all the opaque enamels, 
which Kunckel and other practical chemists have 
confirmed: Calcine 30 parts of lead with 33 of 
tin, with the usual precautions. Then take of 
this calcined mixed oxide 50 lbs., and as much 
powdered flints (prepared by being throwr 
water when red-hot, and ground to powd- 
8 oz. of salt of tartar; melt the mixture i 
fire kept up for ten hours, after which • je 

mass to powder. 

To make it White. 

Mix 6 lbs. of the compound with 4 if the 

best black oxide of manganese, and m a clear 

fire. When fully fused throw it into d water; 
then re-melt and cool as before 2 or , Jmes, till 
the enamel is quite white and fine. 

liich Red-colored Enamel, 
The most beautiful and costly color known in 
enamelling is an exquisitely fine, rich red. with a 
purplish tinge, given by the salts and oxides of 
gold; especially by the purph precipitate formed 
by tin in one form or other, and by nitromuriate 
of gold, and also by the fulminating gold. Thi» 



892 



ENAMELLING. 



beautiful color requires much skill in the artist, 
to be fully brought out. When most perfect it 
should come from the fire quite colorless, and af- 
terwards receive its color by the flame of a candle. 
Other and common reds are given by the oxide 
of iron, but this requires the mixture of alumina, 
or some other substance refractory in the fire, 
otherwise at a full red heat the color will degen- 
erate into black. 

To Prepare the Flux for Enamelling on Glass Vessels. 
Take of saturntts glorificatus, 1 lb.; natural 
crystal, calcined to whiteness, J lb.; salt of pulve- 
rine, 1 lb. Mix them together, and bake in a 
slow heat for about 12 hours; then melt the mass, 
and pulverize the same in an agate mortar, or any 
other proper vessel, which is not capable of com- 
municating any metallic or other impurity. 
To Pre}iare Glorijicatus. 
Take litharge of white lead, put it in a pan, 
pour on distilled vinegar, stirring it well over a 
gentle fire till the vinegar becomes impregnated 
■with the salt of the lead ; evaporate half the vin- 
egar, put it in a cool place to crystallize, and 
keep the crystals dry for use. 

To make Green Enamel. 
Take of copper-dust, 1 oz. ; sand, 2 oz. ; litharge, 
1 oz. ; nitre, i oz. Or, copper, 2 oz. ; sand, 1 oz.; 
litharge, 2 oz. ; nitre, 1^ oz. 

Mix them with equal parts of flux, or vary the 
proportions of them as may be foi id necessary, 
according to the tint of color requiieil. 

Another. — Take of opaque or transparent 
enamel, 10 parts ; oxide of chromium, 1 to 2 parts. 
Black Enamel. 
Take of calcined iron, cobalt, crude or prepared, 
each 1 oz. Or, zaffre, 2 oz. ; manganese, 1 oz. 

Mix them with equal parts of flux, by melting 
or grinding together. 

Yellow Enamel. 
Take of lead and tin ashes, litharge, antimony, 
and sand, each 1 oz. ; nitre, 4 oz. 

Calcine, or melt them together; pulverize, and 
mix them with a due proportion of flux, as the 
nature of the glass may require; or take more or 
less of any or all of the above, according to the 
depth of color desired. Or, opaque or transparent 
enamel, 6 parts; chloride of silver, 1 to 2 parts. 
Blue Enamel. 
Take of prepared cobalt, sand, red-lead, and 
nitre, each 1 oz. ; flint-glass, 2 oz. 

Melt them together by fire, pulverized and 
fluxed according to the degree of softness or 
strength of color required. 

Olive Enamel. 
Take of the blue, as prepared above, 1 oz.; black, 
i oz. ; yellow, i oz. Grind them for use. If 
necessary add flux to make it softer. 
White Enamel. 
Take of tin, prepared by aqua-fortis, and red- 
lead, each 1 oz.; white pebble-stone, or natural 
crystal, 2 oz. ; nitre, 1 oz.; arsenic, 1 dr., with 
equal parts of flux, or more or less, as the softness 
or opacity may require. Melt together, calcine, 
or use raw. 

Purple Enamel. 
Take of opaque or transparent enamel, 12 parts ; 
purple of Cassius, 1 to 2 parts, regulated with sal 
ammoniac. Put it in a sand-heat for about 48 
kours, to digest the gold. Collect the powder, 
grind it with 6 times its weight of sulphur ; put it 
into a crucible on the fire till the sulphur is evap- 
orated, then amalgamate the powder with twice 
its weight of mercury ; put it into a mortar or 



other vessel, and rub it together for about 6 hours, 
with a small quantity of water in the mortar, which 
change frequently; evaporate the remaining mer- 
cury in a crucible, and add to the powder 10 times 
its weight of flux, or more or less, as the harrinesa 
or softness of the color may require. 
Jiose-colored Enamel, 

Take purple as prepared above, mix it with 30 
times its weight of flux, and 1-lOOth part of its 
weight of silver-leaf, or any preparation of silver, 
or vary the proportion of the flux and silver as the 
quality of the color may require; or any of the 
other preparations for purple will do, varying the 
proportions of the flux and silver as above; or 
any materials, from which purple can be pro- 
duced, will, with the addition of silver and flux, 
answer. 

Brown Enamel. 

Take of red-lead, 1 oz. ; calcined iron, 1 oz.; 
antimony, 2 oz. ; litharge, 2 oz. ; zafi"re, 1 oz. ; 
sand, 2 oz. 

Calcine, or melt together, or use raw, as may 
be most expedient ; or vary the proportions of any 
or all the above, as tint or quality may require. 
Mode of Application. 

The preceding colors may be applied to vessels 
of glass in the following manner, viz., by painting, 
printing, or transferring, dipping, floating, and 
grounding. 

By Painting. — Mix the colors (when reduced by 
grinding to a fine powder) with spirits of turpen- 
tine, temper them with thick oil of turpentine, and 
apply them with camel-hair pencils, or any other 
proper instrument, or mix them with nut or spike 
oil, or any other essential or volatile oil, or with 
water, in which case use gum Arabic, or any other 
gum that will dissolve in water, or with spirits, 
varnishes, gums of every kind, waxes, or resins; 
but the first is conceived to be the best. 

Bi/ Printing. — Take a glue-bat, full size for the 
subject, charge the copper plate with the oil or 
color, and take the impression with the bat from 
the plate, which impression transfer on the glass. 
If the impression is not strong enough, shake 
some dry color on it which will adhere to the 
moist color ; or take any engraving, or etching, or 
stamp, or cast, and, having charged it with the 
oil or color, transfer it on the glass by means of 
prepared paper, vellum, leather, or any other sub- 
stance that will answer; but the first is the best. 
Any engravings, etchings, stamps, casts, or de- 
vices may be charged with waters, oils, varnishes, 
or glutinous matters of any kind, reduced to a 
proper state, as is necessary in printing in gene- 
ral. Any or all of these may be used alone, or 
mi.xed with the colors. When used alone the 
color is to be applied in powder. 

By Dipping. — Mix the color to about the con- 
sistency of a cream, with any of the ingredients 
used for printing, in which dip the glass vessel, 
and keep it in motion till smooth. 

By Fliinting. — Mix the color with any of the 
ingredients used for printing, to a consistency ac- 
cording to the strength of the ground required, 
float it through a tube, or any other vessel, moving 
or shaking the piece of glass till the color is spread 
over the part required. 

By Grounding. — First charge the glass vessel 
with oil of turpentine, with a camel-hair pencil, 
and while moist apply the color in a dry powder, 
which will adhere to the oil; or, instead of oil of 
turpentine, use any of the materials used for 
printing; but the first is the best. 

Cautions to be Observed in making Colored 
Enamels. 

In making these enamels, the following general 



ENAMELLING. 



393 



cautions are necessary to be observed. 1st. That 
the pots be glazed with white glass, and be such 
as will bear the fire. 

21. That the mutter of enamels be very nicely 
mi.xi'd with the colors. 

3d. When the enamel is good, and the color 
well incorporated, it must be taken from the fire 
with a pair of tongs. 

General Method of making Colored Enamels. 

Powder, sift, and grind all the colors very 
nicely, and first mi.v them with one another, and 
then with the common matter of enamels; then 
set them in pots in a furnace, and when they are 
well mixed and incorporated, cast them into water, 
and when dry set them in a furnace again to melt, 
and when melted take a proof of it. If too deep 
colored, add more of the common matter of ena- 
mels ; and if too pale add more of the colors. 

To Obtain Black Enamel with Platina. 

Mis some chloride of platina, ditisolved in water, 
with neutral nitrate of mercury, and e.xpose the 
precipitate, which will be formed, to a heat simply 
suflBcient to volatilize the proto-chloride of mer- 
cury ; there will be obtained a black powder, 
which, applied with a flux, gives a beautiful black 
enamel. 

To make Enamel, calledNiello. 

Take 1 part of pure silver, 2 of copper, and 3 
of pure lead, fuse them together, and pour the 
amalgam into a long-necked earthenware matrass, 
half filled with levigated sulphur; let the mouth 
of the vessel be immediately closed, and the con- 
tents left to cool. The mass which results, when 
levigated and washed, is ready for the purposes 
of the artist. The cavities left by the fusion hav- 
ing been filled with it, the plate is to be held over 
a small furnace, fed with a mixture of charcoal 
and wood, taking care to distribute the enamel 
with the proper instrument. As soon as fusion 
has taken place, the plate is to be removed ; and, 
when sufliciently cooled, is to be cleared by the 
file, and polished by fine pumice and tripoli. 

To Paint in Enamel. 

The enamel painter has to work, not with actual 
colors, but with mixtures, which he only knows 
from experience will produce certain colors after 
the delicate operation of the fire; and to the com- 
mon skill of the painter, in the arrangement of 
his palette and choice of his colors, the enameller 
has to add much practical knowledge of the chemi- 
cal operation of one metallic oxide on another; 
the fusibility of his materials; and the utmost de- 
gree of heat at which they will retain, not only 
the accuracy of the figures which he has given, 
but the precise shade of color which he intends to 
lay on. 

Painting in enamel requires a succession of 
firings; first of the ground which is to receive the 
design, and which itself requires two firings, and 
then of the difi'erent parts of the design itself. 
The ground is laid on in the same general way as 
the common watch-face enamelling. The colors 
are the difi'erent metallic oxides, melted with some 
vitrescent mixture, and ground to extreme fine- 
ness. These are worked up with an essential oil 
(that of spikenard is preferred, and next to it oil 
of lavender) to the proper consistence of oil colors, 
and are laid on with a very fine hair brush. The 
The essential oil should be very pure, and the use 
of this rather than of any fixed oil, is that the 
whole may evaporate completely in a moderate 
heat, and leave no carbonaceous matter in contact 
with the color when red hot, which might aflect 
its degree of oxidation, and thence the shade of 
color which it is intended to produce. As the 



color of some vitrified metallic oxides (such as 
that of gold) will stand at a very moderate heat, 
whilst others will bear, and even require a higher 
temperiiture to be properly fixed, it forms a great 
part of the technical skill of the artist to supply 
the difi'erent colors in proper order; fixing first 
those shades which are produced by the colors 
that will endure the highest, and finishing with 
those that demand the least, heat. The outline 
of the design is first traced on the enamel, ground 
and burnt in ; after which the parts are filled up 
gradually by repeated burnings, to the last and 
finest touches of the tenderest enamel. 

Transparent enamels are scarcely ever laid upon 
any 'other metal than gold, on account of the dis- 
coloration produced by other metals. If, however, 
copper is the metal used, it is first covered with a 
thin enamel coating, over which gold-leaf is laid 
and burnt in, so that, in fact, it is still this metal 
that is the basis of the ornamental enamel. 

To Manufacture Mosaic as at Rome. 
Mosaic work consists of variously shaped pieces 
of colored glass enamel ; and when these pieces 
are cemented together, they form those regular 
and other beautiful figures which constitute tessel- 
lated pavements. 

The enamel, consisting of glass mixed with me- 
tallic coloring matter, is heated for 8 days in a 
glass-house, each color in a separate pot. The 
melted enamel is taken out with an iron spoon 
and poured on polished marble placed horizon- 
tally ; and another flat marble slab is laid upon 
the surface, so that the enamel cools into the form 
of a round cake, of the thickness of three-tenths 
of an inch. 

In order to divide the cake into smaller pieces, 
it is placed on a sharp steel anvil, called tagliulo, 
which has the edge uppermost ; and a stroke of an 
edged hammer is given on the upper surface of 
the cake, which is thus divided into long paral- 
lelopipeds, or prisms, whose bases are three- 
tenths of an inch square. These parallelepipeds 
are again divided across their length by the tag- 
liulo and hammer into pieces of the length of 
eight-tenths of an inch, to be used in the Mosaic 
pictures. Sometimes the cakes are made thicker 
and the pieces larger. 

For smaller pictures, the enamel, whilst fused, 
is drawn into long parallelepipeds, or quadrangu- 
lar sticks ; and these are divided across by the tag- 
liulo and hammer, or by a file; sometimes, also, 
these pieces are divided by a saw without teeth, 
consisting of a copper blade and emery; and the 
pieces are sometimes polished on a horizontal 
wheel of lead with emery. 

Gilded Mosaic. 
Gilded Mosaic is formed by applying the gold- 
leaf on the hot surface of a brown enamel, imme- 
diately after the enamel is taken from the fur- 
nace; the whole is put into the furnace again for 
a short time, and when it is taken out the gold is 
firmly fixed on the surface. In the gilded cnan>el, 
used in Mosaic at Rome, there is a thin aoat of 
transparent glass over the gold. 

On the Different Glazes used for Cooking JJlensile. 

The wrought and cast-iron vessels which are to 
be placed on the fire are often covered with en- 
amel, which protects the liquid from metallic con- 
tact with the sides. 

Two compositions are generally employed foi 
this purpose, one having for its base silicate of 
lead, and the other boro-silicate of soda. These 
enamels are applied to the scoured surface of the 
metal in the form of a powder, which is fixed by 
heating it to a sufliciently high temperature to fuse 



S94 



POTTERY. 



it ; it then spreads over and covers the metal with 
a vitreous varnish. 

The boro-silicate of soda enamel possesses great 
superiority over that of silicate of lead, for it is 
unattacked by vinegar, marine salt, the greater 
number of acid or saline solutions, even when 
coiicentrated, and resists the action of the agents 
employed in cooking or chemical operations. 

The silicate of lead enamel is whiter and more 
homogeneous, which explains the preference given 
to it by the public, but it gives up oxide of lead 
to vinegar or to common salt ; it acts upon a great 
number of coloring matters, and it is attacked by 



nitric acid, which immediately communicates a 
dull appearance to it. On evaporation the liquid 
leaves a white crystalline residue of nitrate of 
lead. This enamel is instantly darkened by dis- 
solved sulphides, and also by cooking food contain- 
ing sulphur, such as cabbage, fish, and stale eggs. 
It is very easy to distinguish these two enam- 
els by means of a solution of sulphide of potas- 
sium, sodium, or ammonium. On allowing of one 
of these reagents to fall on the vessel to be tested, 
the lead enamel darkens in a few moments, whilst 
the boro-silicate of soda enamel retains its white 
color. 



FOTTEHY. 



To manufacture English Stoneware. 
Tobacco-pipe clay from Dorsetshire is beaten 
much in water ; by this process the finer parts of 
the clay remain suspended in the water, while the 
coarser sand and other impurities fall to the bot- 
tom. The thick liquid, consisting of water and 
the finer parts of clay, is further purified by pass- 
ing it through hair and lawn sieves of different 
degrees of fineness. After this the liquor is mi.\ed 
(in varions proportions for various ware) with an- 
other liquor of the same density, and consisting 
of flints calcined, ground and suspended in water. 
The mixture is then dried in a kiln, and being af- 
terwards beaten to a proper temper, it becomes fit 
for being formed at the wheel into dishes, plates, 
bowls, etc. AVhen this ware is to be put into the 
furnace to be baked, the several pieces of it are 
placed in the cases made of clay, called seggars, 
which are piled one upon another, in the dome of 
the furnace ; a fire is then lighted, when the ware 
is brought to a proper temper, which happens in 
about 48 hours, it is glazed by common salt. The 
salt is thrown into the furnace through holes in 
the upper part of it, by the heat of which it is 
instantly converted into a thick vapor, which, 
circulating through the furnace, enters the seggar 
through holes made in its side (the top being cov- 
ered to prevent the salt from fulling on the ware), 
and attaching itself to the surface of the ware, it 
forms that vitreous coat upon the surface which is 
called its glaze. 

To make Yelloic or Queenaicare. 

This is made of the same materials as the flint- 
ware, but the proportion in which the materials 
are mixed is not the same, nor is the ware glazed 
in the same way. The flintware is gencrallj' uiade 
9f 4 measures of liquid flint, and 18 of liqui<l clay ; 
the yellow ware has a greater proportion of claj' in 
it. In some manufactories they mix 20. and in 
others 24 measures of clay with 4 of flint. The 
proportion for both sorts of ware depends very 
much upon the nature of the clay, which is very 
variable even in the same pit. Hence a previous 
trial must be made of the quality of the clay, by 
burning a kiln of the ware. If there be too 
much flint mixed with the clay, the ware, when 
exposed to the air after burning, is apt to crack, 
and if there be too little, the ware will not receive 
the proper glaze from the circulation of the salt 
vapor. 

To viaiiufneture English Porcelain. 

The iron-stone, which contains a portion of ar- 
gil and silex, is first roasted in a common biscuit- 
kiln, to facilitate its trituration, and to expel sul- 



phur and other volatile ingredients which it may 
contain. A large earthen crucible is constructed 
after the exact model of an iron forge, a part of 
the bottom of which is filled with charcoal or 
cokes; these having been previously strewed with 
ore and about J part of lime, are raised to an in- 
tense heat by a strong blast of air, introduced un- 
der the cokes at the bottom. By this heat the ora 
is fused, and the fluid iron drops through the fuel 
to the bottom; then follows the scoria, which 
floats upon the top of the fluid iron. This latter 
scoria, or, as the workmen call it, slag, is the ma- 
terial used in the manufacture of china, and is 
much impregnated with iron, and of a compact 
and dense structure. The slag is next let ofi', by 
a hole through the forge, into a clean earthen ves- 
sel, where it cools. This last vessel is then bro- 
ken, in order to detach the slag from it, with 
hammers. The scoria is next pounded into small 
pieces and ground in water to the consistence of 
a fine pnste, at the flint-mills of the country. 
This paste is then evaporated to dryness on a slip- 
kiln, well known amongst potters. Thus evapo- 
rated to dryness, it is used with the other ingre- 
dients in the following proportions, viz. : 

Prepared iron-stone, 3 cwt. ; ground flint, 4 
cwt, ; ground Cornwall stone, 4 cwt,; Cornwall 
clay, 4 cwt. ; blue oxide of cobalt, 1 lb. 

These having been mixed together with water 
by the slip-maker, are again evaporated on the 
slip-kiln to the proper consistency for use. The 
clay, thus prepared, is of course used in the usual 
manner in the fabrication of the several kinds of 
vessels. 

To make Porcelain, or Chiva. 

Porcelain, or china, is a semi-vitrified earthen- 
ware of an intermediate nature bciween common- 
ware and glass. Chinese porcelain is composed 
of two ingredients, one of which is hard-stone, 
called petunse, which is carefully ground to a very 
fine powder, and the other, called kaolin, is a white 
earthy substance, which is intimately mixed with 
the ground stone. 

Several compositions of mingled earth may 
yield a true porcelain by being burnt, and the 
porcelains of various countries differ in their mix- 
tures. But the principal basis of any true por- 
celain is that kind of clay which becomes white 
by baking, and which, either by interniinglej 
heterogeneous earth, or by particular additions, 
undergoes in the fire an incipient vitrification, in 
which the true nature of porcelain consists. Feld- 
spar and gypsum, if added, may give that prop- 
erty to infusible clay. 

When porcelain is to be made, the clay is prop- 



CHINAWARE. 



895 



erly selected, carefully washed from impurities, 
and iigiiin dried. It is then finely sifted, and 
most accurately mingled with quartz, ground very 
fine, to whii'h then is added some burnt and finely- 
pulverized gypsum. This mass is worked with 
water to a paste and duly kneaded ; it is usually 
suflered to lie in this state for years. The vessels 
and other goods formed of this mass are first 
moderately burnt in earthen pots, to receive a cer- 
tain degree of compactness and to be ready for 
glazing. The glazing consists of an easily-melted 
mixture of some species of earths, as the petro- 
silex or chert, fragments of porcelain and gypsum, 
which, when fused together, produce a crystalline 
or vitreous mass, which, after cooling, is very finely 
ground, and suspended in a sufficient quantity of 
water. Into this fluid the rough wiire is dipped, 
by which the glazing matter is deposited uniformly 
on every part of its surface. After drying, each 
article is thoroughly baked or burned in the vio- 
lent heat of the porcelain furnace. It is usual to 
decorate porcelain by paintings, for which pur- 
pose enamels or pastes, colored by metallic o.x- 
ides, are used, so easy of fusion as to run in a heat 
less intense than that in which the glazing of the 
ware melts. 

To make Delfiicare. 
This is a kind of pottery made of sand and clay, 
and but slightly baked, so that it resists sudden 
applications of heat. Articles made of this are 
glazed with an enamel, composed of common salt, 
sand ground fine, oxide of lead, and oxide of tin. 
The use of the latter is to give opacity to the 
glaze. 

To malce Chinnware. 
The composition of the eastern or proper china- 
ware, according to accounts that have great marks 
of authenticity, is from two earths; one of which 
is, as was before mentioned, called petunse ; the 
other a refractory earth, called kaolin. 

The preparation of the petunse, or aluminous 
earth, is by pounding the stone till it is reduced 
to a very fine powder, and then washing it over to 
bring it to the most impalpable state, which is thus 
performed: After the stone is rendered as fine as 
it can be by pounding or grinding, the powder 
must be put into a large tub full of water, and, 
being stirred about, the upper part of the water 
must be laded out into another tub, by which 
means the finest particles of the powder will be 
carried into it. The water in the second tub must 
be then suffered to stand at rest till the powder be 
subsided, and as much as can be laded off clear 
must be put hack into the first tub, and there being 
again stirred about, and loaded with a fresh quan- 
tity of the most subtle part of the powder, must 
be laded again into the second tub as before, and 
this must be repeated till none be left in the first 
tub but the grosser part of the stone, which, not 
being of a due fineness, must be again pounded, 
and treated as at first. The fine powder obtained 
in the second tub, must be then freed from the 
water, by lading ofi" the clear part, and suffering 
what remains to exhale, till the matter becomes of 
the consistence of soft clay, when it will be fit to 
be commixed with the kaolin for use. 

The kaolin is prepared in the same manner by 
washing over ; but some specimens are so fine, that 
there is no occasion for this or any. other purifica- 
tion. 

From these two mixed together, the clay or 
paste is formed ; but it is said that the proportion 
of the respective quantities is made to vary ac- 
cording to the intended goodness of the ware, the 
best being made from equal quantities, and the 
worst from two of the kaolin to one of the 
petunse. 



To make Saxon or Dresden China. 

The Saxon composition, of which the chinawaru 
is formed, is greatly similar to that of the eastern. 
In the place of the petunse, a stone is used, which 
is improperly called in the German language, bley. 
spatt, or spar of lead. It is a stone of a very oppo- 
site nature, as spars are calcareous, and will, on 
calcining, become lime; on the other hand, this 
stcme is of a vitreous nature. This spar is of a 
very hard texture, and of a light flesh color, or 
pale whitish red. It is prepared by pounding and 
washing over, which may be done as above di- 
rected, and it is then ready for compounding with 
the mica. The mica is employed in the Saxon 
composition for the other ingredients ; and is like- 
wise prepared Jby grinding and washing over, 
when it is not in a perfect and pure state; but 
when it is entirely clean, it may be tempered with 
the texture, thoroughly broken, and it will be of 
the consistence of soft clay. 

The two kinds of earth being prepared in the 
state of a soft paste, they are to be incorporated 
and blended into one mass, which is done by rol- 
ling and stirring them well after they are in the 
same vessel, and then kneading them with the feet 
till they are thoroughly united. When the com- 
pound mass is formed, it is made into cakes, or 
square pieces, and put by layers into cases of wood 
or stone, which must be placed in a moist situa- 
tion, and left for 2 or 3 months: during which 
time a kind of ferment enters into the mixture, 
by which the parts of the different matter com- 
bine and form a substance with new qualities, un- 
known while separate. This change shows itself 
upon the whole mass by a fetid smell, and a green- 
ish or bluish color, and a tenacity like that of 
clay, or the argillaceous moistened earths. If the 
time of keeping the paste in this condition be 
prol. indeed to a year or more, it will further im- 
prove its qualities, but great care must be taken 
to prevent its becoming dry; to prevent which, 
there may be occasion to water it. AVhen, how- 
ever, the described qualities are found in the mat- 
ter, it is fit for use, and vessels, etc., may be 
wrought of it without any other preparation, the 
case below excepted. 

Composition of Ei\glish China. 

The following composition will produce wares, 
which will possess the properties of the true 
china, if judiciously managed. 

Mix the best white sand, or calcined flints, 
finely powdered, 20 lbs. ; of very white pearlash, 
5 lbs. ; of white calcined bones, 2 lbs. Temper 
the whole with the gum Arabic or Senegal, dis- 
solved in water. 

This requires a considerable force and continu- 
ance of heat to bring it to perfection, but it will 
be very white and good when it is properly treated. 
Where mica can be obtained, it is preferable to 
calcined bones, and as it will form a kind of paste 
for working, a weaker gum-water will answer the 
purpose. 

To Bake Chinaicare. 

The furnace for this purpose may be con- 
structed in the same manner as the potter's kilna 
usually are. The size of the furnace should be ac- 
cording to the quantity of ware required to be 
baked : but it must not be too small, lest the body 
of fire may not be suflicient to produce the requi- 
site heat. 

The caffettes, or coflBns, to contain the pieces 
when placed in the furnace, are the most material 
utensils. They should be of good potter's clay, 
with a third of sand, and are generally made of a 
round form, with a flat bottom, the rim forming 



396 



POTTERY. 



1^ 



sides, being adapted to the height of the pieces to 
be inclosed. 

The furnace and caffettes being prepared ; the 
ware to be baked must be sorted in the caffettes in 
the most advantageous manner as to room, and as 
many caffettes must be set upon them as the fur- 
nace will conveniently contain, leaving space for 
the free passage of the fire betwixt the piles : take 
care to cover over the uppermost caffettes in each 
pile, then close the mouth of the furnace, and 
raise the fire so as to heat the caffetes red hot in 
every part, and keep them red hot for 12 or 14 
Lours. It is then to be extinguished, and the fur- 
nace left to cool gradually ; and when little or no 
heat remains, the mouth may be ofjened, and the 
pieces taken out of the caffettes ; when they will be 
in a condition to receive the glazing, or to be 
painted with such colors as are used under the 
glaze. 

To make Tobncco-pipes. 
These require a very fine, tenacious, and refrac- 
tory clay, which is either naturally of a perfectly 
white color, or, if it have somewhat of a gray cast 
will necessarily burn white. A clay of this kind 
must contain no calcareous or ferruginous earth, 
and must also be carefully deprived of any sand it 
may contain by washing. It ought to possess, 
besides, the property of shrinking but little in the 
fire. If it should not prove sufficiently ductile, it 
may be meliorated by the admixture of another 
sort. Last of all, it is beaten, kneaded, ground, 
washed, and sifted, till it acquires the requisite 
degree of fineness and ductility. When, after this 
preparation, the clay has obtained a due degree 
of ductility, it is rolled out in small portions to 
the usual length of a pipe, perforated with the 
wire, and put, together with the wire, into a brass 
mould, rubbed over with oil, to give it its external 
form; after which it is fixed into a vice, and the 
hollow part of the head formed with a stopper. 
The pipes, thus brought into form, are cleared of 
the redundant clay that adheres to the seams, a 
rim or border is made round the head, they are 
then marked with an iron stamp upon the heel, 
and the surfaces smoothed and polished. When 
they are well dried, they are put into boxes, and 
baked in a furnace. 

To make White Glaze. 
Take 26 parts of glass, 7 parts litharge, 3 parts 
nitre, 1 part arsenic, i part blue calx; either frit- 
ted in a glass oven or not. 

Black Glazing. 
Take 8 parts of red-lead, 3 parts of iron filings, 
3 parts of calcined copper, and 2 parts of zaffre. 
This, when fused, will produce a brown-black ; 
but if wanted a truer black color, the proportion 
of zaffre must be increased. 

Silicious Glaze loithout Lead. 
M. Hardsmith proposes the following in place 
of the ordinary lead glaze : Take boracic acid, 
15 lbs. ; calcareous spar, 5 lbs. ; wood charcoal, 1 
lb. Powder the mixture, and calcine to complete 
fusion; allow it to cool ; powder again and apply 
it as the common lead glaze is applied. 

To make China Glaze for Printiiiy Blue Frit. 
Take 10 parts of glass, 2 parts lead, and 3 or 3i 
parts blue calx, as required. 

To make White Frit. 
Take 16 parts of glass, 5 parts lead, 1 part arse- 
nic, 2i parts nitre. 

Take 11 parts white frit to the whole of blue 
frit, and grind them together. Then take of the 
mica frit, 8 parts of the above, 6 parts flint, 13 
parts Cornish stone, 23 parts lead, and 6 oz. com- 
mon salt. 



To make Cream-colored Glaze. 
Take 60 parts of Cornish stone, 20 parts flint» 
and 120 parts white-lead. Stained with 1 oz. of 
smalts, as above. 

To form a Yellow Glaze. 
Take 2 parts of litharge, 2 parts tin-ash, and 1 
part antimony. 

To prepare White Glaze. 
Take 15 parts of Cornish stone, 10 parts flint 
glass, 5 parts ai.iea flint, 5 parts nitre, 5 parts bo- 
rax, 1 part common salt, and 1 part sal sodu j 
fritted in a glass oven. Then add 2 parts frit, as 
above, to 1 part white-lead. Send to mill to grind 
very fine, and stain with 7 oz. blue calx. 

To make a Mixture for Glaze. 
Take 20 lbs. of white frit, 10 lbs. flint, 26 Iba. 
stone, 50 lbs. lead, and 4 oz. of blue. 

To make a Hdxture of Glaze for Printing Blue. 
Take 6 parts of white frit, 5 parts flint, 13 parts 
stone, 25 parts lead, and 55 parts glass. 
To make a Shining Black Glaze. 
Take 100 parts of lead, 18 parts flint, and 40 
parts manganese. 

To make a Purple tinder Glaze. 
Take J oz. of fluxed blue, 1 oz. manganese, 1 oa. 
red-lead, and 1 oz. flint. 

To prepare an Orange Sponge Dip. 

Take 1 qt. of yellow slip, to 1 oz. zaffre. 
To prepare a Broion under Glaze. 

Take 8 oz. of glass antimony, 16 oz. litharge, 3 
oz. manganese, and 4 drs. blue calx. 

To prepare a China Glaze. 

Take 42 parts of flint-glass, 3 oz. blue calx. 
Stain. 16 oz. flint-glass, 1 oz. red-lead, 1 oz. 
arsenic, and 1 oz. nitre. — White enamel. Run 
down in glass oven ; then send with the above 
stain to the mill, 8 parts of white enamel, dry it 
and it will be fit for use. Eight parts of the above 
mixture (stain and white enamel), 6 parts dry 
flint, 14 parts Cornish stone, 24 parts white stone, 
which, when sifted, is fit for use. 

To prepare a China Glaze for Flotts. 
Take 27 parts of flint, 15 parts nitre, 4^ parts 
lime, 3i parts stain. This run down in a glass 
oven, and, when sent to the mill, add 75 parts of 
glass, 15 parts lead, 10 parts white enamel ; add 
2 pailsful of lime, and when it comes from the 
mill, add 135 parts of lead. Stain to the above, 
10 parts of glass, and 5 oz. of blue. 

To prepare White Enamel. 
Take 7 oz. of arsenic, 12 oz. potash, 6 oz. nitre, 
5 oz. glass, 2 oz. flint, and 3 oz. white-lead. 
To prepare China Glaze. 
Take 56 parts of stone, 46 parts borax, 18 parts 
glass, 15 parts flint, and 40 parts lead. 
To prepare Green Edge Glaze. 
Take 20 parts of lead, 60 parts stone 20 partg 
flint, and 10 parts ground glass. 

To prepare Materials for Common Ware. 
Take 25 parts of flint, 60 parts stone, 95 parts 
lead, and 8 parts frit. 

To prepare Glaze for Green Edge. 
Take 175 parts of lead, 100 parts stone, and 34 
parts flint. 

To prepare Fluxes for Bine Printing. 
Take 5 parts of blue calx, 5i parts coke stona^ 
H parts glass, and 1 part flint. 



POTTERY, 



397 



Tn prepare Flux for Black Printing. 

Take 7i parts of flint-glass, 2i parts red-lead, 
and 2 parts borax. 

To prepare Red Flux. 

Take 5 parts of lead, 1 oz. of borax, and 12 oz. 
of glass. 

To prepare Black for Printing. 

Take 1 part of calcined copper, 1^ parts red flux. 
Passed through the enamel kiln, 1| of calx, sent 
to the mill for grinding. 

To prepare Copper Black. 

Take 1 lb. of calcined copper, pounded fine, and 
put into the enamel kiln, and it will come out 
black. Then IJ oz. of red flux, put through the 
enamel kiln, second time; then 1 of the above, 
and IJ of flux, ground fine for use. 

To prepare Red for Printing. 

Take green copperas calcined to a fine powder, 
wash it well 10 or 12 days, and dry it (colcothar) ; 
1 of the above to 6 of red flux. 

To prepare Umber Black. 

Take 5 oz. of umber, 2 oz. borax, 1 oz. blue 
oalx. One of the above to 2 flux, as under; 7i 
flint-glass, 2i red-lead, and 2 borax. 
To prepare Black. 

Take 3 oz. of calcined umber, 1 oz. borax; run 
down together. This will fine with gold. 
To prepare Oil for Black Printing. 

Take i pt. of linseed-oil, boiled well until of a 
proper consistence, to which add a small quantity 
of IJarbadoes tar, prepared the same way. 

Another. — Take 1 qt. of linseed-oil, 4 oz. flowers 
of sulphur, 4 oz. balsam of sulphur, 8 oz. black 
rosin. 

To Form a Stone Body. 

Take 2 parts blue clay, 2 parts china clay, 4 
parts composition. 

To Form an Egyptian Black Body. 

Take blue clay, 30 parts ; black marl, 5 parts ; 
calcined car, 25 parts ; manganese, 2 parts. 
Common Glazing for Earthenicare. 

Take of white sand, 40 lbs.; red-lead, 20 lbs.; 
pearlash, 20 lbs ; common salt, 12 lbs. Powder 
this sand by grinding before it be mixed with the 
other ingredients, and then grind them together, 
after which, calcine them for some time with a 
moderate heat, which must be less than will make 
them melt and run to glass; and when the mix- 
ture is cold, grind it to powder again, and, when 
wanted, temper it with water, and it will then be 
fit for use. 

The proportions of these ingredients may be 
varied occasionally, for, where the glazing can be 
fluxed conveniently with a very strong fire, the 
quantity of sand may be increased to 60 or 70 lbs., 
which not only renders the glazing stronger, but 
makes a saving in the expense. The proportion 
of pearl-ashes may likewise be diminished, or they 
may be wholly omitted where the ware is designed 
for very coarse purposes, and not for domestic 
uses, where the lead is very improper, being ex- 
tremely apt to be corroded by acids, and to pro- 
duce a very unwholesome substance. On this ac- 
count, where good manufactories are established, 
the lead ought to be excluded from the composition 
of the glazings, and other fluxes used in its stead, 
as in the following : 

Transparent Glazing for Earthenware. 

Take of white sand, 40 lbs. ; of pearlash, 21 
lbs. ; and of common salt, 15 lbs. Calcine, and 
proceed as above. 

Where the expense is no object, this glazing may 
be improved by adding 1 or 2 lbs. of borax, and 
diminirbing the pearlash, in the proportion of 
6 \\>i for 1 lb. of borax added, or 10 lbs. for 2 ; in 



the latter case, 2 lbs. of salt may be also kept out 
of the composition. The reason for this change 
is, that if the composition contain so large a pro- 
portion of salt, and the glazing be not fluxed for 
a long time after it is laid on the ware, it will be 
apt to be dissolved by boiling water, and peel off, 
if it be exposed to the action of it for any long 
time. 

Another. — Take of sand, 40 lbs. ; of wood-ashes, 
perfectly burnt, 50 lbs.; of pearlash, 10 lbs.; of 
common salt, 12 lbs. 

This will make an admirable glazing, where the 
ashes are pure, and a strong fire can be given to 
flux it when laid on the ware. It will bo perfectly 
free from the imperfection of the above, and will 
be very hard and glossy, and where the expense 
can be aflbrded, it may be made more yielding to 
the fire by the addition of borax, in which case no 
alteration need be made in the proportion of the 
other ingredients. 
To Prepare Masticot used as the Ground of Glazing. 

Take of clean sand, 1 cwt., of soda, 44 lbs., and 
pearlash, 30 lbs. Calcine the mixture^f 
Masticot for White Glazing. 

Take of masticot, prepared as in the preceding. 
100 lbs.; calx of tin, 80 lbs., and of common salt, 
10 lbs. Calcine and powder this composition three 
several times. 

The calx of tin is prepared and sold under the 
name of putty. Its goodness consists in its white- 
ness and purity ; the first of which is easily known 
by comparing it with a specimen of any that is 
known to be good. 

Another Preparation. 

Take of mastic, 10 lbs.; red lead, 60 lbs.; cal- 
cined tin or putty, 20 lbs., and of common salt, 
10 lbs. Mix them, and calcine and powder the 
mixture several times. 

Another. — Take 2 lbs. of lead, and somewhat 
more than 1 lb. of tin. Calcine the two metals 
till reduced to a powder, by the means used by 
potters. Then take 2 parts of these ashes, 1 part 
of white sand, calcined flints or broken white glass, 
and i pint of common salt. Mix well together 
the several ingredients, and set the matter to bake 
in a proper furnace, and urge it at length to melt. 

The trouble of calcining the tin and lead may 
be saved here, as well as on the occasions above- 
mentioned, by procuring them already reduced to 
a proper state. 

Another. — Take IJ lbs. of lead and 1 lb. of tin. 
Reduce them to the state of a calx, and then take 
of the calcined matter, 8 parts, and of calcined 
flints and common salt, each 4 parts. Bring the 
mixture, by heat, to a state of fusion". 

Another. — Take of lead, 3 parts, and of tin, 1 
part. Calcine them, and then, take of this matter 
and of calcined flints and common salt, each, 2 
parts. Fuse them as above. 

Another. — Take of lead, 4 lbs.; tin, 1 lb. Cal- 
cine them, and take of the matter 8 parts; of cal- 
cined flints, 7 parts, and of common salt, 4 parts. 
Fuse them as the others. 

White Glazing for Copper Vessels. 

Take of lead, 4 lbs.; of tin, 1 lb.; of flints, 4 lbs. ; 
of common salt, 1 lb., and of flint-glass, 1 lb. Melt 
the mi.xture, and it will be fit for use. 

Another. — Take of lead, 4 lbs., and of tin, 1 lb. 
Calcine them, and take of the matter, 12 parts; 
of flints, 14 parts, find of common salt, 8 parts. 
Fuse them as the others. 

Very fine White Glazing. 

Take of lead, 2 parts, and of tin, 1 part. Cal- 
cine them, and take of the matter, 1 part; of flints 
and common salt, each, 1 part. Fuse the mixture. 



398 



POTTERY. 



Enamel for Earthenware. 
Take of tin, any quantity, and enclose it in clay 
or loam and put it in a crucible. Place the cruci- 
ble in a fire, that the tin may calcine, and then 
break it. There will be a pound of calx very 
white, and when it is used to paint with on a 
white ground, the color will come forth and be 
much whiter than that of the ground. 
YelloiB Glazing. 
Take of tin and antimony, each 2 lbs. ; of lead, 
S lbs. ; or, according to some, equal quantities of 
all the three ingredients. Calcine the whole, and 
put thetn at last in fusion, that they may be vitri- 
fied. This glazing will run very soon, and be of 
a fine yellow color. 

The calcining the tin, lead, and antimony to- 
gether, as here directed, would be a very tedious 
operation. The calcined tin and red-lead should 
therefore be used, and the antimony calcined alone. 
But it is not to be understood that the antimon}' 
is to be calcined for this purpose to whiteness, or 
the stMe of a perfect calx ; which is not easily 
practicable without nitre, and, if effected, would 
render the antimony incapable of producing any 
other color than white. The operation must there- 
fore be perfo'med with a slow fire, by roasting, as 
it were, the antimony till it loses its metallic ap- 
pearance, and becomes a greenish powder; as is 
practised in making the glass of antimony. 

Another. — Take 5 parts of red-lead, 2 parts of 
powdered bark, 1 part of sand, 1 part of any of 
the preceding white glazings, and 2 parts of anti- 
mony. This mixture must be calcined and then 
fused, and it will give a fine yellow glazing. 

Another. — Take 7 parts of the mixture of the 
calxes of tin and lead, mentioned before in the 
recipe for preparing the masticot for a white glaz- 
ing. Add 1 part of antimony, and fuse them to- 
gether. 

Another. — Take 4 parts of white glass, 1 part 
of antimony, 3 parts of red-lead, and 1 part of 
iron scales. Fuse the mixture. 

Another. — Take 16 parts of flints, 1 part of fil- 
ings of iron, and 24 parts of litharge. Fuse the 
mixture. 

Lemon-colored Glazing. 
Take of red-lead, 3 parts ; of powdered bricks, 
very red, 'i\ parts ; and of antimony, 1 part. Cal- 
cine the mixture day and night, for the space of 4 
days, in the ash-hole of a glass-house furnace. 
Urge it at last to fusion, and it will produce a 
very fine lemon-colored glazing. 

The success of this operation depends greatly 
on the fineness of the color of the bricks that are 
powdered. Those which are of a fine red and very 
brittle, are the best; but such as are gray will not 
at all answer the end. The same attention should 
be paid to this matter wherever bricks are used in 
this kind of preparations. 

Light Yelloio Glazing. 
Take of red-lead, 4 parts ; of antimony, 3 parts ; 
of the mixture of the calxes of lead and tin, be- 
fore mentioned in the masticot for white glazing, 
8 parts ; and of glass, 3 parts. 

When the red-lead and calx of tin are used, the 
proportion of the ingredients will be of red-lead, 
10 parts; of antimony and glass, each, 3 parts; 
and of calcined tin, 2 parts. 

Gold-colored Glazing. 
Take of red-lead, 3 parts ; of antimony, 2 parts; 
of colcothar, 1 part. Fuse the mixture; and, 
having powdered the mass, melt it again, and re- 
peat this operation till the fourth time, and a fine 
gold-colored yellow will be produced. 

Any preparation of the calcined iron may be 
used in the clace of the colcothar: and the re- 



peated fusions and levigations seem unnecessary. 
Another. — Take of red lead and white flints, 
each, 12 parts ; and of filings of iron, 1 part. Fuse 
them twice. 

This glazing will be transparent. Care must 
therefore be taken what ground it be laid upon 
or it will not answer the end of a yellow, but 
combine with that of the ground ; and, indeed, the 
body of color is too weak to produce any other 
than a faint yellowish cast, even on a pure white 
ground. 

Green Glazing to he laid on a White Ground. 
Take of calcined copper 1 part, and 2 parts of 
any of the preceding yellow glazings. Fuse them 
twice, but when the composition is used it must 
not be laid on too thick, for that would render the 
color too deep. 

Fine Blue Glazing. 
Take of red-lead, 1 lb.; powdered flints, 2 lbs.; 
common salt, 2 lbs. ; tartar, 1 lb. Calcine till it 
is almost white. White flint-glass, i lb., and 
zaffre, i lb. Fuse the whole mixture, and quench 
the melted mass in water. Repeat the same ope- 
ration several times. The same proceeding must 
be adhered to in all the compositions where the 
tartar enters, otherwise they would be too much 
charged with salt, and the color would not prove 
fine. It is proper, moreover, to calcine the mix- 
ture gently, day and night, for 48 hours, in a glass- ' 
house furnace. 

Another. — Take 1 lb. of tartar, \ lb. of red-lead, 
i oz. of zaffre ; and ^ lb. of powdered flints. Fuse 
the whole, and proceed in the manner stated 
above. 

Violet-blue Glazing. 
Take 12 parts of tartar and an equal quantity 
of flints and zaffre. Proceed as with the above. 

Another. — Take 4 oz. of tartar, 2 oz. of red-lead, 
5 oz. of powdered flints, and J dr. of magnesia. 
Proceed as with the above. 

Fine Red Glazing. 
Take 3 lbs. of antimony, 3 lbs. of red-lead, and 
1 lb. of colcothar. Grind the whole as fine as 
possible, and then paint with it. 

Another. — Take 2 lbs. of antimony, 3 lbs. of red- 
lead, and 1 lb. of colcothar. Proceed as with the 
above. 

To Prepare Varnish for Pottery Ware, free from 
Lead. 
Melt and keep in fusion for 14 minutes a mix- 
ture of 1 oz. of fire-stone and glass, 2 drs. of salt, 
i oz. of pipe-clay, and li oz. of borax. Varnish 
the pots over with this matter, after they have been 
in the fire, and put them again in it for about 18 
hours. 

Varnish for Earthenware. 
This varnish is made of equal parts of white 
glass and soda, finely pulverized, carefully sifted, 
and mixed. 

Chinese Mode of Glazing China. 
They take the finest pieces of the petunse and 
treat them as before mentioned, by pounding and 
washing over, but extract, by repeated washings, 
over, the very finest part of the powder, which 
keeps so moist with the water that the mixture 
forms a liquid mass, which they call the oil of 
petunse. With this oil they mix an equal weight 
of borax ; they then slake a quantity of quicklime 
and form layers of that and dried furze, which 
they set on fire. When they have raised a large 
heap, after the first one is burnt to ashes, they 
collect them and the lime, and form layers of them 
again, with a fresh quantity of the furze, which 
they burn as before, and they repeat this 5 or 6 
times. They then put the ashes and lime into a 
vessel with water, adding some borax in the pro- 



GLASS. 



399 



portion of 1 lb. to 1 cwt. of the ashes; they next 
wash over the finer part of this mixture, and pour 
oflF at last all fluid from the dregs, which they 
keep together with the solid part, washed over. 
They mix this composition of lime, ashes, and 
salts with the uii.\ture above mentioned, of an 
equal quantity of the oil of petunse and borax, 
and this compound forms the matter for glazing 
the ware. 

Instead of the petunse, the quartz used in the 
Saxon manufacture may be employed for forming 
a similar ghizing, by treating it in the same man- 
ner ; and it is said the glazing of the Dresden 
China is actually made in this way. 

English Glazing for China. 

Take of the finest white sand, or calcined flints, 
20 lbs.; red-lead, 18 lbs.; pearlash, 10 lbs.; and 
common salt, decrepitated, 4 lbs. Levigate the 
sand or calcined flints and red-lead well together, 
and afterwards mix them thoroughly with the 
pearlash and common salt. Fuse the compound 
in the manner directed for the treatment of glass, 
till it be perfectly vitrified; then separate the 
fragments of the pot carefully from it, and reduce 
it in a flat agate or porphyry mortar to an impal- 
pable powder. Finally, temper it with water to 
the proper consistence for painting or glazing. 
Modification of the above. 

When this glazing is used for embossed or other 
fine work it should be mixed with a third of its 
weight of the spar of lead, or other vitrescent 
earth, in lieu of the petunse, in the composition 
of the ware paste. Take care that this earth is 
formed of the best pieces of spar or other sub- 
stance used, and that it is rendered to an extreme 
fineness, by washing it over. The design of this 
addition is to weaken the fluxing powder of the 
glaze, which, if used alone, would run the corners 
and edges of the smaller part and impair the sharp- 
ness and spirit of the work. It is necessary to 
pursue the same method with pieces that are to be 
painted with more delicate designs; for the glaz 



ing, melting otherwise again, in the burning in 
of the colors would become too fluid, and spread 
them so as to take away the eflect of the fino 
touches. 

To aiyply, on every kind of Ware, Colors which pro- 
duce Herhorizativnu. 

Herborizations can be of all colors ; but the 
most agreeable is that called bistre, which is com- 
posed in the following manner: 

A pound of calcined manganese, 6 oz. of burnt- 
iron straw or 1 lb. of iron ore, and 3 oz. of flin*. 
powder. 

The manganese and straw or iron ore must ba 
pounded separately in a mortar, after which the 
whole is calcined together in an earthen pot. This 
mixture, thus prepared, is all pounded together, 
and then mixed in a small tub of water. 

The blue, green, and other colors must be com- 
posed of the divers substances known to produce 
them, and mixed, calcined, and pounded in the 
same manner as for the bistres. 

To make the application of these various colors 
to the pieces it is necessary, instead of diluting 
them with water, as is practised for ordinary 
painting, to make use of any kind of mordant. 
The most advantageous, and which are employed 
with the greatest success, are urine, and the es- 
sence of tobacco. 

If the essence of tobacco is made use of, infuse 
2 oz. of good tobacco, in leaves, during 12 hours, 
in a bottle of cold water, or very simply infuse the 
2 oz. of tobacco in a bottle of hot water. 

The pieces of clay, after taking a little cot?i8- 
tency, are steeped in white or colored wormseed 
until the bath puts them in a state of moisture. 
To produce herborizations it will be sufficient, 
whilst the wormseed is still fresh, and at the mo- 
ment when the piece is taken down from the tub 
to lay on slightly, and with a brush, one or several, 
drops of other colors. Each drop produces a tree 
more or less great, according as the workman hai 
charged his brush with colors. 



aLA.SS. 



To Manufacture Glaaf. 

Glass is a combination of sand, flint, spar, or 
some other silicious substances, with one or other 
of the fixed alkalies, and in some cases with a me- 
tallic oxide. Of the alkalies, soda is commonly 
preferred; and of the silicious substances, white 
sand is most in repute at present, as it requires 
no preparation for coarse goods, while mere wash- 
ing in water is sufficient for those of a finer quali- 
ty. The metallic oxide usually employed, is 
litharge, or some other preparation of lead. Iron 
is used in bottle-glass. 

The silicious matter should be fused in contact 
with something called a flux. The substances 
proper for this purpose are lead, borax, arsenic, 
nitre, or any alkaline matter. The lead is used 
in the state of red-lead ; and the alkalies are soda, 
pearlash, sea-salt, and wood-ashes. When red- 
lead is used alone, it gives the glass a yellow cast 
and requires the addition of nitre to correct it. 
Ar.senic, in the same manner, if used in excess, is 
apt to render the glass milky. For a perfectly 
tr.ii.g|iarect glass, the pearlash is found much 
iupcrior to lead; perhaps better than any other 



flux, except it be borax, which is too expensive to 
be used, except for experiments, or for the best 
looking-glasses. 

The materials for making glass must first be 
reduced to powder, which is done in mortars or 
by horse mills. After sifting out the coarse parts, 
the proper proportions of silex and flu.x are mixed 
together, and put into the calcining furnace, where 
they are kept in a moderate heat for 5 or 6 hours, 
being frequently stirred about during the process. 
When taken out the matter is called frit. Frit is 
easily converted into glass by only pounding it, 
and vitrifying it in the melting pots of the glass 
furnace; but in making fine glass, it will some- 
times require a small addition of flux to the frit 
to correct any fault. For, as the flux is the most 
expensive article, the manufacturer will rather put 
too little at first than otherwise, as he can remedy 
this defect in the melting pot. The heat in the 
furnace must be kept up until the glass is brought 
to a state of perfect fusion ; and during this pro- 
cess any scum which arises must be removed by 
ladles. When the glass is perfectly melted, the 
glass-blowers commence their operations. 



400 GLASS. 

For the best flint-glnss, 120 lbs. of white sand, 
50 lbs. of red-lead, 40 lbs. of the best pearlash, 20 
lbs. of nitre, and 5 oz. of manganese ; if a pound or 
two of arsenic be added, the composition will fuse 
much quicker, and wiih a lower temperature. 

For a cheaper Qirit-glass, take 120 lbs. of white 
sand, 35 lbs. of pearlush, 40 lbs. of red-lead, 13 
lbs. of nitre, 6 lbs. of arsenic, and 4 oz. of mag- 
nesia. 

This requires a long heating to make clear glass, 
and the heat should be brought on gradually, or 
the arsenic is in danger of subliming before the 
fusion commences. A still cheaper composition 
is made by omitting the arsenic in the foregoing, 
and substituting common sea-salt. 

For the best German crystal-glass, take 120 lbs. 
of calcined flints or white sand, the best pearlash, 
70 lbs. ; saltpetre, 10 lbs. ; arsenic, i lb. ; and 5 oz. 
of manganese. Or, a cheaper composition for the 
same purpose is 120 lbs. of sand or flints, 46 lbs. 
of pearlash, 7 lbs of nitre, 6 lbs. of arsenic, and 5 
oz. of manganese. This will require a long con- 
tinuance in the furnace; as do all others where 
much of the arsenic is employed. 

For looking-glass plates, washed white sand, 60 
lbs. ; purified pearlash, 25 lbs. ; nitre, 15 lbs. ; and 
7 lbs. of borax. If properly managed, this glass 
will be colorless. But if it should be tinged by 
accident, a trifling quantity of arsenic, and an 
equal quantity of manganese, will correct it; an 
ounce iif each may be tried first, and the quantity 
increased if necessary. 

The ingredients for the best crown-glass must 
be prepared in the same manner as for looking- 
glasses, and mi.\ed in the following proportions : 
60 lbs. of white sand, 30 lbs. of pearlash, and 15 
lbs. of nitre, 1 lb. of borax, and i lb. of arsenic. 

The composition for common green window- 
glass* is, 120 lbs. of white sand, 30 lbs. of unpuri- 
fied pearlash ; wood-ashes, well burnt and sifted, 
60 lbs. ; common salt, 20 lbs. ; and 6 lbs. of arsenic. 
Common green bottle-glass is made from 200 
lbs. of wood-ashes, and 100 lbs. of sand ; or 170 
lbs. of ashes, 100 lbs. of sand, and 50 lbs. of the 
slag of an iron furnace ; these materials must be 
well mixed. 

The materials employed in the manufacture of 
glass, are by chemists reduced to three classes, 
namely, alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides. 

The' fixed alkalies may be employed indiffer- 
ently ; but soda is preferred in this country. The 
soda of commerce is usually mixed with common 
salt, and combined with carbonic acid. It is pro- 
per to purify it from both of these foreign bodies 
before using it. This, however, is seldom done. 

The earths arc silica (the basis of flints), lime, 
and sometimes a little alumina (the basis of clay). 
Silica constitutes the basis of glass. It is em- 
ployed in the state of fine sand or flints ; and some- 
times for making very fine glass, rock crystal is 
employed. When sand is used, it ought, if possi- 
ble, to be perfectly white, for when it is colored 
with metallic oxides, the transparency of the glass 
is injured. Such sand can only be employed for 
very coarse glasses. It is necessary to free the 
sand from all the loose earthy i)articles with which 
it may be mi.\ed, which is done by washing it well 
with water. 

Lime renders glass less brittle, and enables it to 
withstand better the action of the atmosphere. 
It ought in no case to exceed the 20th part of the 
silica employed, otherwise it corrodes the glass 
pots. This indeed may be prevented by throwing 
a little clay into the melted glass; but in that case 
a green glass only is obtained. 

The metallic o.xidcs employed are the red oxide 
of lead or litharge, and the white oxido of arsenic. 



The red oxide of lead, when added in suflBcient 
quiintity, enters into fusion with silica, and forms 
a milky hue like the dial-plnte of a watch. When 
any combustible body is present, it is usual, in 
some manufactories, to add a little white oxide of 
arsenic. This sujiplying oxygen, the couibus- 
tible is burnt, and flies off, while the revived ar- 
senic is at the same time volatized. 

There are several kinds of glass adapted to dif- 
ferent uses. The best and most beautiful are the 
flint an<l the plate-glass. These, when well made, 
are perfectly transparent and colorless, heavy and 
brilliant. They are comjiosed of fixed alkali, pure 
silicious sand, calcined flints and litharge, in dif- 
ferent proportions. The flint glass contains a 
large quantity of oxide of lead, which by certain 
processes is easily separated. The plate glass is 
poured in the melted state upon a table covered 
with copper. The plate is cast i an inch thick 
or more, and is ground down to a proper degree 
of thickness, and then polished. 

Crown-glass, that used for windows, is made 
without lead, chiefly of fixed alkali fused with 
silicious sand, to which is added some black oxide 
of manganese, which is apt to give the glass a 
tinge of purple. 

Bottle-glass is the coarsest and cheapest kind, 
in this little or no fixed alkali enters the com- 
position. It cimsists of alkaline earth and oxide 
of iron combined with alumina and silica. In 
this country it is composed of sand and the refuse 
of the soaji-boiler, which consists of the lime em- 
ployed in rendering this alkali caustic, and of the 
earthy matters with which the alkali was contam- 
inated. The most fusible is flint-glass, and the 
least fusible is bottle-glass. 

Glass for Looking-glass Plates, No. 1. 

Take of white sand, cleansed, 60 lbs. ; of puri- 
fied pearlash, 25 lbs. ; of saltpetre, 15 lbs ; and of 
borax, 7 lbs. 

This composition should be continued long in 
the fire, which should be for some time strong, 
and afterwards more moderate, that the glass may 
be entirely free from bubbles before it is worked. 
It will be entirely clear of all color, unless in case 
of some accident; but if any yellow tinge should, 
nevertheless, unfortunately infect it, there is no 
remedy except by adding a small proportion of 
manganese, which should be mixed with an equal 
quantity of arsenic, and after their being put into 
the glass, giving it a considerable heat again, and 
then .suffering it to free itself from bubbles in a 
more moderate one, as before. If the tinge be 
slight, an ounce of manganese may be first tried, 
and if that prove insufficient, the quantity must 
be increased, but the glass will always be obscure 
in proportion to the quantity that is admitted. 
Looking-glass Plates. No. 2 

Take of the white sand, 60 lbs. ; of pearlash, 
20 lbs.; of common salt, 10 lbs.; of nitre, 7 lbs.; 
and of borax, 1 lb. 

This glass will run with as little heat as the for- 
mer, but it will be more brittle and refract the 
rays of the light in a greater degree. 

Crown or Best Window-glass, No. 1. 

Take of white sand, 60 lbs. ; of purified pearlash, 
30 lbs.; "f saltpetre, 15 lbs,; of borax, 1 Ib.j and 
of arsenic, i lb. 

This will be very clear and colorless if the in- 
gredients be good, and will not be very dear. lb 
will run with a moderate heat; but if it bo desired 
to be yet more fusible and soft, J a lb. or a pound 
more of arsenic may be added. 

If the glass should prove yellow, he manganese 
must be used as above directed for the looking- 
glass. 



GLASS. 



401 



Cheaper kind of Window-rjltisa, No. 2. 
Take of whi*e sand, 60 lbs. ; of unpurificd pearl- 
•sh, 25 lbs.; of common salt, 10 lbs.; of nitre, 5 
'bs. ; of arsenic, 2 lbs; and of manganese, 1^ oz. 
This will be inferior to the above kind, but may 
6e improved, where desired, by purifying the 
pearlash. 

Common or Green Wiudow-ghtsa, No. 3. 
Take of white sand, 60 Ihs. ; of unpurified pearl- 
ash, 30 lbs. ; of common salt, 10 lbs.; of arsenic, 
2 Ib.s. ; and of manganese, 2 oz. 

This is a cheap composition and will not appear 
too green nor be very deficient in trans{)arency. 
Common or Green Window-glanit, No. 4. 
Take of the cheapest kind of white sand, 120 
lbs.; of unpurified pearlash, 30 lbs.; of wood-ashes, 
well burnt ami sifted, 60 lbs.; of common salt, 20 
lbs. ; and of arsenic, 5 lbs. 

This composition is very cheap, and will pro- 
duce a good glass with a greenish cast. 
Best Ph{nl-t//fiHK, No. 1. 
Take of white sand, 120 lbs.; of unpurified 
pearlash, 50 lbs. ; of common salt, 10 lbs.; of ar- 
senic, 5 lbs. ; and of manganese, 5 oz. 

This will be a very good glass for the purpose 
and will work with a moderate heat, but requires 
time to become clear, on account of the propor- 
tii)n of arsenic ; when, however, it is once in good 
condition, it will come very near to the crystal 
glass. 

Cheapest Green or Common Phial-glaaa, No. 2. 
Take of the cheapest kind of white sand, 120 
lbs. ; of wood-ashes, well burnt and sifted, 80 lbs. ; 
of pe.arlash, 20 lbs.; of common salt, 15 lbs; and 
of arsenic, 1 lb. 

This will be green, but tolerably transparent 
and will work with a moderate lire, and vitrify 
quickly with a strong one. 

Green or Bottle-glaas. 

Take of wood ashes, 200 lbs.; and of sand, 100 

lbs. Mix them thoroughly by grinding together. 

This is the due proportion where the sand is 

good and the wood-ashes are used without any 

other addition. 

The same, with the addition of scoria. 
Take of wood-ashes, 170 lbs.; of sand 100 lbs.; 
and of scoria, or clinkers, 50 lbs. Mix the whole 
well by grinding them together. 

The clinkers should be well ground before they 
are used, if they admit of it; but frequently they 
arc too hard, and in that case they should be bro- 
ken into as small bits as can be done conveniently 
and mixed with the other* matter without any 
grinding. The harder they are, the less material 
will be the powdering of them as they will the 
iooner melt of themselves in the furnace, and 
consequently mi.x with the other ingredients. 
The most Perfect kind of Flint-glass, No. 1. 
Take of white sand, 120 lbs.; red-lead, 50 lbs. J 
the best pearlash, 40 lbs.; nitre, 20 lbs.; man- 
ganese, 5 oz. 

If this composition be fused with a very strong 
fire, and time be given to it, a glass will be pro- 
duced that will have the play of the best flint- 
glass, and yet be hard and strong. It is not so 
cheap as the compositions given below, where 
arsenic or common salt is introduced, or where 
more of the pearlash are used; in either of which 
cases, savings may be made by diminishing pro- 
portionably the quantities of nitre. But the qual- 
ities of this glass will be found to come nearer to 
the standard of perfection, which is to unite the 
lustre and hardness together in the greatest degree 
they are compatible with each other. 
26 



If this composition be, however, desired to flux 
with less heat, and quicker, a pound or two of 
arsenic m.Ty be added, which will be found efftiot- 
ually to answer tlie purpose. 

Flint-glass, No. 2. 
Take of sand, 120 lbs.; the best pearlash, 54 
lbs.; red-lead, 36 lbs.; nitre, 12 lbs.; manganese, 
6 oz. 

This will require much the same beat as the 
other, but will be harder in its texture. If it be 
desired to be made more yielding to the fire, ar- 
senic may be added, or the quantity of sand may 
be lessened. In these cases the glass will be softer 
and weaker. 

White Flint-glass, No. 3. 
Take of white sand, 120 lbs.; the best pearlash 
35 lbs.; arsenic, 6 lbs.; manganese, 4 oz. 

This glass will require a considerable time in 
the fire to become clear, and must not, if it can bo 
avoided, be strongly urged at first. This glass 
will not be so hard as those of the above composi- 
tions, but it will be very clear, and may be em- 
ployed for large vessels, where a sufficient thick- 
ness can be allowed to give it strength. 

Cheaper Composition of Glass, No. 4. 
Take the proportions of the other ingredients 
given in the last, and omitting the arsenic, add in 
its stead 15 lbs. of common salt. 

This will be more brittle than the last, and 
therefore cannot be recommended, unless for the 
fabrication of such kind of vessels, or other pieces, 
where the strength is of little moment. 
Cheapest Composition of White Flint-glass, No. 5. 
Take of white sand, 120 lbs.; red-lead, 30 lbs.; 
the best pearlash, 20 lbs. ; nitre, 10 Ib.s. ; common 
salt, 15 lbs.; arsenic, 6 lbs. 

This glass will fuse with a moderate hpat, but 
requires time, like the last, to take off the milky 
appearance of the arsenic; it is yet softer than 
the last, and may therefore be deemed th« worst 
kind of flint that can be made. 

Best German Crystal-glass, No. 6. 
Take of calcined flints, or white sand, 120 lbs.; 
the best pearlash, 70 lbs.; saltpetre, 10 lbs.; arse- 
nic, i lb. ; manganese, 5 oz. 

If the pearlash be pure and good, this glass 
will equal the best of this kind that ever was 
made. Borax has been frequently used also in 
the compositions of this sort of glass, but its great 
price, without any etiuivalent advantage, will deter 
from the employing it in large manufactures, as 
there is no sort of transparent glass (plate ex- 
cepted), that can bear the expense of it. 
German Crystal-glass, No. 7. 
Take of calcined flints, or white sand, 120 lbs.; 
pearlash, 46 lbs. ; manganese, 5 oz. 

This composition requires a long continuance 
of heat, on account of the arsenic, for the reason 
before given. It i)roduces a glass e((ually or more 
transparent and colorless than the preceding, but 
somewhat more brittle. The arsenic is, however, 
so disagreeable an ingredient, from the deleterious 
qualities of the fumes, which will necessarily rise 
copiously till the fusion of the other ingredients 
check it, that, where the advantage is not more 
considerable than the saving arising from the dif- 
ference of these two recipes, it is scarcely worth 
while to submit to the inconvenience of it. 
To Anneal Glass. 
"Nealing," as it is called by the workmen, is a 
process in the glass-hjuses, and consists in putting 
the glass vessels, as soon as they are formed, and 
while they are yet hot, into a furnace or an oven, 
not so hot as to re-melt them, and in which they 



402 



GLASS. 



are suffered to cool (;r!i<lHally. TJiis is found to 
rrcvont their brciiking easily, particularly on cx- 
oosurc to heat. 

A similar process is used for rendering cast-iron 
Tcsscls less brittle, and the cflTect depends on the 
lame principles. 

TV) Polish nnd (irind GIniiii. 

To grind plate-glass, lay it horizontally upon a 
flat stone table, maile of a very fine grained free- 
stone ; and for its greater security, plaster it down 
with movlar or stucco. The stone table is su)!- 
portcd by a strong wooden frame, with a ledge all 
round its edges, rising about 2 inches above the 
glass. Upon the plate to be ground is laid another 
rough glass, not aliove half as big, and so loose 
as to slide upon the former; but cemented to a 
wooden plank, to guanl it from the injury it must 
Otherwise receive from the scrajiing of the wheel 
whereto the plank is fastened, and from the 
weights laid \ipon it to jiromote the triture or 
grinding of the glasses. The whole is covered 
willi a wheel made of hard light wood, about (\ 
inches in diameter, by pulling of which backwards 
and forwards alternately, and sometinu's turning 
it round, the workmen, who always stand oppo- 
site to each other, pr<idnc<> a constant attrition be- 
tween the two glasses, and bring them tn whatever 
degree of smoothness they please, by first pouring 
in water ami coarse sand; after that, a finer sort 
of sand, as the work atlvances, till at last they 
pour in the powder of smalt. .As the upper or 
incumbent glass becomes smooth, it must be re- 
moved, and another, from time to time, substituted 
for it. 

The engine just described is called a mill by the 
workmen, and is employed only in grinding the 
largest-sized glasses. In grinding lesser gla-^ses, 
they usually work without a wheel, having four 
wooden hanillcs fastened to the corners of the 
(tone that loails th(^ upper plank, by which they 
Work it about. The grinders' part done, the glass 
is turned over to the |)olisher, who, with fine pow- 
der of tripoli stone or emery, brings it to a per- 
fect evenness and lustre. The instrument made 
use of in this branch, is a board furni.-iheil with a 
felt anil small roller, whidi the workman moves 
by means of a double hamlle at both ends. The 
artist, in working this roller, is assisted by a 
wooden hoop or 8|>ring. to the end of which it is 
fixed; for the spring, by constantly bringing the 
roller back to the same points, facilitates the action 
of the workman's arm. 

To make Frit. 

Frit, in the glass manufacture, is the matter or 
ingredients of which glass is to be made, when 
they have been calcined or baked in a furnace. 
There arc three kind.s of frit: the first, crystal 
frit, or that for crystal or clear glass, is made with 
salt of pulverine and sand. The second and ordi- 
nary frit is made of the bare ashes of the pulve- 
rine or barilla, without extracting the salt from 
them. This makes the ordinary white or crysial- 
glass. The third is frit for green glasses, made 
of common ashes, without any preparation. This 
'tftst frit will require 10 or 1'2 hours' baking. The 
materials in each are to be finely powdered, washed 
and searced ; then eiiually mixed, and frequently 
stirred together in the melting pot. 
To briiiij PrarlDsh, or ani/ olhrr Ff.rf(i Alkaline 
(!?(i/<, to the lliijhent Ihijrce of J'urifi/. 

Take of the best penrlash 3 lbs., and of salt- 
petre 6 o7.. I'ound them together in a glass or 
marble mortar, till they are thoroughly well mixed, 
Slid then put part of them into a large crucible, 
and set it in a furnace, where it may undergo a 
(troug boat. When the part uf the mutter that 



was first put into the crucible is heated red hot, 
throw in the rest gradually, and if the crueihio 
will not contain the whole, pour part of the melted 
matter out on a moistened stone, or marble, and 
having made room in the crucible, put in the rest, 
and let it continue there likewl.'-e till it be red 
hot. Pour it out then as the other, and after- 
wards put the whole into an earthen or very clean 
iron pot. with 10 pts. of water, and heat it over 
the fire, till the salts be entirely melted. I,et it 
then be taken off the fire, .^taiid till it is cold, and 
afterwards filter it through paper in a pewter col- 
ander. When it is filtered, return the fluid again 
into the pot, and evaporate the salt to dryness, 
which will then be as white as snow, tlie nitre 
having burnt all the combustible niatler that 
remained in the (learlash after its former calci» 
nation. 

To Polifh Optienl-glosn^. 

The operation of polishing optic-glasses, after 
being pro)ierly ground, is one of the most diflicult 
points of the whole process, llefore the pidish- 
ing is begun, it is proper to stretch an even, well- 
wrought piece of linen over the tool, dusting upon 
it some very fine tripoli. Then taking the glass 
in the hand, run it round 40 or ,^0 limes upon the 
tool, to take olT the roughness of the glass about 
the border of it. This cloth is then to be re- 
moved, and the glass to be polished upon the na- 
ked tool, with a compound powiler, made of four 
parts tripoli mixed with one of fine blue vitriol, 
6 or .*< grains of which mixture are- suflieient for 
a glass 6 in, broad. This powder must be wetted 
with 8 or 10 drops of clear vinegar in the middle 
of the tool, being first mixed .-ind softened thor- 
oughly with a very tine small nuiller. Then, with 
a nice brush, having sprea<l this mixture thinly 
and equably upon the tool; take some very fine 
tripoli, and strew it thinly and equably upon the 
tool so jirepared, after which take the glass to 
be pidislied, wiped very clean, and apjily it oil 
the tool, and move it gently twice or thrice in 
a straight line backwards and forwards; then 
take it ofl", and observe whether the marks of the 
tripoli, sticking to the glass, are equably spread 
over the whole surface; if not, it is a sign that 
either the tool or glass is too warm, in which case 
wait awhile and try it again, till the glass takes 
the tripoli everywhere alike. Then begin to pol- 
ish boldly, there being no danger of spoiling the 
figure of the glass, which in the other case would 
infallibly happen. 
To Purify Prortath/orlhe manvfnet\tre of Mirror*. 

Take any quantity of the best pearlash, and 
dissolve it in -1 times its weight of water boil- 
ing, which operation may be liest performed in 
a pot of cast iron. When they are dissolved, let 
the solution be put in a clean tub, and sulVercil to 
remain there 24 hours or longer. Let the clear 
part of the fluid be then decanted ofl" from the 
dregs or sediuienf, and jiut back into the iron pot, 
in which the water must he evaporated away till 
the salts be left perfectly dry again. 'J'liey should 
then, if not used immediately, be kejit in stone 
jars, well secured tVom moisture and air, till such 
time as they are wanted. 

(ireat care should be always taken in this treat- 
ment of the salts to keep the iron pot thoroughly 
clean from rust, which would give a yellow tinge 
to the glass, not to be removed without greatly in- ♦ 
juring it. 

To Ornament all kindg of Glam in Imitation of 
Eiiyrorintj, elr. 

The method heretofore known for engraving on 
glass, has been by means of a maehine with 
wheels, of dill'ercut substuuces, which have been 



IMITATION OF I'KKCIOtS STONES, KTC. 



403 



tmf.l'rye'l wHh Oftn'l, «f^„ Ur ^rin^l f/1t nfrrrnt pstrU 

of ih« xorfftc. '>f fbe j(l»«« which i« t/i fK-, «Tigr*7e'J 

0T», dfi'l thf:n hy mft«fi« 'if f(fin'litts( fitiii pitii*h>r>x 

A'ltfp.rtinl fitiftft on (h«! rrmf^U unrfitP.f, fh" 'lrff<^*T>» 

fi/tiff nrf. fortnfA »/■/•,'. r 'I insj t/> f.h». '. 

J; ' 'hi< if! v«Tit.J'>Ti, insf/ft'l '(f scriri'; 

off any pAft. of f.hfc snrfa/:« of t},f, ^.. , .. , . 

».fi»>-* l»jr« '.n (»W X/l'Vtt.iottH', KflTttlC*! Of ef/HtlWJf 'rf 

^l».«i!, pTftj»»r»;fl f'/T the f.nrfi'».V!, whi'jb. when !«nh- 
jcj-tp.'l to ft projipr 'iff(TP.*i of hf!»f, will \nc/rr\iotit.i/b 
wif.h 'he jfU<s >/> \rp. opp.rntp'i ript/n, no ka t/t pro- 
tlncp, «n effe'if. *irriil*r t/, thttt wbic;h bf»s hif.heff/» 
}iitp.fi f>h»«ir»ft/l hy meftfift of fir\n'Vui%. When it in 
re'ciire'l lo trrnump.tit gl»««, then, prp,vSimn\y to f.h* 
he»,>. l»eiris( »f>f'lie'l, wif.h an et/'-binj; w pv ft fitv in K 
Utol sri'h foirfs »re f/» h*. fakert oni n* will fifvlrrf^ 
the refjfiire'l effect., anrl that in » mnf.h unpp.Tt'iT 
way »/> the effft/tt ffro'lo^)*/] hy the osnal mo^le f/f 
Urinrlmf^, poliihiDjf, etc. The mat.«r»«U o^'l are 
t'. he Kielfe/I in a eTociir»le, i-r ffther p/»t, an'l they 
are t/< he rnji/le nf> in the name manner a« if n««/l 
/'(f the making of the bestt flint-jflass, Vfrnkew 
glaffjf, 'iT, »j» it is nsnally <J«T>nTnin»t«'l, "enllitt," 
lf>einj( the prineipal injfre/lient in it. 8*TeT»l mix- 
tore* are jfiven, nf whi«b the ttrnt, is 1^(0 parti; '/f 
KTi'.ij.t, 10 f/f pearlasb, 40 of re<l-lea<), and 10 «>f 
arr'ooe. 

The W!«/»Ti') is T20 ji»tU of m\VM, 1(50 of red- 
Ua/I, fiO nf san'l, and lO 'rf (><>rax. 

The ihir'l is 70 parts of tP^Uiefvt, 2H itf sand, 
and 410 of cakiinecl borax. 

When the»e are <ohjecre/I tr/ soch abeata.« f/i h« 
tber«-'r,y '■;'.rripletAiy frij««d, take e/jnal part^t of e»/;h 
rriixture an'l /ri-^-f th'-rn »/» an irnprfulpahle p'/wcle,r, 
for the p'irf. / rflixe/l with a menstmom 

pro^fp.r for ', , .iah. 

The rnen.s.'.,- s-sof 1 part o/ refined loaf 

STijfar dis»o!»e^l m 2 partes of pnre wat^r, t/>wbi«b 
is a/l'le/J, at the time '»f mixinjf the powier, a^>otlt 
i part of p/imm'm writinar-ink ; the effe/;f., we are 
t/.l'l, prodneed hy this addition of '.x.'\p. of man- 
((an«-«e, nsed in a small ')oantir.y hy the j(lass- 
w>-ik'f< in rnakinj^ their >»«st flint,-f(lass, he/;aose 
w,f.r.',ijt »nc;h an a^Jdirion the spe/nrnens wordd S« 
of 7t '.loiidy or milky appearanee, A 'joantity of 
this rneris'/onm is nsed soffi^sient. fy* rertder the 
^Torind-rnix'ore of a prO|»er cxr.s is t*Tie* for layirig 
on with a thin, %m'i*A,h stirfft/'Ji. When the en«t- 
irijf or mixtare is tbos prepared, 
f/,Mt.fA hy means </f a^jwrnel's 
r<- '•• fr'.f,, ef/;. It is tb*!n U> '■■ 
STiff,';,efit t/» prodo«« a ««m. - 
coitfy snrfae*, and t/> in«y»r|>nTat,« it with the snh- 
st;>,',-;e or hod7 ',f j;!sj! >', 'losfA'!. T;r;* 'he heat 



f;t?s is t/-* b« 

'.r sqnir- 

. a heat 

, „'. of the 



t.-.x,' 



Ui 



V»e '-.r.a'ed 



. tnrftt/-A pr d 

.-.e'l ; tb* a: r- 

■:'*<.<•;<«, h«! re^«'«».te/l a;,'1 .<t..-,,'i..r„'^'; /,^a,;, to 

fire. If, *ff,«rr fbe eoatinjf has V/eeri applied, 

• --' or other '." • -'■ ''« 

-.erv/n, th'- '^ 

«.tb an et/.-. .-*- 

^,-i.,-u -,f the «/»at,ed s^ar.AiA ii,<t%% 
■< will prodofte the desired effect, 
fcfter whicfa the re/joisite de spree of heat U to b« 
applied. 

This inre-ntkij) is not only *j.|>Ii/!;aWe V* all 
kinds of nserfnl and ornameT>rj»l articles of jflass- 
ware on »bfch the ey.mmon metho<-ls of emjtranng 

> - -- ■-•! - • -- •■ - — I " " n- 

■ n 

, ■ .d- 

, • iiiap-ed 

♦ - . . ■ he wiri- 

V, , ^ ■■ ,. -,, '.: .... . ... .■ , -I'.a/iii- 



wrndows, an^l for the jflass o.serl rn ornamental 
htiildin^s of all descriptions. This invention ba« 
anfrf.ber a/lvantajje over the er/mmon fnef,h'>d (A 
the work wearinsf mneb eleaner than 'he w-tV of 
.'- .rind Jt'**** 'be snrfaceof whi I 

fhe action of the whe^-l.et/ 

j(ather dirt oit the ton^h, ui.,. , .." 

the border*, etc. 

To mffh: ih*, ft'thiffnn Fhiftl, 
The Bolojifna, orr |»hilrrsopbicftI phial, »« a fmaH 
vessel of jrlass whi(?h has l>f!*n snddenly cooied, 
oj>en at the o|rf.er end, and ro-nnde'l at the v,otr/>wi. 
It is marJe so thick at fhe V»r»f.tr.m th-it ir. will Vteaf 
a smart hlr/w against a bard hf'dy wifhrmt Vfierfk- 
injf, hnt if a litrle ][>ehh)e r»r pi*e« 'rf flint is I«t 
fall into it, H irr.mr-d'arfAly rrraeks, and the '•►'/tf/ywi 
falls inf/> pie' .ts the f^ehhle or flint is 

large and an.- •. to scratch the sorfae« 

(A the ^ass, ... f. , ..,'e»k. 

To m4ih.e f'rim*: /lup'rCo /jrf/]fi«. 
Prmee Roperr's <]ro\nt tt.tp, ma/le by letting dro-pt 
'A melted glass fall »nt/» c-ld water ; the drop aa- 
nrtfr,"" hj »hat means an oval fmtn, with a tail ryf 
n- og a ret.'/rt. They possess this <in- 

'J . f, that if a sm»ll portion of the t»il 

i,4 .,, -^ ,, the whole ►^irst.s \nUt p<.wd^T, with 

an expi*»sioTi, and a 6<»r»sider;»hle shock t*. ti'tmrnn- 
nieate'l t/r the band that grasps it. 

To JSre.'tk. Ohmn /» npy n*'inir*d Wfjf. 
1>\\> a pic«« of'wr»r»ted tbrea/l in spirits '4 iot' 
f^ntine, wrap it r'mnd the gla^s in the dire/iti/vn 
re/jnircl t// f^e l>rr»ken, and then set fire f> th« 
thread, r»r apply a rexl hot wire rr>nnd the glas«, 
and if it dr,«s nryt imme/liately crack, throw C/ld 
W!»fj>T on it while the wire remains h'>t. By thin 
means glass that is broken mtif often fie fashioned 
and r^niltrrt/l osefal for a variety of pT»rp</ses. 



GLASS AJri> PAf^TEH TO n^UATJi PRE- 

ClOtS STONKS, 
y** !?«*< «»<f //ar4»ft OUtt* f(/r RtMiting C'/Ufft, 
No. 1, 
Take r»f the b<«t sand, cleansed by washing, 12 
Ihs. ; of ffftarlasb, ot fixed alkaline salt, \mt'At»A 
with nitre, 7 lbs, ; of saltfw^rf.re, 1 )b, ; and tA \><ii»x^ 
ilh. 

The sand >^ng first, reylnced to ly^^/wder in ft 
glass or flint mortar, the other ingrcJient; sh. ulrl 
be pTft lit it, and tb« wbole well titntA irj p<y»nd- 
jng them t/^getber, « 

^««i! OUint, hnt ttfd *o Hnrtl, No. 2, 
Take of the wh ',12 »^. ; of 

pearlash, pr>rified ^ s. ; of ftffre^ 

1 lb. ; r,f h.-,rax, i . . ,4 '.«. 
Pr'»ce.cl as in the last; hot if tne g!i«ss \>^, r«- 

rjTiired tA wvelt wi'h ye*. I*#? hea', 1 li', of i,',r%x 
may b'-, " " •'" 

mon J '' 

make t.. . ,: — , '7 

done t/» soeh as is to r/c cnt mf/ very sman pveee*, 
and ground wi'h so many an^es in the fignre, ia 
imitAtion r/T jewels- 
;?,'//< <y^.»*« </r Patiteprr RefMvitig Cftlw*. No. %. 
Take r/f white sand, elea»s«d, (5 lbs, ; of red- lead, 

2 Via.; of yvfiieA pearlasb, 2 lbs.; and of nitre, 
1 lb, 

Prr.««ed with the mixt,ore M with the foTegontjf, 

(!/^/*» f/r PnM*., Hfifl^r thtift ihr. nt,'/r,*„ No. 4. 

Take of whit,* sand, cleansed, f, lbs, ; of re./Hea<i 
and pnriftcl pearlasb, eaeb % l>»s, ; of »)tre, 1 lb, j 
ryf l-^^rax, i lb. ; and of arsenic, ,^ 07„ 

This is very soft and will fose with a very gentl* 
beat, but re<iaues tome tine to beeouM •'ear, oa 



404 



GLASS, 



account of the arsenic. It may even be prepared 
and (inged in a common fire without a fwrnace, if 
the pot.- containing it can be surrounded by burn- 
ing coals, without danger of their falling into it. 
The borax, being a more expensive ingredient 
than the others, may be omitted where a some- 
what greater heat can be applied, and the glass is 
not intended for very nice purposes, or 1 lb. of 
common salt may be substituted in its place; but 
the glass will be more clear and perfect, and free 
itself much sooner from bubbles, where the borax 
is used. 

This glass will be very soft, and will not bear 
much water, if employed for rings, buckles, or 
such imitations of stones as are exposed to much 
rubbing; but for ear-rings, ornaments worn on 
the breast, or such others as are but seldom put 
on, it may last a considerable time. 

In Jill these soft compositions care should be 
taken that part of the sand be not left unvitrified 
in the bottom of the pot, as will sometimes hap- 
pen, for in that case the glass, abounding too 
much with salt and lead, will not bear the air, 
but, being corroded by it, will soon contract a 
mistiness and specks in the surface, which will 
entirely efface all the lustre of the paste. 

Hard Glass of a full Blue Color, No. 1. 

Take of the composition of hard glass. No. 1 or 
2, 10 lbs.; zafFre, 6 dr. ; and of manganese, 2 dr. 
Proceed as with the above. 

If this glass be of too deep a color, the propor- 
tion of the zaffre and manganese to the glass may 
be diminished ; and if it verge too much on the 
purple, to which cast it will incline, the manganese 
should be omitted. If a very cool or pure blue be 
wanted, instead of the manganese, half an ounce of 
calcined copper may be used, and the proportion 
of zaifre diminished by one-half. 

Paste of a Full Blue Color, No. 2. 

Take of the composition for paste. No. 1 or 2, 
10 lbs., and proceed as with the foregoing. 

Hard Glass Eesemhling the Sapphire, No. 3. 

Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 
or 2, 10 lbs. ; of zaffre, 3 drs. and 1 scr. ; of pur- 
ple of Cassius, 1 dr. Proceed as with the above. 

Cheaper Hard Glass for Resembling the Sapphire, 
No. 4. 

As the foregoing, only, instead of the purple of 
Cassius, use 2 drs. and 2 scr. of manganese. 

If this be well managed, the color will be very 
good, and the glass, when set and cut, will not be 
easily distinguishable from the true sapphire; but 
the preceding will be a finer color, as there is a 
foulness in the tinge of the manganese, which will 
always diminish, in some degree, the effect of 
brighter colors, when with them. 

Paste Resemhliitg the Sapphire, No. 5. 

Take of the composition for paste, No. 3 or 4, 
and proceed as with the foregoing. 

It is not worth while to bestow the expense of 
coloring paste with the gold, and it is therefore 
more expedient, in the case of such, to use the 
other method. 

Hard Glass and Paste for Sapphire, by means of 
Smalt, No. 6. 

Take of the compositions for hard glass and 
paste, any quantity, and mix with them one-eighth 
of their weight of smalt, the brightest and most 
inclining to purple that can be procured. 

If it be desirable to give a more purple tinge, 
manganese may be added in the proportion re- 
quired. 



Hard Glass Resembling Eagle Marine, No. 7. 

Take of the composition for hard glass, No. I or 
2,10 lbs.; of oxide of copper, highly calcined with 
sulphur, 3 oz., and of zaffre, 1 scr. Proceed as 
with the foregoing. 

Paste for Eagle Marine, No. 8. 

Take of the composition for paste. No. 1 or 2, 
10 lbs., and proceed as with the above. 

Hard Glass of a Gold or Yellow Color, No. 1. 

Take of the composition for hard glass. No. 1 or 
2, 10 lbs., but omit the saltpetre, and for every 
pound add 1 oz. of calcined borax, or, if that do 
not render the glass sufiiciently fusible, 2 oz. ; of 
red tartar, the deepest color that can be procured, 
10 oz. ; of manganese, 2 oz. ; of soft charcoal, 2 
drs. Proceed as with the rest. 

Paste of a Gold or Yellow Color, No. 2. 

Take of the composition for paste, No. 3 or 4, 
prepared without the saltpetre, 10 lbs.; of colco- 
thar, strongly calcined, li oz. Proceed as with 
the others. 

The crude tartar and the charcoal must not be 
used where lead enters into the composition of the 
glass, and the nitre may be spared, because the 
yellow tinge, given to the glass by the lead, on ac- 
count of which the nitre is used, is no detriment 
in this case, but only adds to the proper color. 
This color may also be prepared by crude anti- 
mony, as well as the colcothar, but it is more dif- 
ficult to be managed, and not superior in its effect. 
Hard Glass Resembling the Topaz, No. 3. 

Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or 
2, 10 lbs. and an equal quantity of the gol<I-colored 
hard glass. Powder and fuse them together. 

As there is a great variety in the'color of the 
topaz, some being a deeper yellow, and others 
slightly tinged, the proportions of the yellow glas? 
to the white may be accordingly varied at pleasure 
the one here given being for the deepest. 
Paste Resembling the Topaz, No. 4. 

This may be done in the same manner ns the 
preceding, but the saltpetre may be omitted in the 
original composition of the glass, and for the re- 
semblance of the very slightly colored topazes nei- 
ther the gold-colored paste nor any other tinging 
matter need be added, that of the lead being suffi- 
cient, when not destroyed by the nitre. 

Glass Resembling the Chrysolite, No. 5. 
Take of the composition for hard glass. No. 1 or 
2, 10 lbs.; of colcothar, 6 drs. Proceed as with 
the above. 

Paste Resembling the Chrysolite, No. 6. 
Take of the composition for paste, No. 3 or 4, 
prepared without saltpetre, 10 lbs. ; and of colco- 
thar, 5 drs. Proceed as with the rest. 

Hard Glass Resembling the. Emerald, No. 1. 
Take of the composition for hard glass. No. 1 or 
2, 9 lbs. ; of oxide of copper, 3 oz. ; and of precipi- 
tated oxide of iron, 2 drs. 

Paste Resembling the Emerald. No. 2. 
Take of the composition for paste. No. 1 or 2, 
and proceed as with the above; but if the saltpetre 
be omitted in the preparation of the paste, a less 
proportion of the iron will serve. 

Hard Glass of a Deep and very Bright Ptirple 
Color. No. 1. 

Take of the composition for hard glass. No. 1 or 
2, 10 lbs.; of zaffre, 6 drs.; of purple of Cassius, 
1 dr. Proceed as with the rest. 

Hard Glass of a Deep Purple Color, No. 2. 

Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or 



IMITATION OF PRECIOUS STONES, ETC. 



405 



/, 10 lbs. ; of manganese, 1 oz. ; and of zaffre, i oz. 
Proceed as with the other. 

Paste of a Deep Purple Color, No. 3. 

Take of the composition for pastes, No. 3 or 4, 
10 lbs., and treat them as the foregoing. 
Hnrd Gltiss of the Color of the Amethyst. No. 4. 

Take of the composition of bard glass, No. 1 or 
2, 10 lbs.; of miinganese, 1^ oz.; and of zafifre, 1 
dr. Proceed as with the rest. 

Paste of the Color of the Amethyst, No. 5. 

Take of the composition for paste, No. 1 or 2, 10 
lbs., and treat it as the preceding. 

Paste Resenibliiig the Diamond. 

Take of white sand, 6 lbs. ; of red-lead, 4 
lbs.; of pearlash, purified as above directed, 3 
lbs. ; of nitre, 2 lbs. ; or arsenic, 6 oz. ; and of 
manganese, 1 scr. Proceed as with the others, but 
continue the fusion for a considerable time on ac- 
count of the large proportion of arsenic. 

If this composition be thoroughly vitrified, and 
kept free from bubbles, it will be very white, and 
have a very great lustre ; but if, on examination, 
it appears to incline to yellow, another scruple or 
more of the manganese may be added. It may be 
rendered harder by diminishing the proportion of 
lead, and increasing that of the salts, or fusing it 
with a very strong fire; but the diminution of the 
proportion of lead will make it have less of the 
lustre of the diamond. 

Hard Glass, Perfectly Black. 

Take of the composition for hard glass. No. 1 or 
2, 10 lbs. ; of zalTre, 1 oz. ; of manganese and of col- 
cothar, strongly calcined, each, 7 drs. Proceed as 
with the rest. 

Paste, Perfectly Black. 

Take of the composition for paste. No. 1 or 2, 
prepared with the saltpetre, 10 lbs. ; of zaffre, 1 
oz. ; of manganese, 6 drs. ; and of colcothar, 5 drs. 
Proceed as with the others. 

White Opaque Glass, No. 1. 

Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or 
2, 10 lbs. ; of horn, ivory, or bone, calcined per- 
fectly white, I lb. Proceed as with the others. 
Paste of an Opaque Whiteness, No. 2. 

Take of the composition No. 3 or 4, 10 lbs., and 
make the same addition as to the above. 
Glass of an Opaque Whitetiess Formed by Arsenic, 
No. 3. 

Take of flint-glass 10 lbs., and of very white 
arsenic, 1 lb. Powder and mix them thoroughly, 
by grinding them together, and then fuse them 
with a moderate heat till they be well incorpor- 
ated, but avoid liquefying them more than to 
make a perfect union. 

This glass has been made in great quantities, 
and has not only been formed into a variety of 
different kinds of ves.sels, but, being verj- white 
and fusible with a moderate heat, has been much 
used, as a white ground, fur enamel in dial-plates, 
and other pieces which have not occasion to go 
several times into the fire to be finished. It will 
not, however, bear repeatccLburnings, nor a strong 
beat continued for any length of time, when ap- 
plied to this purpose, without becoming transpa- 
rent, to which likewise the smoke of a coal fire 
will also greatlj' contribute; but it answers the 
end very well in many cases, though even in those, 
enamel of the same degree of whiteness would be 
preferable, as this is alway.s brittle, and of less 
firm and tenacious texture. 
Hard Glass, or Paste, Formed by Calx of Tin or 
Antimony, No. 4. 
Take of any of the compositions for hard glass 



or pastes, 10 lbs ; of oxide of tin (commonly called 
putty), or of antimony, or tin calcined by means 
of nitre, li lbs. ; mix them well by grinding them 
together, and then fuse them with a moderate heat. 

The glass of this kind made with the composi- 
tion for pastes, differs in nothing from white 
enamel, but in the proportion of the calx of tin 
and antimony. 

Semi-transparent White Glass and Paste Resenib- 
ling the Opal, No. 5. 

Take of any of the compositions for hard glass 
or paste, 10 lbs. ; of horn, bone, or ivory, calcined 
to a perfect whiteness, i lb. Proceed as with the 
rest. 

This white hard glass is much the same with 
the German glass formerly brought here in por- 
ringers, cream pots, vinegar cruets, and other such 
pieces, of which we frequently meet with the 
remains. 

Fine Red Glass Resembling the Ruby, No. 1. 

Take of the hard glass. No. 1 or 2, 1 lb. of the 
purple of Cassius, 3 drs. Powder the glass, and 
grind the calx of gold afterwards with it in a glass, 
flint, or agate mortar, and then fuse them together. 

This may be made of a stronger or more diluted 
color, by varying the proportion of the gold, in 
adjusting which proper regard should be had to 
the application of the glass when made; for where 
this glass is set in rings, bracelets, or other close 
work, where foils can be used, a great saving may 
be made with regard to the color of it, without 
much injury to the effect; but for ear-rings, or 
other purposes where the work is set transparent, 
a full strong color should be given, which may be 
effected by the proportions directed in the com- 
position. 

Paste Resembling the Ruby, No. 2. 

Take of the paste No. 3 or 4, 1 lb. and of calx 
caffei, or precipitation of gold by tin, 2 drs. Pro- 
ceed in the mixture as with the above. 

This will be equally beautiful with the above, 
and defective only in softness ; but as that greatly 
takes awaj' the value for some purposes, such as 
is appropriated to them may be tinged in a cheaper 
manner by the following means. 

A Cheaper Paste Resembling the Ruby, No. 3. 

Take of the composition for paste, No. 3 or 4, 
of glass of antimony, each h lb., and of purple of 
Cassius, IJ dr. Proceed as with the others. 

This will be considerably cheaper, and will have 
much the same effect, except that it recedes more 
from the crimson to the orange. 

Hard Glass Resembling the Garnet, No. 4, 

Take of the composition for hard glass. No. 1 or 
2, 2 lbs. ; of glass of antimony, 1 lb. ; of manganese, 
and of purple of Cassius, each 1 dr. 

This composition is very beautiful, but too ex- 
pensive, on account of the gold, for the imitation 
of garnets for common purposes ; on which account 
the following may be substituted. 

Hard Glass Resembling the Garnet, No. 5. 

Take of the composition. No. 1 or 2, 2 lbs. ; of 
the glass of antimony, 2 lbs.; and of manganese^ 
2 dr. 

If the color be found too dark and purple in 
either this or the preceding composition, tlie pro- 
portion of manganese must be diminished. 
Paste of the Color of Garnet, No. 6. 

Take of the composition for paste, No. 1 or 2, 
and proceed as with the above. 

Hard Glass Resembling the Vinegar Garnet, No. 7. 

Take of the composition. No. 1 or 2, 2 lbs. ; of 

glass of antimony, 1 lb. ; of colcothar, J oz. Mix 



406 



GLASS. 



the colcothar with the uncolo'-ed glass, and fuse 
tbem together till the mass be perfectly transpa- 
rent, then add the glass of antimony, powilered, 
Stirring the mixture with the end of a tobacco- 
pipe, and continue them in the heat till the whole 
be perfectly incorporated. 

Paste Resembling the Vinegar Garnet, No. 8. 
Take of the composition for paste, No. 3 or 4, 
and proceed as with the foregoing. 

Fictitious or Counterfeit Lapis Lazuli. 

Take of any of the preceding compositions for 
bard glass, or paste, 10 lbs. ; of calcined bones, 
hoin, or ivory, j lb. ; of zaffre, 1 oz. Fuse the 
unculored composition with the zatfre and man- 
ganese, till a very deep transparent blue glass be 
produced. The mass being cold, powder it, and 
mix it with the calcined matter, by grinding them 
together. After which fuse them with a moderate 
heat till they be thoroughly incorporated, and 
then form the melted mass into cakes, by pouring 
it on a clean bright plate of copper or iron. 

Another. — If it be desired to have it veined with 
gold, it may be done by mi.xing the gold powder 
with an equal weight of calcined borax, and tem- 
pering them with oil of spike, by which mixture, 
the cakes being painted with such veins as are 
desired, they must be put into a furnace of a 
moderate heat, and the gold will be cemented to 
the glass as firmly as if the veins had been natural. 

Another. — If the counterfeit lapis lazuli be de- 
sired of a lighter hue, the quantity of zatfre and 
manganese must be diminished; or, if it be re- 
quired to be more transparent, that of the cal- 
cined horn, bone, or ivory, should be lessened. 

To make Glass Resembling Red Cornelian. 

Take of the composition for hard glass. No. 1 
or 2, 2 lbs. ; of glass of antimony, 1 lb.; of col- 
cothar, 2 oz. ; and of manganese, 1 dr. 

Fuse the glass of antimony and manganese with 
the other glass first together, and then powder 
them well, and mix them with the colcothar, by 
grinding them together, and afterwards fuse the 
mixture with a gentle heat, till they are incorpo- 
rated, but the heat must not be continued longer 
than is absolutely required to form them into a 
vitreous mass. 

If it be desired to have the composition more 
transparent, part of the colcothar must be 
omitted. 

Paste Resembling the Red Cornelian. 

Take of the composition for paste. No. 1 or 2, 
2 lbs. ; and proceed as with the above. 

Hard Glass Resembling White Cornelian. 
Take of the composition for hard glass. No. 1 
or 2, 2 lbs.; of yellow ochre, well washed, 2 dr.; 
and of calcined bones, each 1 oz. Mix them well 
by grinding them together, and fuse them with a 
gentle heat till the several ingredients be well in- 
corporated in a vitreous mass. 

Paste Resembling White Cornelian. 
Take of the composition for pastes, No. 1 or 2, 
1 lb., and proceed as with the foregoing. 

Hard Glass or Paste Resembling the Turquoise 
Stone. 

Take of the composition for blufl glass or paste, 
No. 7 or 8 (being those resembling the eagle ma- 
rine), 10 lbs.; of calcined bone, or ivory, i lb. 
Powder and mix them well, and then fuse them 
in a moderate heat till they are thoroughly incor- 
porated. 

If the color be not so deep as may be desired, a 
small proportion of smalt may be added. 



Brinni Vtiuliuji Glass tcith Gold Spangles. 
Take of the composition for hard glass. No. 2, 
and the composition, for paste. No. 1, each 5 lbs., 
and of colcothar, 1 oz. Mix them well, and fuse 
them till the iron be perfectly vitrified, and have 
tinged the glass of a deep transparent yellow 
brown color. Powder this glass, and add to it 2 
lbs. of powdered glass of antimony, and mix them 
well by grinding them together. Take part of 
this mixture and rub into it 80 or 100 leaves of 
Dutch metal; and when the particles of the leaf 
seem sufficiently divided, mix the powder con- 
taining it with the other part of the glass. Fuse 
the whole then with a moderate heat till the 
powder runs into a vitreous mass, fit to be wrought 
into any of the figures or vessels into which it is 
usually formed ; but avoid a perfect liquefaction, 
because that destroys, in a short time, the equal 
diffusion of the spangles, and vitrifies, at least, 
part of the matter of which they are composed, 
converting the whole into a kind of transparent 
olive-colored glass. 

TO PAINT AND STAIN GLASS AND POR- 
CELAIN. 

To paint upon glass is an art which has gene- 
rally appeared difficult; yet there is no represen- 
tation more elegant than that of a niezzotinto 
painted in this manner, for it gives all the softness 
that can be desired in a picture, and is easy to 
work, as there are no outlines to draw, nor any 
shades to make. 

The prints are those done in mezzotinto; for 
their shades being rubbed down on the glass, the 
several lines, which represent the shady part of any 
common print, are by this means blended together, 
and appear as soft and united as in any drawing 
of Indian-ink. 

Provide such mezzotintos as are wanted ; cut off 
the margin ; then get a piece of fine crown-glass, 
the size of the print, and as flat and free from knots 
and scratches as possible ; clean the glass, and lay 
some Venice turpentine, quite thin and smooth, on 
one side, with a brush of hog's hair. Lay the print 
flat in water, and let it remain on the surface till it 
sinks, it is then damp enough; take it carefully 
out, and dab it between some papers, that no 
water may be seen, yet so as to be damp. 

Next lay the damp print with its face uppermost 
upon a flat table ; then hold the glass over it, with- 
out touching the turpentine, till it is exactly even 
with the print, let it fall gently on it. Press the 
glass down carefully with the fingers in several 
parts, so that the turpentine may stick to the print; 
after which take it up, then holding the glass to- 
wards you, press the prints with the fingers, from 
the centre towards the edges, till no blisters re- 
main. 

When this is done, wet the back of the paint with 
a sponge, till the paper will rub off with the fingers; 
then rub it gently, and the white paper will roll off, 
leaving the impression only upon the glass; then 
let it dry, and, with a camel's hair pencil, dipped 
in oil of turpentine, wet it all over, and it will be 
perfectly transparent, and fit for painting. 
Improved Method. 

The first thing to be done, in order to paint, or 
stain glass in the modern way, is to design, and 
even color the whole subject on paper. Then 
choose such pieces of glass as are clear, even, and 
smooth, and proper to receive the several parts. 
Proceed to distribute the design itself, or the pa- 
per it is drawn on, into pieces suitable to those of 
the glass ; always taking care that the glasses may 
join in the contours of the figures, and the folds of 
the draperies; that the carnations and other finer 



PAINTING AND STAINING GLASS, ETC. 



407 



parts may not be impaired by the lead with which 
the pieces are to be joined together. The distri- 
bution being mnde, mark all the glasses, as well 
as papers, that they may be known again ; which 
done, apply every part of the design upon the glass 
intended for it ; and copy or transfer the design 
upon this glass with the black color diluted in 
guui-wiiter, by tracing and following all the lines 
and strokes that appear through the glass, with the 
point of a pencil. 

AVhen these strokes are well dried, which will 
be in about 2 days (the work being only in black 
ami white), give it a slight wash over with urine, 
gum-arabic, and a little black; and repeat this 
several times, according as the shades are desired 
to be heightened, with this precaution, never to 
apply a new wash till the former is sufficiently 
dried. This done, the lights and risings are given 
by rubbing off the color in the respective places 
with a wooden point, or by the handle of the 
pencil. 

The colors are used with gum-water, the same 
as in painting in miniature, taking care to apply 
them lightly, for fear of effacing the outlines of 
the design : or even, for the gi'eater security, to 
apply them on the other side; especially yellow, 
which is very pernicious to the other colors, by 
blending therewith. And here too, as in pieces of 
black and white, particular regard must always be 
had not to lay color on color, till such time as the 
former is well dried. 

Wiien the painting of all the pieces is finished, 
they are carried to the furnace to anneal, or to 
bake the colors. 

Colors Proper to Paint with Upon Glass. 

The several sorts of colors, ground in oil for this 
purpose, may be had iit all the color-shops, etc. 
Whiten. — Flake white, podium. 

Blacks. — Lampblack, ivory-black. 

Biinoiis. — Spanish brown, umber, spruce ochre, 
Dutch pink, orpiment. 

Blues. — Blue bice, Prussian blue. 

Beds. — Rose-pink, vermilion, red-lead, Indian- 
red, lake cinnabar. 

Yellows. — English pink, mastieot, English ochre, 
Saunders blue, smalt. 

Greens. — Verdigris, terra vert, verditer. 

The ultramarine for blue, and the carmine for 
red, are rather to be bought in powders, as in that 
state they are less apt to dry ; and as the least tint 
of these will give the picture a cast, mix up what 
is wanted for present use with a drop or two of 
nut-oil upon the pallet with the pallet- knife. 

Then lay a sheet of white paper on the table, 
and taking the picture in the left hand, with the 
turpentine side next you, hold it sloping (the bot- 
tom resting on the white paper), and all outlines 
and tints of the prints will be seen on the glass; 
and nothing remains but to lay on the colors pro- 
per for the different parts, as follows : 

To Use the Colors. 

As the lights and shades of the picture open, lay 
the lighter colors first on the lighter parts of the 
print, and the darker over the shaded parts; and 
having laid on the brighter colors, it is not mate- 
rial if the darker sorts are laid a little over them ; 
for the first color will hide those laid on after- 
wards. For example: 

Reds. — Lay on the first red-lead, and shade 
with lake or carmine. 

Yellows. — The lightest yellow maybe laid on 
first, and shaded with Dutch pink. 

Bines. — Blue bice, or ultramarine, used for the 
lights, may be sliaded with indigo. 

Greens. — Lay on verdigris first, then a mixture 



of that and Dutch pink. This green may bo 
lightened by an addition of Dutch pink. 

^^^en any of these are too strong, they may ^je 
lightened, by mixing white with them upon tie 
pallet; or darken them as much as required by 
mixing them with a deeper shade of the sajio 
color. 

The colors must not be laid on too thick; but 
if troublesome, thin them before using them, with 
a little turpentine oil. 

Take care to have a pencil for each color, and 
never use that which has been used for green, with 
any other color without first washing it well with 
turpentine-oil, as that color is apt to appear pre- 
dominant when the colors are dry. 

Wash all the pencils, after using, in turpentine- 
oil. 

The glass, when painted, must stand 3 or 4 daya 
free from dust before it is framed. 

To Draw on Glass, 
Grind lampblack with gum-water and some com- 
mon salt. With a pen or hair-pencil, draw the 
design on the glass, and afterwards shade and 
paint it with any of the following compositions: 

Color for Grounds on Glass. 

Take iron-filings and Dutch yellow beads, equal 
parts. If a little red cast is wanted, add a littla 
copper filings. With a steel muller grind these 
together on a th'ck and strong copper plate, or on 
porphyry. T!>cn add a little gum Arabic, borax, 
common salt, and clear water. Mix these with a 
little fluid, and put the composition in a phial for 
use. 

AVhen it is to be used there is nothing to do but, 
with a hair pencil, to lay it quite flat on the design 
drawn the day before ; and having left this to dry 
also for another day, with the quill of a turkey, 
the nib unsplit, heighten the lights in the same 
manner as with crayons on blue paper. AVhenever 
there are more coats of the above composition put 
one upon another, the shade will naturally be 
stronger; and when this is finished, lay the colors 
for garments and complexions. 

To Prepare Lake for Glass. 

Grind the lake with water impregnated with 
gum and salt ; then make use of it with the brush. 
The shading is operated by laying a double, treble, 
or more coats of the color, where it is wanted 
darker. 

Blue Purple for the same. 

Make a compound of lake and indigo, ground 
together with gum and salt water, and use it a8 
directed in the preceding article. 
Green. 

Mix with a proportionable quantity of gamboge 
ground together as above. 

Yellow. 

Grind gamboge with salt water only. 
White. 

Heighten much the white parts with a pen. 
To Transfer Engravings on Glass. * 

Metallic colors prepared and mixed with fat oil, 
are applied to the stamp on the engraved plate. 
Wipe with the hand in the manner of the printers 
of colored plates; take a proof on a sheet of silver 
paper, which is immediately transferred on the 
tablet of glass destined to be painted, being careful 
to turn the colored side against the glass; it ad- 
heres to it, and as soon as the copy is quite dry, 
take off the superfluous paper by washing it with 
a spimge; there will remain only the color trans- 
ferred to the glass ; it is fixed by passing the glass 
through the ovens. 



408 



GLASS. 



The bases of ail the colors employed in painting 
on glass, are oxidized metiilli# substances. 

In painting on glass, it is necessary thq^ the 
matter should be very transparent. 

To Prepare Metallic Oxides and Precipitates of 
Gold. 
A solution of gold in aqua-regia, which is eva- 
porated to dryness, leaves gold, which is used for 
glass, enamel, and porcelain gilding; or by pre- 
cipitating the solution with green vitriol dissolved 
in water, a similar powder is produced. This pow- 
der is mixed with some essential oil, as oil of spike, 
and calcined borax, and the whole made to adhere 
to the surface of the glass by a solution of gum 
Arabic. It is then applied with a fine pencil, and 
burnt in under a muffle. 

To Prepare Oxide of Cobalt. 

When regulus of cobalt is exposed to a moderate 
fire in the open air, it calcines; and is reduced to 
a blackish powder. 

This oxide vitrifies with verifiable matters and 
forms beautiful blue glasses. Cobalt is, at present, 
the only substance known which has the property 
of furnishing a very fine blue that is not changed 
by the most intense heat. 

To Prepare Zaffre. 

Zaffre is the oxide of cobalt, for painting pottery 
ware and porcelain of a blue colm'. Break the co- 
balt with hammers into pieces abonf the size of a 
hen's egg; and the stony gangue, w th such other 
foreign matters, separate as much i:s possible. 
Pound the chosen mineral in stamping- niills, and 
sift it through brass-wire sieves. Wa.--h off' the 
lighter parts by water, and afterwards i)ut it into 
a large flat-bottomed arched furnace resembing a 
baking-oven, where the flame of the wood rever- 
berates upon the ore, which stir occasionally, and 
turn with long-handled iron hooks or rakes ; and 
the process is to be continued till its fumes cease. 
The oven or furnace terminates by a long hori- 
zontal gallery, which serves for a chimney, in 
which the arsenic, naturally mixed with the ore, 
sublimes. If the ore contains a little bismuth, as 
this semi-metal is very fusible, collect it at the 
bottom of the furnace. The cobalt remains in 
the state of a dark gray oxide, and is called zaffre. 
This operation is continued four, or even nine 
hours, according to the quality of the ore. The 
roasted ore being taken out from the furnace, such 
parts as are concreted into lumps, pound and sift 
afresh. Zaff're, in commerce, is never pure, being 
mixed with two, or rather three parts of pow- 
dered flints. A proper quantity of the best sort 
of these, after being ignited in a furnace, are to 
be thrown into water, to render them friable and 
more easily reduced to powder ; which, being 
iifted, is mixed with the zaffre, according to the 
before-mentioned dose; and the mixture is put 
into casks, after being moistened with water. This 
oxide, fused with 3 parts of sand and 1 of potassa, 
forms a blue glass which, when pounded, sifted, 
and ground in mills (included in large casks), 
forms smaft. 

The blue of zaflfre is the most solid and fixed 



of all the colors employed in vitrification. It 
sufl^ers no change from the most violent fire. It 
is successfully employed to give shades of blue to 
enamels, and to crystal-glass made in imitation 
of opaque and transparent precious stones; as 
the lapis lazuli, the turquoise, the sapphire, and 
others. 

Purple of Cassins. 

Dissolve some pure gold in nitro-rauriatic aaidj 
add either acid or metal, until saturation takes 
place. Now dissolve some pure tin in the samo 
kind of acid ; observe the same point of saturation 
as with the gold, and pour it into the solution of 
gold. A purple powder will be precipitated, which 
must be collected and washed in distilled water. 

This beaatiful purple color, as before mentioned, 
is extremely useful to enamellers and to glass- 
stainers. 

When brought into fusion with a clear, trans- 
parent glass, it tinges it of a purple, red, or violet 
color. Hence the method of making false rubies 
and garnets. 

To Paint Colored Drawings on Glass. 

This art is exercised two ways. 1. Plates of 
stained glass are cut into the shape of figures and 
joined by leaden outlines. On these plates a 
shading is afterwards traced by the pninter, which 
gives features to the face and folds to the drapery. 

2. Vitrifiable colors are attached to plates of 
white glass, which are afterwards placed in the 
oven, and thus converted into a transparent enam- 
elling. The first sort is cheaper, but the shading 
wears off" by the insensible corrosion of the atmos- 
phere. The second sort defies every accident ex- 
cept fracture; but the color of the figures suiTera 
in the oven. For small objects, the first sort, and 
for large objects, the second, as far as art is con- 
cerned, seems best adapted. 

Flnx for Staining Glass. 

1. When the colors used are not affected by 
lead, 100 parts powdered quartz, 125 red-lead, 50 
of bismuth. 

2. When the flux is required free from lead, 100 
parts quartz, 75 glass of borax, 12^ saltpetre, 12^ 
powdered statuary marble. 

Colors for Staining Glass. 

To 6 cwt. of flux or flint-glass are to be added 
as follows : 

White (soft), 24 lbs. white arsenic, 6 lbs. anti- 
mony. 

White (hard), 200 lbs. putty-powder. 

Blue (transparent), 2 lbs oxide of cobalt. 

Azure, 6 lbs. protoxide of copper. 

Ruby, 4 oz. oxide of gold. 

Amethyst, 20 lbs. oxide of manganese. 

Common Orange, 12 lbs. iron ore, 4 lbs. oxide 
of manganese. 

Emerald Green, 12 lbs. copper Scales and 12 lbs. 
iron ore. 

Gold Topaz (canary glass), 3 lbs. oxide of ura- 
nium. 

The colors will vary with the degree of heat to 
which the glass is subjected. The whole glass 
may be colored, or the mixture of flux and oxide 
may be laid on the surface, and then vitrified. 



PHOTOGRAPHY. 



409 



I*HOTOaR^I>HY. 



Apothecaries' weight is used throughout this 
article. In case of liquids the abbreviation oz. 
signifies fluidounce. 



COTTON. 
To make Fyrnxyline or Gun-cotton, suitable for 
Photographic Collodion. 
1. By nitre process: Oil of vitriol (s. g. ]"70), 
6 oz, ; dried nitrate of potash, 3^ oz. ; water, 1 
oz. Mi.Y the acid and the water in a porcelain 
vessel, and add the pulverized nitre, gradually 
stirring with a glass rod until the lumps disappear 
and the mixture becomes transparent. Place a 
thermometer in the mixture, and when it indicates 
between 145° and 150° Fahr., the cotton should 
be immersed. Take 60 grs. of clean cotton, and 
separate it into 10 or 12 bolls, and immerse the 
bolls separately, and leaving the whole in the mix- 
ture for 10 minutes. Should the temperature fall 
to 140°, float the cup on boiling water, and main- 
tain it between 140° and 150°. At the expiration 
of 10 minutes lift the cotton with glass rods, and 
squeeze out the acid quickly and dash the mass 
into a large vessel of clean, cold water, sepa- 
.rating the mass so as to wash it thoroughly 
and quickly. Complete the washing by immer- 
sion for several hours in running water, then 
spread it out to dry spontaneously. 

2. By mixed acids: Oil of vitriol (s.g. 1-845), 
18 oz. ; nitric acid (s. g. 1'457), 6 oz.; water, 5 oz. 
Mix the nitric acid and water in a porcelain ves- 
sel, then add the oil of vitriol and mix thoroughly 
and allow the mixture to cool to 150° Fahr., when 
immerse the cotton. Take 300 grs. of clean cot- 
ton, well loosened, and immerse piecemeal, so as 
to saturate thoroughly with the acids. Allow the 
whole to remain 7 minutes, after which time lift 
it out with the rods and wash it precisely as di- 
lected in last process. 

Photographic Collodion. 

Pure alcohol (s. g. "805), 10 oz. ; pure ether 
(s. g. 0-725), 20 oz. ; prepared cotton, 300 grs. 
Pour the alcohol into a 40 oz. glass bottle, add the 
cotton, and shake until the cotton is thoroughly 
wetted ; then add the ether, shake well and set 
away in a cool, dark place for several weeks to 
settle. Mark " PUnn Collodion." In very warm 
weather increase the proportion of alcohol by ad- 
dition a day before use or at time of iodizing. 
lodizers for Photographic Collodion. 

Iodide of ammonium, 90 grs.; iodide of cad- 
mium, 90 grs.; bromide of ammonium, 40 grs.; 
alcohol (-810), 10 oz. 

Or, iodide of magnesium, 200 grs. ; bromide of 
cadmium, 50 grs.; alcohol ('SIO), 10 oz. 

Pulverize the salts, and add gradually to the al- 
cohol, commencing with the bromide; shake until 
completely dissolved, and set away in a dark place. 
Mark "Iodizing Solution." 

To Iodize Collodion. 

Plain collodion, 3 oz. ; iodizing solution, 1 oz. 
Mix and set away in a dark, cool place 12 hours 
before using. 

Any of the ordinary iodides or bromides can be 
substituted in the above formulae. 
Sensitizing Baths. 

For positives : Pure re-crystallized nitrate of 
silver (437 gr.), 1 oz. ; pure nitric acid, 3 minims; 
alcohol, 2 drs. ; distilled water, 10 <>z. ; iodide 



of potassium, 1 gr. Dissolve the nitrate of silver 
in 3 oz. of the distilled water, add the iodide of' 
potassium, shake and allow to settle; test for 
acidity with blue litmus paper, and, if present, 
neutralize carefully with a solution of carbonate 
of soda. When neutral, add the remaining 7 oz. 
of distilled water, filter and add the alcohol and 
nitric acid, and the bath is ready for use. 

For negatives : Pure re-crystallized nitrate of 
silver, 1 oz. ; glacial acetic acid, 5 minims; alco- 
hol, 3 drs. ; iodide of potassium, 1 gr. ; distilled 
water, 10 oz. Dissolve the silver in 3 oz., and 
treat precisely as for bath for negatives, observing 
that it is to be acidified with glacial acetic acid ia 
place of nitric acid. 

These baths should be kept in a dark place, and 
always show an acid test. When out of order, boil 
for a few minutes, add one-tenth volume of dis- 
tilled water and restore to the original strength 
by adding strong solution of crystallized nitrate 
of silver in distilled water, and acidifying with 
the proper acids. 

Developers. 
For positives: 1. Pure sulphate of iron, 150 grs.; 
glacial acetic acid, 6 fl. drs. ; water, 10 oz.; nitric 
acid, 2 minims. Dissolve the sulphate of iron in 
the water, and add the acetic and nitric acid and 
cork tightly. 

2. Sulphate of iron, 480 grs. ; nitrate of baryta, 
320 grs.; alcohol, 1 oz. ; nitric acid, 30 minims; 
water, 10 oz. Powder the nitrate of baryta and 
dissolve in the water warmed; when dissolved, 
add the powdered sulphate of iron, stirring for a 
few minutes; filter, and when the liquid becomes 
cold, add the nitric acid and alcohol separately. 
Bottle and cork tightly. 

For negatives : 1. Pyrogallic acid, 10 grs.; gla- 
cial acetic acid, 3 drs. ; distilled water, 1 oz. Dis- 
solve the pyrogallic acid in the water, add the gla- 
cial acetic acid, cork tightly. 

2. Sulphate of iron and ammonium, 2 oz., or 
sulphate of iron, IJ oz. ; glacial acetic acid, i 
oz., or acetic acid No. 8, 1^ oz. ; alcohol, J oz. ; 
distilled water, 10 oz. Add to the distilled water 
in the order indicated, the iron-salt to be first dis- 
solved. In warm weather this developer requires 
dilution, and must be washed from the plate the 
instant the details appear. 

Fixing Solutions. 
For positives : Cyanide of potassium, 120 grs.; 
nitrate of silver, 6 grs.; water, 10 oz. AVhen 
this solution requires more than a minute or two 
to clear the picture, add a small amount of cyanide 
of potassium. 

[This solution is highly poisonous, and should 
not be allowed to touch unsound skin, nor should 
the fumes be bre-tthed.] 

For negativ(/s : The above solution of cyanide 
of potassiuE/ answers very well, or hyposulphite 
of soda, IC ,i.; water, 10 oz. ; ether, 30 minims. 

Strengthening or Intensifying Solutions 
Should be employed after the picture has been de- 
veloped, fixed and carefully washed : 

Nitrate of silver, 200 grs.; distilled water, 10 
ounce.s. 

Or, Bi-chloride of mercury, 30 grs. ; distilled 
water, 40 oz. 

Cleaning the Glass Plates. 
Before washing the glasses, each square should 
be roughened on the edges and at the corners by 



410 



PHOTOGRAPHY. 



means of a file, whetstone, or a sheet of emery- 
pnper; or more simply by driiwing the edges of 
two plates iioross eiich other. 

A crejim of Tripoli powder and spirits of wine, 
with a little ammonia added, is commonly em- 
ployed. A tuft of cotton is to be dipped in this 
mixture and the glasses well rubbed with it for a 
few minutes. 

After wiping the glass carefully, complete the 
process by polishing with an old silk handkerchief, 
avoiding contact with the skin of the hand. Lea- 
thers may be used instead of silk for the final 
polishing; they must be first beaten, then washed 
in pure water, dried in the sun and well pulled 
out until ihey are soft and yielding. Before de- 
ciding that thi- glass is clean, hold it in an angular 
position and breathe upon it. 

Other modes of cleaning glasses have been re- 
commended, of which, perhaps, the residues of 
collodion are the most simple. Adil a fluidrachm 
of water to the ounce of collodion until the pyroxy- 
lino begins to form a white deposit not redissolved 
on agitation; this will prevent the collodion from 
evaporating too quickly. Then |)our a little upon 
the glass and rub with a tuft of wool or piece of 
cambric. Clean off with a second piece, and fin- 
ish with cloth and leathers as before; no water 
will be required. 

New glass plates are frequently dotted on the 
Burfaee with little gritty particles, which consist 
of carbonate of lime. They are not removed by 
potash or any alkali, but dissolve readily in a di- 
luted acid, such as oil of vitriol, with about four 
parts of water added, or dilute nitric acid. 
Lea's C/.cnnitiij Sofiitiott, 

Water, 1 pt. ; sulphuric acid, ^ oz. ; bichromate 
potash, i oz. The glass plates, varnished or 
otherwise, are left, say 10 or 12 hours or as much 
loi.ger as desired, in this solution, and then rinsed 
in clean water and wiped or rubbed dry with soft 
white paper. It removes nitrate of silver stains 
from the fingers. 

Coaling the Plate. 

When the collodion is properly cleared from 
gediment, take a glass plate, previously cleaned, 
and wipe it gently with a broad camel's-hair brush, 
in order to remove any particles of dust which 
may have subsequently collected. If it be a plate 
of moderate size it may bo held by the corners in 
a horizontal position, between the forefinger and 
thumb of the left hand. The collodion is to be 
poured on steadily until a circular pool is formed 
extending nearly to the edges of the glass, 




By a slight inclination of the plate the fluid is 
made to flow towards the corner mark'.d 1 in the 
above diagram, until it nearly touches the lliumb 
by which (lie glass is hold ; from corner 1 it passes 
to corner 2f, held by the forefinger; from 2 to 'i, 
and lastly, the excess poured back into the bottle 
froui the corner marked No. 4. It is next to be 
held over the bottle for a moment until it nearly 
ceases to drip, and then by raising the thumb a lit- 
tle the direction of the plate is changed so as to 
give a rocking movement, which makes the diag- 
onal lines coalesce and produses a smooth surface. 



The operation of coating a plate with collodioD 
must not be done hurriedly, and nothing is re- 
quired to ensure success but steadiness of hand 
and a sufficiency of the fluid poured in the first in- 
stance upon the plate. 

With regard to the time which ought to elapsB 
between coating and dipping, observe the follow- 
ing: After exposing a layer of collodion to the 
air for a short time, the greater part of the ether 
evaporates and leaves the pyroxyline in a state in 
which it is neither wet nor dry, but receives the 
impression of the finger without adhering to it. 
This is termed setting, and when it takes place, 
the time has come for submitting the plate to the 
action of the bath. 

When the jilate is ready, rest it upon the glass 
dipper, collodion side uppermost, and lower it into 
the solution by a slow and steady movement and 
let it remain until the oily appearance on the sur- 
face disappears. 

Expotiure. 

After the plate has been taken out of the bath, 
it should be exposed and developed with all con- 
venient despatch, otherwise the film will become 
partially dry, the developing solutions will not 
flow easily, and the negative will be weak and 
metallic. 

Dfvelopment. 

The pyrogallic acid solution having been pre- 
viously measured out (about 3 drs. for a stereosco- 
pic plate or a plate 5X4, 1 oz. for a 9X7, and 12 
drs. for a yilate 10X8), hold the glass in the hand 
in the same manner as when coating it with col- 
lodion, and flow the liquid on evenly. 

Devefopmeiit nrith Siilphnte of Iron. 

This reducing agent developes the picture so 
rapidly, when the collodion contains only iodide, 
that its employment reciuires care. The solution 
should be thrown on to the plate rather quickly, 
and with a sweep. In the course of a few seconds 
the image appears in all its parts, and the liquid 
on the film shows signs of commencing turbidity. 
When this happens, the developer must be poured 
off immediately, and the plate washed with water, 
otherwise the shadows will be misty from adhe- 
rent particles of silver. Plates develoj)ed with sul- 
phate of iron may be further blackened by wash- 
ing the film and pouring over it a 20-gr. solution 
of nitrate of silver, followed by a second aiiplica- 
tion of sulphate of iron. A better process, how- 
ever, is to wash away all traces of the iron salt by 
a stream of water applied for a few seconds, and 
then to mix the ordinary solution of pyrogallio 
acid with nitrate of silver. 

Fixing and Varnishing the Negative. 

Wash the film gently with water, and pour the 
solution of hyposulphite on and off until the whole 
of the iodide has been cleared away. The solu- 
tion of hyposulphite becomes nearly blaek after a 
time, but this is of no importance, some operators 
considering that even a preliminary washing to 
remove the pyrogallic acid solution is unoecessary. 
A thorough washing after the hyposulphite will 
be essential. Alter the negative has been washed 
flow it over with a solution of gum Arabic, stand 
it on clean blotting-paper to dry; otherwise dust 
will ascend the film by capillary action, and give 
an apjiearanco as if impurities had draino<l down 
from above. It is important that the plate should 
be dried by artificial heat before varnishing, and 
the negative will also look more neat if a damp 
cloth bo first run along the edge with the finger 
and thumb, so as to scrape away the collodion, 
and leave a clear margin of J to i of an inch all 
round. After doing so remove with the nail or a 
camel's-hair brush any louse or detached particles 



PAPER PRINTS. 



411 



of collodion, which otherwise mipht he washed on 

to the iuiaj^e by the varnish, and produce a spot. 

To Adjust Camera for Uheniicnl Focus. 

Tnlie a photograph of a printed sheet with the 
full aperture of the portrait lens, the central letters 
being earelully fcicussed as liefore. Then examine 
at what part of the plate the greatest amount of 
distinctness of outline is to he found. It will, 
BOinetitnes, hajipen that whereas the exact centre 
was fdcnssed visually, the letters on a spot mid- 
way lietween the centre and edge arc the sharpest 
in the i)hoti>graph. In that case the chemical 
focus is lunger than the other, and hy a distance 
equivalent to, hut in the o|)posite direction of, the 
space through whii^h the lens has to be moved, in 
order to define those particulars sharply to the eye. 
Direct PoxitlveH <ni Glass. 

In developing a glass positive, the solution of 
sulphate of iron should be flowed evenly over the 
film, and in some quantity, so as to wash off a 
portion of nitrate of silver into the sink. 

Pi/ro()riU>c Arid Dcvelo/ier. 
Forty grs. of pyrogallic acid lieing dissolved in 
1 oz. of glacial acetic acid, and 2(J minims added 
to 1 07,. of water when required for use. The 
Strong solutii>n becomes black from deooniposition 
in the course of a few weeks, but when diluted it 
has only a faint yellow tint, and is tolerably effec- 
tive in bringing out the image. In place of aeetie 
acid str(ing alcohid may be used as a solvent, ^ a 
dr. of pyrogallic acid being diss(dved in 1 oz. of 
spirit, ami 20 minims of the resulting liquid added 
to each oz. of .acidified water. No attempt must 
be made, however, to coml)ine acetic acid and 
spirit in one solution, since ai)undance of acetic 
ether would be generate<l by so doing. These 
plans of preparing a concentrated developer are 
useful for a few weeks' keeping, but are not recom- 
mended for an unlitnite<l time. 

To Copy Ewjrariiigs, 
To photograph a full-sized steel engraving on a 
plate not larger than 7X6 or .')X4, is a very simpls 
operation, and no special directions will be needed. 
Remove the engraving from its frame (the glass 
would cause irregular reflection), and suspend it 
vertically and in a reversed conditicjn, in a good 
diffused tight, ])lacing a black cloth behind it, if 
any bright reflecting surface be presented to the 
lens. Point at it a camera mounteil with a por- 
trait-lens, and if the image upon the ground glass 
appears misty towards the edge, make a dia- 
phragm, and place it in front of the anterior glass. 
Instead of a portrait-lens an ordinary view-lens 
may be used, and aa the field to be covered is 
small, a comparatively large diaphragm will suffice. 
Be careful not to over-expose the plate, develop 
■with pyrogallic acid, and fi.K with hyposulphite. 
Copying Prints. 
The additional deposit obtained, as above de- 
scribed, will often be found sufficient, and when 
such is the case the method is to be preferred, be- 
cause the half-tones of a jihotograph are easily 
obliterated by too much intensifying. In the case 
of large copies of maps taken with orthoscopic 
lenses of long focus, the iodine method proves in- 
sufficient, and the fine lines of the drawing become 
partly obliterated during the prolonged develop- 
Aent. In such a case it is advised to develop the 
plate only partially in the first instance, and to fi.\ 
it with cyanide of potassium; then to intensify 
twice with pyrogallic acid, citric acid, and nitrate 
of silver, and lastly to treat the plate with the two 
following li(|uids: No 1. Iodine, 6 grs. ; iodide of 
poUissium, 12 grs.; water, 6 oz. No. 2. Sulphide 
of potassium, 1 dx. : water, 6 oz. 



Apply No. 1, either in the yellow room, or in the 
daylight, until the whole of the im.age is converted 
into ioilide of silver, and the deposit appears yel- 
low throughout. Then pour wiiter on the image 
from a jug, and iipjily No. 2, which must bo al- 
lowed to remain until the yellow c(dor changes to 
a deep reddish-brown. Lastly, dry the plate, and 
varnish in the usual way. 

Stereoscopic Pictures. 

Photographs for the refracting stereoscope are 
taken with small lenses of about 4i inches focus. 
For portraits a camera may advantageously be 
fitted witli two double-comliiniition lenses, of 1} 
inches diameter, exactly equal in focal length and 
in rapidity of action. The caps are removed 
simultaneously, and the pictures imiiressed at the 
same instant. The centres of the lenses may bo 
separated by ?• inches, when the camera is jilaced 
at about 6 or 8 feet from the sitter. Pictures taken 
with binocular camera of this kind require to be 
mounted in a reversed position to that which they 
occupy on the glass, or a pseudoscopic effect will 
be (irodnccd. The negatives may be cut in half, 
the right lialf being printed on the left side, or the 
finished prints may be removed before mounting. 
Stereoscopic Trnnsj)iircncie». 

Sensitive films prepared by Russell's Tannin 
Process. Place the negative and the prcjiared 
plate in conta(!t, and si|iteeze thein toge;her in an 
orilinary pressure-frame ; not too strongly, how- 
ever, or it will probably be found, after throwing 
off a few imi)re8sions, that the negative has been 
scratched. Lay a strip of black velvet behind the 
sensitive film to absorb stray light. 
Fi-riuij Ilalh. 

Take of hyposulphite of soda, 1 oz. ; water, 6 oz. 
Dissolve without filtering, and preserve the solu- 
tion in a stock-bottle ready for use. 



PAPER PRINTS. 
Albuminized Paper, 

Formula 1. — Take of chloride of ammonium, 
200 grs.; water 5 oz. ; albumen, 15 oz. 

Chloride of barium is sometimes used in salting 
paper, instead of chloride of ammonium, but is 
contraindicated when the alkaline gold-toning 
process is adopted, since the carbonate of soda 
would throw down carbonate of baryta in the 
paper. 

When pure albumen is used without water, from 
5 to 8 grs. of Sidt to each ounce will be sufficient. 
The less the quantity of salt the warmer the color, 
but it must not be so far reduced as to injure the 
contrast and depth of shadow in the print. 

If distilled water cannot be procured, rain-water, 
or even common spring-water, will often tinswer 
the purpose. For the albumen use eggs nearly 
fresh, and ))e careful that in opening the shell the 
j'olk be not broken. Each egg will yield about 
one fluidounco of albumen. 

When the ingredients are mixed, take a bundle 
of quills or a fork, and beat the whole into a per- 
feet froth. As th(! froth forms it is to be skimmed 
off and placed in a flat dish to subside. The suc- 
cess of the ojieration depends very much upon this 
pjart of the process, for, if the albumen bo not thor- 
oughly beaten, flakes of animal membrane will be 
left in the liquid, and will cause streaks upon the 
pai)er. When the froth has partially subsided 
transfer the liquid part to a tall and narrow jar, 
and allow to stand for several hours, that the 
membranous shreds may settle to the bottom; 
then pour off the upper clear portioj, which will 
be fit for use. Albuminous liquids are too glutin- 
ous to run well through a paper filter, and are 



412 



fHOTOGEAPHT. 



better cleared by subsidence. Lower the paper on 
the liquid by one steady movement, since, if a 
pause be made, a line will be formed. Some pa- 
pers are not readily wetted by the albumen, and 
when such is the c:ise a few drops of spirituous 
solution of bile, or a fragment of the prep.ired ox- 
gall sold by the artists' oolormen, will be found a 
useful adjunct. Care must be taken, however, not 
to add an excess, or the albumen will be rendered 
too fluid, and will sink into the paper, leaving no 
gloss. 

To render the Paper Sensitive. 

This operation must be conducted by the light 
of a candle or by yellow light. 

Take of nitrate of silver, 60 grs.; distilled water, 
1 oz. Prepare a sufficient quantity of this solu- 
tion, and pour it out into a porcelain dish. After 
it has been a short time in use, the albumen, dis- 
solved out of the papers, will cause a greasy scum 
to form upon the liquid, which, if allowed to re- 
main, produces marble .stains upon the sensitive 
paper; it must therefore be removed by folding a 
strip of blotting-paper the exact breadth of the 
dish, and drawing it lightly along the surface; 
lay the sheet upon the solution in the same man- 
ner as above described for the albumen. Three 
minutes' contact will be sufficient with thin paper, 
but if a thick paper be used 4 or 5 minutes must 
be allowed for the decomposition. The papers are 
raised from the solution by a pair of bone forceps, 
or common tweezers tipped with sealing-wax ; or 
a pin may be used to lift up the corner, which is 
to be held by the finger and thumb, and allowed 
to drain a little before again putting in the pin, 
otherwise a mark will be produced upon the paper, 
from decomposition of the nitrate of silver. When 
the sheet is hung up a small strip of blotting-paper, 
suspended from the lower edge of the paper, will 
serve to drain off the last drop of liquid. 

Formula 2. — Preparation of Plain Paper. 

Take of chloride of ammonium, 200 grs. ; citrate 
of soda, 200 grs. ; gelatine, 20 grs. ; water, 20 oz. 
To prepare the citrate of soda dissolve 112 grs. of 
citric acid in 20 oz. of water, and add 133 grs. of 
the dried bicarbonate or sesquicarboniite of soda 
used for effervescing draughts. Supposing the 
citric acid to be adulterated with tartaric acid, the 
above quantity of carbonate of soda would be too 
great, and free alkaline carbonate would then re- 
main in the liquid after the neutralization was 
complete. The size of the paper would be liable 
to suffer in such a case, and the print would not 
be clean and bright. Excess of citric acid, on the 
other hand, gives very clean pictures, but they are 
too pale and red, without depth of shadow. Ama- 
teurs, desirous of simplifying the formula, may 
substitute an equal weight of " Rochelle salt" for 
the citrate of soda. This substance is a tartrate 
of potash and soda, and is sold by druggists in 
large crystals. Both tartrates and citrates are 
used for the purpose of giving a red and warm 
tone to the prints. 

Render sensitive by floating for 2 or 3 minutes 
upon the solution of nitrate of silver employed for 
the albuminized paper. 

Formula 3. — Ammonio- Nitrate Paper. 

This is always prepared without albumen, which 
is dissolved by ammonio-nitrate of silver. 

Take of chloride of ammonium, 40 grs. ; gela- 
tine, 20 grs. ; water, 20 oz. Dissolve by the aid 
of heat, and filter when cold. 

Tiike 10 or 12 sheets of thin Saxe paper, and, 
having marked the right side, immerse them bodily 
in the liquid, 1 by 1, with care to remove air-bub- 
bles ; then turn the b.itch over, and remove them 
si ugly, beginning with the sheet first immersed. 



Each paper will thus be a similar length of tiin« 
in the salting liquid. 

This salting solution is very weak, but it must 
be borne in mind that the papers being immersed 
will take up a large quantity, and also that the 
ammonio-nitrate process requires less salt, inas- 
much as the silver solution is to be laid on with a 
brush. 

An ammonio-nitrate paper, yielding a very rich 
color, is made by salting Towgood's paper, or Pa- 
pier Saxe, with a mixed chloride and citrate, in 
quantit3' exactly one-half of that advised in the 
last page, and afterwards sensitizing it with an 
80 gr. solution of ammonio-nitrate. 

Render sensitive by a solution of ammonio-ni- 
trate of silver, 60 grs. to the oz. of water, prepared 
as follows: Dissolve the nitrate of silver in one- 
half of the total quantity of water; then take a 
pure solution of ammonia and drop it in carefully, 
stirring meanwhile with a glass rod. A brown 
precipitate of oxide of silver first forms, but on the 
addition of more ammonia it is redissolved. When 
the liquid appears to be clearing up, add the am- 
m<inia very cautiously, so as ngt to incur an excess. 
In order still further to secure the absence of free 
ammonia it is usual to direct that, when the liquid 
becomes perfectly clear, adrop or two of solution 
of nitrate of silver should be added until a slight 
turbidity is again produced. Lastly, dilute with 
wiiter to the proper bulk. If the crystals of ni- 
trate of silver employed contain a large excess of 
free nitric acid no precipitate will be formed on 
the first addition of ammonia : the free nitric acid, 
producing nitrate of ammonia with the alkali, 
keeps the oxide of silver in solution. From the 
presence of nitrate of ammonia, it is often uselesB 
to attempt to convert an old nitrate bath, already 
used for sensitizing, into ammonio-nitrate. Or, 
dissolve 60 grs. of nitrate of silver in i oz. of 
water, and drop in ammonia until the precipi- 
tated oxide of silver is exactly redissolved; then 
divide this solution of ammonio-nitrate of silver 
into 2 equal parts, to one of which add nitric acid 
cautiously, until a piece of immersed litmus-paper 
is reddened by an excess of the acid; them mix 
the two together, fill up to 1 oz. of water, and filter 
from the milky deposit of chloride or carbonate of 
silver, if any be formed. 

Ammonio-nitrate of silver should be kept in a 
dark place, being more prone to reduction than 
the nitrate of silver. 

To Apply the Liquid. 

It is not usual to float the paper when the am- 
monio-nitrate of silver is used. Brushes are man- 
ufactured expressly for applying silver solutions, 
but the hair is soon destroyed unless the brush is 
kept scrupulously clean. Lay the salted sheet 
upon blotiing-paper, and wet it thoroughly by 
drawing the brush first lengthwise and then 
across. Allow it to remain flat for a minute or so, 
in order that a sufficient quantity of the solution 
may be absorbed (j'ou will see when it is evenly 
wet by looking along the surface), and then pin 
up by the corner in the usual way. If, on drying, 
tvliile lines appear at the points last touched by 
the brush, it is probable that the paper was too 
highly salted, or that the ammonio-nitrate con- 
tained free amiuonia. 

Ammonio-nitrate paper is more prone to spon- 
taneous decomposition than either albuminized or 
plain paper; hence it cannot be kept many hours 
after sensitizing without turning yellow. 
Toning Bath. 

No. 1. Solution of chloride of gold, 1 dr.; 
sesi|uicarbonate of soda, 10 grs.; distilled water, 
6 oz. No. 2. Solution of chloride of gold, 1 dr. J 



PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 



413 



ordinary phosphate of soda, 20 grs. ; distilled wa- 
ter, 2 oz. 

Examine the chloride of gold, and if its solu- 
tion immediately colors litmus-paper of a bright 
red, add to each grain a fragment of carbonate 
of soda about the size of a pin's head. 

The solution of chloride of gold contains a grain 
to each fluidrachm of water, and will keep for an 
unlimited time without appreciable change, pre- 
viously to the addition of the carbonate of soda. 
The t<ining baths, however, must not be kept 
ready mixed, since they gradually become color- 
less and eventually lose their toning properties in 
great measure. A useful simplitication, substi- 
tuting measure for weight, consists in having 
always on hand an aqueous solution of carbonate 
of soda containing 20 grs. to the oz. ; or for the 
second formula, a solution of phosphate of soda 
containing 40 grs. to the oz. Half an oz. of the 
alkaline liquid would then in each case require a 
fluidrachm of the solution of chloride of gold, 
and a subsequent dilution with water to the full 
amount given in the formula. 



PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING. 

Sensitive papers ought not to be exposed in the 
frame until they are quite dry. The shutter at 
the back of the frame is removed, and the nega- 
tive laid flat upon the glass, collodion-side upper- 
most. A sheet of sensitive paper is then placed 
upon the negative, sensitive-side downwards; next 
comes a layer of thick felt ; and the whole is then 
tightly compressed by replacing and bolting down 
the shutter. The amount of pressure required is 
not very considerable, but if the springs of the 
frame become too weak after a time, a few pieces 
of mill -board may be placed beneath them. 

The time of exposure to light varies much with 
the density of the negative and the power of the 
actinic rays, as influenced by the season of the 
year and weather. 

If the exposure to light has been correct the 
print appears slightly darker than it is intended 
to remain. The toning bath dissolves away the 
lighter shades, and reduces the intensity, for which 
allowance is made in the exposure to light. A 
little experience soon teaches the proper point; 
but much will depend upon the state of the toning 
bath, and albuminized paper will require to be 
printed somewhat more deeply than plain paper. 
If, on removal from the printing-frame, a pecu- 
liar spotted appearance is seen, produced by un- 
equal darkening of the chloride of silver, either 
the nitrate bath is too weak, the sheet removed 
from its surface too speedily, or the paper is of 
inferior quality. 

If, in the exposure to ordinary diffused daylight, 
the shadows of the proof became very decidedly 
coppery before the lights are sufiiciently printed, 
the negative is in fault. Ammonio-nitrate paper 
highly salted is particularly liable to this excess of 
reduction, and especially so if the light is powerful. 

Toning. 
The print should be first washed in common 
water until the soluble nitrate of silver is removed. 
This is known to be the case when the liquid 
flows away clear; the first milkiness being caused 
by the soluble carbonates and chlorides in the 
water precipitating the nitrate of silver. Ten 
minutes in water running slowly from a tap will 
be sufficient to cleanse a print from nitrate of 
silver ; or three or four changes in a dish, pouring 
off quite dry between each change. It is an ad- 
vantage to finish off with a solution of salt (2 grs. 
to the oz.) Pour the toning bath out into a flat 
dieh, aoi put the prints into it 2 or 3 at a time, 



waving the dish meanwhile backwards and for- 
wards to secure a constant moveuieiit. Continue 
to keep the prints moving, and watch the chaugea 
in color. 

If the prints are removed as soon as the blue 
color of the gold is seen, they will usually change 
in the fixing bath to a warm shade of brown ; but 
when left for 2 or 3 minutes longer in the toning 
bath, the darker tint becomes permanent. 
Fixinrj. 

One oz. of hyposulphite of soda dissolved in 6 
oz. of water would fix two batches of stereoscopic 
prints, 20 in each batch. Allow the jirints to re- 
main in the fixing bath for 20 minutes, with occa- 
sional movement, after which they may be trans- 
ferred to a dish of clean water. 
Wnsliing. 

It is essential to wash out every trace of hypo- 
sulphite of soda from the print, if it is to be 
preserved from fading, and to do this properly 
requires care. 

Always wash with running water when it can 
be obtained, and choose a large shallow vessel 
exposing a considerable surface in preference to 
one of lesser diameter. A constant dribbling of 
water must be maintained for 4 or 6 hours, and 
the prints should not lie together too closely, or 
the water will not find its way between them. 

When the prints have been thoroughly washed, 
blot them off between sheets of porous paper and 
hang them up to dry. 

Moiintt'ng. 

Mount the proofs with a solution of gelatine in 
hot water, freshly made; gum-water, prepared 
from the finest commercial gum, and free from 
acidity, may also be used, but it should be made 
very thick, so as not to sink into the paper, or 
produce " cockling up" of the cardboard on drying. 
Positive Printing by Development. 

Negative printing processes will be found useful 
during the dull winter months, and at other times 
when the light is feeble, or where it is required to 
produce a large number of impressions from a 
negative in a short space of time. The proofs, 
however, as thus obtained, are not equal to direct 
sun-prints in beauty and gradation of tone. 

Take of iodide of potassium, 120 grs.; bromide 
of ammonium, 30 grs.; water, 20 oz. 

Float the paper on the iodizing bath until it 
ceases to curl up, and lies flat upon the liquid: 
then pin up to dry in the usual way. 

Render sensitive upon a bath of aceto-nitrate 
of silver, containing 30 grs. of nitrate of silver 
with 30 minims of glacial acetic acid to each oz. 
of water. 

Place the dried sheets in contact with the nega- 
tive in a pressure frame, and expose to a feeble 
light. About 30 seconds will be an average time 
upon a dull winter's day, when it would be im- 
possible to paint in the ordinary way. Develop 
by immersion in a saturated solution of gallio 
acid. After the picture is fully brought out, wash 
in cold and subsequently in warm water, to re- 
move the gallic acid, which, if allowed to remain, 
would discolor the hyposulphite bath. Fix the 
print in a solution of hyposulphite of soda, one 
part to two of water, continuing the action until 
the yellow color of the iodide disappears. Wash 
thoroughly in plenty of water. 

Negative Printing Process upon Chloride of Silver. 
To salt the papers, prepare the following solu- 
tion : Chloride of ammonium, 100 grs. ; citric acid, 
56 grs. ; sesquicarbonateof soda, 66 grs; gelatine, 
40 grs. ; distilled water, 20 oz. Float the sheets 
for 1 minute; render sensitive upon a bath of 



414 



PHOTOGRAPHY. 



aceto-nitrate of silver. Take of nitrate of silver, 
30 grs. ; glacial acetic acid, 30 ininiuis ; water, 1 
oi. Float the papers upon this bath for 3 min- 
utes, and suspend them to dry. The exposure to 
light is conducted in the ordinary printing frame. 
The developing solution is prepared as follows: 
Gallic acid, 2 grs. ; water, 1 oz. Filter through 
blott'ng-paper, to remove floating particles, which 
Wdul I produce spots in this process ; pour the so- 
lution of gallic acid into a flat dish, and immerse 
the prints,. 2 or 3 at a time, moving them aljout, 
and using a glass rod to remove air-bubbles; wa>h 
the prints for several minutes in 1 or 2 changes 
of water, in order to extract the gallic acid ; tone 
in bath of chloride of gold and phosphate of soda; 
fix in hyposulphite, and wash. 



RUSSELL'S TANNIN PROCESS, MODIFIED. 
Cleaning the Plate. 
In order to clean the plates, make a stock solu- 
tion of 2 oz. of bichromate of potash, 2 oz. of sul- 
phuric acid, and 1 qt. of water (a green quart 
wine-bottle may be used). Pour the solution into 
a shallow tray ; soak in it the plates to be cleansed, 
and afterwards wash the plates in water and dry 
them ; then pour on each plate a small quantity 
of old collodion ; rub it all over the plate with a 
tuft of cotton, and then clean it oflF with a dry 
linen cloth. It will perfect the cleaning if the 
plate be dipped in pure water and again dried 
with a clean linen cloth. The bichromate of pot- 
Ash solution may be filtered back into the bottle 
for future use. 

To Coat the Plate. 

1. Cover the plate with a bromised collodion. 
Take care, in all cases, gently to oscillate on run- 
ning ofi' the excess of collodion, or white marks, 
visible in a subsequent stage of the process, will 
be formed. 

2. When the film is somewhat fixed, put the 
plate, by the aid of a dipper, in a well-bath of a 
60 gr. nitrate of silver solution, and let it remain 
in the solution 10 minutes. 

3. Put the plate in a well-bath of distilled 
■water until what are called the " greasy " marks 
disappear. 

4. Put the plate in a well-bath of a 10 gr. so- 
lution of bromide of ammonium, or cadmium, or 
magnesium, or of potassium. It may be best to 
adopt that bromide which enters into the prepa- 
ration of the collodion. Let the plate remain in 
this solution about 1 minute. Occasionally filter 
this bath solution, in order to remove the excess 
of bromide of silver which is deposited in the 
bath. Keep a stock bottle of this bromide solu- 
tion to supply the waste drippings. 

6. Put the plate for a short time in a well-bath 
of distilled water. 

6. Wipe the back of the plate, and let it drain 
for a short time, and then place it in a well-bath 
of 10 or 15 grs. of tannin to the oz. of distilled 
water; let the plate remain in this solution 4 or 5 
minutes, and then, on removing it from this bath, 
let it rest on one end, to dry. When dry, it is 
ready for the camera, and it will keep along time. 
It should be rapidly and evenly dried, and a stone 
bottle of hot water may be so used as to hasten 
the drying. Tannin which dissolves most easily 
in water, is to be preferred. Add to the tannin- 
bath 3 or 4 drops of creosote, and it will keep 
clear. A little experience will show how long a 
time the plate must be exposed to light in the 
camera. It will be best, in the beginning, not to 
make a very short exposure ; harsh pictures are 
the result of long exposures, and soft pictures 
of short exposures to the light. These plates 



will bear a considerable amount of exposure in 
the camera without being fogged — even for 10 
minutes. 

Developing. 

1. The film sometimes appears to be in a rotten 
state, and to crack up when water is poured on it. 
This will not happen if a small quantity of alco- 
hol be added to the water solution first poured 
over it. 

2. Take a solution of 2 grs. to the oz. of water 
of carbonate of ammonia; add to it some alco- 
hol, and flush the plate with it; pour this ofi' into 
a glass, and add to it from i gr. to 1 gr. of pyro- 
gallic acid, in solution, and pour it hack again on 
the plate. This picture will instantly appear, and 
the details may be allowed to come out well. The 
image will not be dark. 

3. Pour ofl' the alkaline pyro-solution, and 
gently wash the plate; add a few drops of citric 
acid ( 1 or two grs. of citric acid to the oz. of dis- 
tilled water) ; pour it over the plate, and run off; 
or pour an acid pyro-solution over the plate in- 
stead of acid solution alone. Again gently pour 
distilled water on the plate, and run it otF. 

4. It will be found to be convenient to dissolve 1 
dr. of pyrogallic acid in 1 oz. of alcohol, and to 
add to this 1 oz. of distilled water. Use 1 dr. 
graduate, and 16 minims of this solution will give 
1 gr. of pyrogallic acid ; also have a 2 oz. bottle 
of distilled water and dissolve in it 2 drs. of citrio 
acid; 8 minims of this will be 1 gr. of citric acid. 
Have also an oz. bottle of a 10 gr. solution of ni- 
trate of silver: and lastly, have at hand a pint 
bottle of distilled water, 1 or 2 glass oz. gradu- 
ates, and 3 or 4 developing-glasses, which hold 
about a fluidounce. 

5. The development of a plate is completed by 
solutions of i gr. to 1 gr. of pyrogallic acid, and 
1 gr. or more of citric acid to theoz. of water, and 
the addition of 1 drop to 3, 4, or more of the 10 
gr. nitrate of silver solution. If the picture is 
strongly out when the ammonia is washed ofi", let 
it be dosed with an excess of acid silver; if feeble, 
let an excess of pyrogallic acid be used. If there 
be a sign of fogging when pushing the develop- 
ment with an excess of nitrate of silver, immedi- 
ately pour off the developer, gently wash the plate 
and flush it with the 8 gr. bromide solution. The 
image, as it at first shows its strength or weak- 
ness, very soon teaches the manner in which the 
plate is to be dealt with. 

Lastly. Gently wash the plate, fix the image 
with a strong solution of hyposulphite of soda, 
and, when the picture is "cleared," wash it with 
distilled or common water, and dry it. 

The three steps which have made the tannin 
process of Major Russell simple, clean, and cer- 
tain, are: First, the use of the bromide bath; 
second, the use of the tannin bath, and third, the 
use of the acid solution, either alone or mixed 
with pyrogallic acid, after the alkaline solution of 
carbonate of ammonia has been washed off, not 
forgetting the mixture of some alcohol with the 
first application of water to the film on the de- 
velopment. 



FOTHERGILL'S DRY PROCESS. 

The directions for coating and dipping in the 
bath are the same as for "Russell's Process." 
After removing the stereoscopic plate from the 
nitrate bath, stand it vertically on blotting paper 
and allow it to drain as long as it would be re- 
quired for a wet plate, wiping the back mea-whUe 
in the usual manner. 

Then take it in the left hand, either by one 
corner or with the pneumatic holder, and having 



taupenot's and the wothlytype processes. 



415 



arransrerl the yellow light ?o that it falls nicely 
upon the surface of the film, hold it quite level 
and p')ur on i oz. of water, waving it backwards 
and forwards. It should not be poured on entirely 
at one spot, or too much of the nitrate of silver 
would be displaced, producing a circular mark of 
imperfect development. As, however, a vacant 
space of a quarter of an inch in breadth is usually 
allowed at each end of a stereoscopic plate, this 
will be found convenient for pouring on the water, 
which must he allowed to run into each corner 
until greasiness has disappeared. It will proba- 
bly touch the fingers by which the plate is held, 
and when they are not scrupulously clean, stains 
will, in consequence, result. After pouring away 
the water i which ought then to measure at least .3 
drs. if the operation was well performed), drain the 
plate for an instant, and it will be ready for the 
albumen. 

The Albumen S'llittion. 

Take the white of a fresh egg and add to it 1 
o«. of distilled water with 3 drops of strons am- 
monia. Shake for 10 minutes in a bottle, and 
pour out the liquid on a filter previously wetted. 

Apply the filtered albumen twice or thrice to 
the film in the same manner as collodion. Then 
pour water over the plate for a minute, in order 
to remove the excess of albumen, and afterwards 
rear the glass on end to drain upon blotting paper. 
When the plates are perfectly dry they are ready 
for exposure. 

Development. 

This process is not quick as regards develop- 
ment. When pyrogallic acid is used, each drachm 
of the liquid is previously mixed with about 5 
minims of a solution of nitrate of silver, contain- 
ing 20 grains to the oz. of water. The film is 
wetted and the mixed developer poured on and 
off from a glass measure. 

Fix with hyposulphite of soda. 

TAUPENOT'S COLLODIO-ALBUMEN PRO- 
CESS. 
Cleaning the Glasses. 

This part of the process must be conducted 
with care. 

Sensitizing and Washing. 

Employ 2 nitrate baths in this psocess, one for 
the collodion and the other for the second film, 
viz. the albumen. The albumen nitrate bath 
must contain free acetic acid, and therefore if one 
solution be employed for both films it should be a 
bath of aeeto-nitrate. 

Sensitize the C(dlodion in the ordinary way, 
Holding it rather longer than usual before dipping. 

Having arranged 2 dishes of common water, 
eide by side, lay the plate face uppermost in the 
first dish, and wave the water backwards and for- 
wards for about 30 seconds. Then put the plate 
into the second dish and leave it whilst another 
glass is being coated and immersed in the sensitiz- 
ing bath. Now drain plate No. 1 closely on blot- 
ting-paper, and it will be ready for the iodized 
albumen. Plate No. 2 remains in the sensitizing 
bath until the first glass has been roated with al- 
bumen and placed to dry. 

Preparation of the Iodized Albumen. 

Take of albumen, 3 oz.; distilled water, 1 oz. ; 
strong ammonia, 10 minims; iodide of potassium, 
10 grs. ; bromide of ammonium, 10 grs. 

First mix the ammonia and the water, then add 
the other ingredients and shake together in a bot- 
tle. Ii'dide of ammonium may be advantageously 
ased. 

To Apply the Albumen. 
For a stereoscopic size, measure out 1 di. of 



the albumen and pour it on and off twice to dis- 
place the surface water of the washed collodion 
film. Then applj' a second quantity. 

Stand the albuminized plates vertically on blot- 
ting-paper to drain and dry. 

The Aceto-nitrate Bath. 

Take an ordinary collodion negative bath and 
add to each fluidounce 30 minims of glacial acetic 
acid, keep it in glass or gutta pereha and continue 
to use it until it has become blackened by the ac- 
tion of the albumen. The filui of albumen must 
be rendered quite dry by holding it to the fire 
before it is dipped in the aceto-nitrate bath. Leave 
them in the bath any time between 30 seconds 
and 2 minutes, and then remove the wash with 
water. Use two dishes for washing and allow 20 
or 30 seconds in each dish ; then rear up again to 
dry, and the plates will be ready for exposure. 
Artificial heat may be used with advantage. 

The most successful operators in Taupenot's 
process give a very long exposure. 

Development. 

Prepare a saturated solution of gallic acid in 
distilled water, adding 4 grs. to each oz. Fil- 
ter this developer through paper. 

The solution of nitrate of silver for use with the 
gallic acid may be made of the strength of 20 grs. 
to the ounce. 

Add 15 minims to 1 oz. of gallic acid solution. 
Previous to the application of the developer the 
surface of the film must be moistened with water. 

From half an hour to an hour must be allowed 
for the full development with gallic acid. F.« 
with a saturated solution of hyposulphite. 



PICTURES ON PORCELAIN. 

The plates for these pictures are sold as potiee- 
lain, but are really an opaque white glass. The 
plate is coated with collodion, rendered sensitive 
in the usual way, and the image received from a 
negative adjusted as follows : 

The negative is placed at one end of a box, the 
other end of which joins the front end of a camera 
having a quarter tube. The object of this box is 
to cut off extraneous light. The negative is placed 
toward the sun, or a piece of white paper placed 
in the sun. The image formed by the negative is 
focussed on the ground glass of the camera, in the 
usual manner. The box in front should admit of 
being varied in length, in order to alter the size 
of the picture, by changing the distance of the 
negative from the lens. 

The white sensitive plate is then exposed and 
developed with the ordinary iron developer. After 
washing off with the developer, fix with a weak 
solution of cyanide of potassium. 

The picture requires to be darkened with a weak 
solution of bichloride of mercury, chloride of gold, 
or chloride of platinum. As soon as the picture 
appears of the proper shade arrest the action of 
the strenghthening agent, by washing the plate 
under a copious stream of water. 



THE WOTHLYTYPE PROCESS. 
I. To Prepare the Uranic Salt. 
Dissolve the ordinary commercial nitrate of ura- 
nium in distilled water; add ammonia till no more 
precipitate is formed. This precipitate is uranate 
of ammonia, insoluble in water. Wash in several 
waters, and then redissolve in nitric acid. The 
solution, crystallized and dried over a water-bath, 
constitutes the " uranammonium nitrium" of the 
specification, and is probably a double salt of ura- 
nium and ammonia. If it be ^ery acid, dibsclve 
in distilled water and again crystailize. 



416 



PHOTOGRAPHY, 



II. The Seiisifiztnf/ Liquor. 

To a saturated solution of the above salt in 6 oz. 
of distilled water add 220 grs. of nitrate of silver, 
previously dissolved in 1 oz. of distilled water, 
and intimately mix. This mixture, when crystal- 
lized over a water-bath, is the salt used to sensi- 
• tize the collodion. It may be kept in a bottle, but 
not necessarily in a dark place, because it is only 
sensitive to light when brought into contact with 
organic substances. 

Dissolve 3 oz. of this salt in 10 oz. of alcohol, to 
which 5 drs. of distilled water and a few drops of 
nitric acid have been added. This is the sensi- 
tizing liquor, and does not require to be kept in 
the dark. 

III. Preparation of the Resinized CoUndion, 

The collodion may be the ordinary plain prepa- 
ration, containing about 5i grs. pyroxyline (not 
powdery) to the ounce of ether and alcohol, mixed 
in the proportion of 6 to 2 ; but, in order to give 
it an organic reaction with the sensitizing salt, it 
is necessary to add to each pint of the collodion 
about 10 drops of so-called " harz oel," which is 
thus prepared : Take equal parts of castor oil and 
Canada balsam ; dissolve the latter in sufficient 
ether to enable it, when mixed with the castor oil, 
to pass through a filter. After filtration, evapo- 
rate the mixture over a water-bath till it is of the 
ordinary consistence of a fatty oil. The collodion 
is now ready for being sensitized. 

IV. To Sensitize the Resinized Collodion. 

To every 3 oz. of the collodion thus prepared 
add from 1 to IJ oz. of the sensitizing solution, 
■with a few drops of nitric acid, and intimately 
mix. The collodion is now sensitive to light, and 
must be kept in the dark. 

V. Sizing of the Paper. 

This is an important preliminary to prevent the 
image from sinking into the body of the paper. 
It is effected either by a tolerably strong solution 
of starch, Iceland or Irish moss, beaten up with 
about one-eighth its bulk of albumen and a fevr 
grains of acetate of lead. The paper may be 
floated on this in the usual way, and when dry is 
ready for the reception of the sensitive collodion. 
VI. Applying the Collodion. 

The paper is pinned down by 3 of its corners to 
a flat board, a little larger than the sheet to be 
coUodionized. The collodion is poured on in the 
usual way, and the excess run off at the unpinned 
corner into the stock-bottle. This may be done 
with great deliberation, and more may be poured 
on to any part, where there is a deficiency, with- 
out much chance of its running in ridges, as would 
inevitably be the case if a glass plate were so 
treated. Hang up to dry in a dark room, and it 
is fit for the printing-frame. 

VII. P reliminary Fixing. 

When the picture is printed to the proper 
strength, that is to say, to the depth which it is 
wished finally to retain — for uranic-developed pic- 
tures lose very slightly in the toning and fixing 
process — place it in a bath containing distilled 
water 40 oz., acetic acid 1 oz., and hydrochloric 
acid 1 oz., for the space of 10 minutes. The ob- 
ject of this bath is to remove the uranic salts in- 
soluble in water. The prints are afterwards washed 
in several waters before being placed in the toning 
solution. 

VIII. Toning the Pictures. 

The ordinary alkaline gold-bath answers very 
satisfactorily, and tones uranic prints much more 
rapidly than similar prints on chlorized paper. 
IX. Fixing the Proofs, 

If the picture be toned in hyposulphite of soda 
and gold no further fixing will be necessary j but 



if in the usual alkaline gold-bath, they will hare 
to pass through a hyposulphite or sulphocyanide 
solution, to remove the silver salts insoluble in 
water. When thoroughly washed the process is 
complete. 



PHOTOGRAPHY WITHOUT A NITRATE OP 

SILVER BATH. (Sayce's process.) 

Preparation of Collodion, 

Take of bromide of cadmium, 6 grs. ; bromide 
of ammonium, 2 grs. ; soluble cotton, 6 grs. ; ether 
and alcohol, each, i oz. Mix, and after standing 
a week, filter. Then take 12 grs. cryst. nitrate 
of silver, in fine powder; add to it a drop or two 
of water, so as to produce a kind of jiulp. Then 
in a chemically dark room, mix the collodion and 
silver, stirring as the mixture is poured into the 
bottle intended for its reception. Then shake up 
well, and allow it to stand. 

To use the Collodion in the Wet State. 

Take perfectly clean plate - glass, free from 
scratches; tip the edges for J of an inch with 
a solution of 1 gr. of India-rubber in 1 oz. of 
benzine. Then coat with the collodio-bromide of 
silver, allow it to set the usual time, and place it 
in a dish of water until the greasy appearance 
has vanished. Warm water is preferable when it 
can be procured. When the water flows freely 
over the film, take the plate out of the dish, wipe 
the back, and drain for a moment upon a piece of 
blotting-paper. Then place in the dark slide for 
exposure in the camera. Expose a little lunger 
than wet collodion, with the nitrate-bath. Wet 
the film with a little water, and pour over it pro- 
tosulphate of iron, 25 grs. ; glacial acetic acid, 
25 minims; water, 1 oz. To 3 drs. of which, 2 
drops of a 20 gr. solution of nitrate of silver. 
Fix with cyanide of potassium, 20 grs. to the oz. 
Intensification may be accomplished by any of 
the means adapted to wet plates. 

To use the Collodio-Bromide in the Preparation of 
Tannin Plates. 

Coat the plates as directed in the last paragraph, 
and place them in a tank of water. Take the 
plates out of the tank in rotation, and place them 
in water as hot as the hand can bear, for about 
30 seconds, and then into a bath of tannin solu- 
tion of 15 grs. to the ounce of water well filtered. 
The following tannin solution is preferable: Tan- 
nin, 10 grs. ; gallic acid, 5 grs. ; water, 1 oz. ; grape 
sugar, 5 grs.; alcohol, 10 minims. Dissolve the 
tannin in a portion of the water and filter ; dis- 
solve the gallic acid in another portion by the aid 
of heat, and filter; qiix the two, add the grape 
sugar, and when dissolved, filter; then add the 
alcohol. If the plate be allowed to remain in the 
above solution three minutes, and is properly ex- 
posed, very little intensification will be necessary. 
Dry the plates evenly and quickly, and expose 
about half the usual time. 

Development of the Dry Plates. 

Prepare the following solutions : 1. Alcohol and 
water, each, i oz. 

2. Carbonate of ammonia, 40 grs. to water, 20 OJ. 

3. Pyrogallic acid, 96 grs. to alcohol, 1 oz. 

4. Bromide of potassium, lOgrs. to water, 1 oz. 

5. Nitrate of silver, 30 grs. ; citric acid, 15 grs.; 
distilled water, 1 oz. 

Pour over the dry plate once or twice, enough 
of No. 1 to cover it, and return to the bottle for 
use in the next plate. Then place the plate in a 
dish of water until the greasy appearance has 
vanished. Then pour evenly, enough of No. 2 
with a few drops of No. 3 and owo drops of No. 4 
added, and wave to and fro with a rocking motion. 



EECOVERY OF SILVER, GOLD, ETC. 



417 



The image should very soon appear, and may 
be developed until the shadows become slightly 
tinged. Then wash the surface and back of the 
plate freely with water, and rinse with a little very 
dilute acetic acid; say 2 drops of glacial acid to 
the ounce. Wash again, and if any intensification 
is lequired, it may be accomplished by adding to 
2 dr?. of water 3 drops of No. 3 and 3 of No. 5 
solution. When dense enough, wash and fix with 
o^raDide, 20 grs. to the ounce of water. 



FAILURES AND IMPERFECTIONS. 
On Glnas. 

1. Universal clotiding from over exposure or 
diffused light in preparation or development of 
the plate, or alkalinity of the bath, or too much 
nitric acid i"^ bath, or organic matter in the bath, 
or the use tx colorless collodion; also vapors of 
ammonia or sulphuretted hydrogen. Such nega- 
tives may sometimes be recovered by the applica- 
tion of a weak solution of iodine, followed by 
hyposulphite of soda. 

2. Spots upon the plate from excess of bromide 
of potassium in the collodion, impure nitrate of 
silver in the bath, super-saturation of the bath 
with iodide of silver, dust upon the glass or coat- 
ing, the concentration of nitrate of silver by dry- 
ing before exposure. 

3. Curtnin-like marJcs upon the edge, from the 
plate being too dry before dipping, not long enough 
in the bath to remove the greasy appearance. 

4. Wary lines, from the use of a glutinous, thick 
collodion from want of rocking when pouring off 
the collodion (common with cadmium sensitigus). 

5. Rottenness of film, from bad cotton or dipping 
too soon after proving before properly set. 

6. Oily lines, from the removal from the bath 
too soon. 

7. Curved lines, from the developer not covering 
the whole plate immediately. 

8. Silver stains, from reversing the plate be- 
tween the bath and slide. 

9. Yelloio patches, imperfect removal of the 
iodide of silver in the fixing bath. 

10. .S'ciiw upon the surface upon removal from 
the bath, over iodized collodion. 

11. Image black and white without half tones, 
from under-exposure in the camera. 

12. Collodion curls from the glass upon drying, 
from dirty glass, insufficient alcohol in the collo- 
dion, want of roughness of the edges of the glass. 

13. Blueness of film, want of iodizer in collodion. 

14. Crystals on film when dried, hyposulphite 
Bot washed entirely out. 

15. Developer flows greasily, from want of al- 
oohol in developer. 

16. Circular transparent spots of large size, from 
pouring on the developer at one place. 

On Paper. 

1. Marbling and spots, from weak nitrate-bath. 

2. Marbling after toning, from the prints over- 
lying each other. 

3. Sitots by transmitted light, from imperfect 
removal of the silver salt. 

4. Cold and faded appearance, from weakness 
•f bath or excess of chloride in paper. 

5. Yellowness, from acidity of bath. 

6. Bronzing of deep shadows, negative is too 
transparent. 



RECOVERY OF SILVER AND GOLD FROM 

WASTE SOLUTIONS. 

Baths of Nitrate. 

Throw down the silver as a chloride by muriatic 

acid ; settle, pour off the clear part, and wash the 

precipitate; place the chloride in a dish, together 

27 



with some bars of zinc, and pour over it sulphuric 
acid largely diluted with water (1 of acid to 60 of 
water). As soon as it ceases to give off gas add 
more acid until the zinc is entirely dissolved. 
Should any chloride remain add more zino and 
acid. The gray powder is metallic silver, and 
may be run into an ingot in a crucible by mixing 
with twice its weight of carbonate of soda or borax. 

Hyposulphite Baths. 
Boil for several hours with a suspended bar of 
zinc, filter out the precipitate, and fuse with car- 
bonate of soda or borax. The button contains 
silver and gold if the solution has been used to tone 
and fix prints. 

Toning Baths (Alkaline). 

Add a solution of sulphate of iron, filter out and 
wash the precipitate; digest with diluted nitric 
acid for several hours; filter out the residue, which 
is metallic gold. 

All waste solutions, containing silver, in the labo- 
ratory should be run into a large vessel, and acid- 
ulated with muriatic acid every evening, and the 
clear liquid siphoned off in the morning; the pre- 
cipitates will be principally chloride of silver, and 
when enough has accumulated it should be removed 
from the vessel, and reduced, as advised for baths 
of nitrate of silver. 

Paper Clippings. 

The clippings of sensitized paper should be pre- 
served, and when a quantity has accumulated 
burned to ashes; the ashes to be in a crucible, 
mixed with twice their weight of a mixture of car- 
bonate of soda and borax. If carefully brought to 
a full red heat, and allowed to cool, the silver will 
be found collected into an ingot at the bottom of 
the crucible. It is best to trim the prints before 
washing or toning, but the whole of the cuttings 
are worth saving. 

Removal of Silver Stains. 

1. By rubbing with a moistened lump of cya- 
nide of potassium, and washing freely with water. 
This mode is dangerous, on account of the highly 
poisonous nature of the cyanide. 

2. By rubbing the spot with moistened iodide 
of potassium, then with diluted nitric acid, and 
then with hyposulphite of soda, and washing with 
water. 

3. Apply a paste of chloride of lime for a few 
minutes, wash thoroughly with water; rub with 
moistened iodide of potassium, and dissolve out 
the iodide of silver formed by hyposulphite of 
soda. 

4. For Linen or other Fabrics. — Rub with solu- 
tion : Cyanide of potassium, 100 grs.; iodine, 10 
grs.; water, 1 oz.; (very poisonous;) and wash 
with large amount of water. 



TOOVELY'S (PATENT) PHOTOLITHOGRA- 
PHIC PROCESS. 
From a negative on glass or paper a positive 
impression is taken on paper prepared in the fol- 
lowing manner: Take sized paper, very smooth 
and even in texture, which coat with a solution of 
gum Arabic in pure water, saturated with bichro- 
mate of potash ; it is known that bichromate of 
potash, in combination with an organic substance, 
such as gum, gelatine and starch, becomes insolu- 
ble in water after a certain exposure to light. The 
paper, prepared as above, is then exposed to light 
behind a negative, and when the photographic 
image is sufficiently developed, such parts of the 
gum impregnated with bichromate of potash as 
receive the ra3's of light become insoluble, or 
partly so, exactly according to the gradation of 



418 



PHOTOGRAPHY. 



tone in the negative employed. The s leet of pre- 
pared paper, with the photographic image thus 
printed, is placed face downwards on a lithogra- 
phic stone, grained very fine, or polished accord- 
ing to the nature of the image to be reproduced, 
and previously arranged in a percussion-press (it 
can be dime in a lithographic press, but the result 
is uncertain). Place several sheets of damped 
paper upon the stone over the photographic proof, 
and apply a heavy pressure ; the water contained 
in the damp paper is pressed through the photo- 
graphic proof, and dissolves the parts of gum re- 
maining at liberty; the dissolved gum attaches 
itself to the surface of the stone. When the stone 
has reniiiined a certain length of time in the press, 
sufficient to allow the small quantity of soluble 
gum in the dark shadows to attach itself to the 
surface of the stone remove the pressure, and 
withdraw the photographic pmof carefully from 
the stone; a negative image is then visible in gum 
on the stone, with all the gradations of tone. Dry 
the stone, either spontaneously or by gently warm- 
ing it; when well dried, cover the whole surface 
of the stone with greasy ink, which may be ap- 
plied with a roller or otherwise ; the greasy ink is 
thus brought into contact with all the parts of the 
stone untouched by gum; the conting of ink is 
then removed by passing through the lithographic 
press, by spirits of turpentine or otherwise, and all 
the gum removed from the surface by washing. 
The stone is then rolled in with ordinary print- 
ing-ink, and the positive image appears in black ; 
it is then printed as every lithogrnphic drawing, 
but has the great peculiarity of requiring no etch- 
ing, the gum having so far penetrated by pressure 
into the substance of the stone as to allow of a 
great number of impressions being taken off. Gum 
Arabic is preferable, but similar substances can be 
used instead, such as gelatine, dextrine, and mu- 
oilaginous solutions. 

In photozincography proceed as above de- 
scribed, substituting a zinc plnte for a lithogra- 
phic stone. 

In photographic engraving on copper, steel or 
other metal plates, the preliminary operations are 
the same as those employed for stone or zinc, ex- 
cepting that a positive image on glass or paper 
should, in the first instance, be used instead of a 
negative. When the plate is withdrawn from the 
press, and the photographic proof detached from 
it, it should be well dried for the stone. The 
plate is then covered with a thin coating of var- 
nish, and when dry may be soaked in water to re- 
move the gum, or immediately plunged in a weak 
solution of acid, and etched in the usual way of 
etching on steel or copper. 

Wherever the plate is protected from the var- 
nish by the gum it will be attacked by the acid, 
and an engraving is produced, which is then 
jjrinted as an ordinary etching on metal plate. 



OS'BORNE'S (PATENT) PHOTOLITHOGRA- 
PHIC PROCESS. 
Let us suppose that a map has been compiled 
and drawn with great care, and that it is desired 
to multiply copies of this original in the litho- 
graphic process. The first step in the process is 
to obtain a negative; for which purpose the map 
is placed upright upon a plane-board, and the 
camera opposite to it at such a distance as to give 
the de.<ired ratio between original and copy. A 
negative is now taken on glass coated with collo- 
dion in the usual way, observing the greatest 
care to avoid distortion of all kinds, and to pro- 
duce a negative of the highest excellence, success 
■in which depends entirely upon the knowledge, 



judgment and experience of the operator. A 
sheet of plain, positive photographic paper is now 
coated on one side with a mixture, consisting of 
gelatine, softened and dissolved in water, to which 
a quantity of bichromate of potash and albumen 
has been added. The paper, evenly covered with 
this fluid, is dried in the dark, when it will be 
found possessed of a smooth glassy surface, and a 
bright yellow color. This surface is still further 
improved by passing it through the press in con- 
tact with a polished plate. 

A suitable piece of positive photolithogrnphio 
paper thus manufactured is now to be exposed to 
the action of the light under the negative of the 
map already described. This is accomplished in an 
ordinary pressure-frame, the time required vary- 
ing from 10 to 16 seconds, or several minutes, ac- 
cording to the brightness of the weather. The 
positive thus obtained presents itself to the eye as 
a brown drawing upon the clear yellow of the 
sheet. 

The exposed photographic copy of the original 
is covered all over, while dry, with transfer-ink, 
which is accomplished by running it through the 
press with its face in contact with a stone which 
has already received a coating of such ink. After 
it is separated from the bl.ickened stone it will be 
found to have brought awaj' with it an evenly dis- 
tributed film of inky matter, forced by the pres- 
sure into intimate contact with the unexposed, aa 
well as the exposed portion of the surface. This 
operation is known as "blacking" the positive 
print; that now to be described is called "coagu- 
lation," its object being to effect a change of that 
nature upon the albumen contained in the coating 
of the organic matter. For this purpose moisture 
and heat are necessary, and both are applied very 
simply, by letting the blackened photographic 
copy swim upon the surface of boiling water with 
its inky side upwards, for it is important not to 
wet that with hot water. After the lapse of a cer- 
tain period, determined by the experience of the 
operator, he proceeds to the next step in the pro- 
cess, that of " washing off." For this purpose the 
print is laid upon a smooth surface, such as a 
plate of glass or porcelain, and friction with a wet 
sponge, or other suitable material, is applied to 
the black inky coating, under which the photogra- 
phic image still exists, and to develop which is 
now the object in view. The operator soon be- 
comes aware that the moisture which percolated 
through the paper from the back, has exerted a 
softened or gelatinizing influence upon the gela- 
tine in the sensitive coating; it has caused it to 
swell, and to let go its hold upon the ink. But 
this change does not extend to those parts of the 
coating which were acted on by light; in other 
words, to those places which were unprotected by 
the opacity of the negative; ihej' remain intact, 
uninfluenced by the solvent or moistening efTect 
of the water. Accordingly the operator finds a 
fac-simile of the original map gradually develop 
under his hand as he continues the friction. This 
process is proceeded with until all traces of ink are 
removed, save those required to form the picture, 
which must be clear and distinct in all its details. 
Abundance of hot water is then poured over it, so 
as to remove every particle of soluble matter, and 
it is then finally dried, which completes its prepa- 
ration. 

A stone to which a fine smooth surface has been 
imparted, is now slightly warmed, and put in the 
lithographic press; upon this is placed (inverted) 
the positive print, after it has been dam|ied by 
lying between moist paper, and the whole is then 
passed repeatedly through the press. On exami- 
nation the paper will now be found to have at- 



ENGRAVING. 



419 



tached itself firmly to the st'>ne. so that some j 
for<:e is required to separate the two. When the 
former is removed it brings with it its albuminous 
coating, which give^ t-t it while damp a parchment- > 
like appearance ; but the ink is gone : it has left 
the paper for the stone, and un the latter we find 
a reversed drawing of the map. one which, alter i 
it has been properly ''prepared," will print aa well 
a: if it had been drawn by hand. i 



PRETSCH'S PROCESS OF PBOTO-GALVAy- 
OGRAPHY. ! 

Take a plate of glass, «nd spread on it ordinary 
glue, to which bichromate of potash and a small 
quantity of nitrate of silver has been added. For 
initance, take 2 or 3 solutions of glne. into one uf 
which put a little nitrate of silver, into another 
bichromate of potash, and into another ii^dide of 
potassium. The silver and the iodide are for the 
purpose of producing a little iodide of silver on 
the sensitive film, so as to produce on the picture 
that grain which is necessary forhuiding the ink 
in the process of printing. Take the photographic 
picture obtained by any of the CJit.jmary pro- 
eesaes, and place it on the seasitive pLate thus 



prepared and exposed to the action of the light. 
In the course of a short time (all tho3>e p.rts 
which are dark in the photograph, protecting tb« 
plate from change, and all thi>s<^ which are whiter 
allowing the sunlight freely to pass through and 
the ch^inge to take placcy, we have a combinati«> 
of bichromate of potash and gelatine in two dif- 
ferent states, one soluble and the other 'istjlnble. 
Consequecitly. when the plate is then put into water 
all the parts which remain soluble are di<<<iived 
out, whilst the other parts remain as they were, 
and we have the picture produced not only in dif> 
ferent lights and shades, but al.-^ in different 
depths, the solution being eaten into by the pro* 
cess. When the plate is prepared to this point, 
there is poured apon it a preparation of gutt*- 
pereha, which, being kept under pressure for s 
short time, receives the reverse image of the pho- 
tographic picture. This is now prepared for the 
Voltaic battery by being simply rabbed over witk 
fine black lead, and it being placed in connection 
with the trough. c--pper is precipitated on the 
plate, which receives an image the reverse of tha 
mouid. Then by the ordinary electrotype proceaa 
another plate may be obtain^ from which copies 
may be printed. 



E:>^ORA^A^i>r<:>. 



The different modea of engraving are the fvl- 
lowLng : 

1. In strokes oit throogh a thin wax, laid op : - 
the plate, with a point, and these stroked bitten 
eorroded into the plate with acid. This is caL^ 
etdkimg. 

2. b strokes with the gravo' alone, njiassistr 
by acid. In this instance, tb« design h - 
with a sharp tooL called a drj poimty o : 
plate, and the strokes are eat or ploughed c: 
copper with an inatrament dirtingnished by iiic 
name of a ^roser. 

3. In nMasotinto, which is performed by a dark 
gronnd raised nnifoi^y npon the plate with a 
toothed tooL 

4. In a4}antinta, the tmtfine is first et/died, and 
afte>wards a sert of wa^ is laid by the acid 
vpoa the plate, reacablmg drawings in Indian- 
ink, bistre, etc. 

&. On wood. 
6. Lithography. 

Stdiing is a Method of vorkiag vm tapfer or 
steel, wherein the lines or strokes, instead af be- 
ing cat with a graver, are eataa witk aead. 
MmterimU,eie. 

The principal Materials fitr this art are^ the 
copper or steel-plate, hard and soft groand (the 
first for winter, ami the other Cir ssHaer), a 
dabber, tnrpeatine-Tainish, liMphlark. soft wax, 
aad aqna-fartis. 

The took are an aQ-raUKr, a hnrniThfr, a 
aeraper^ a hand-riec^ etrhing-boards, etching- 
needle^ an ail atone, and a parallel rafar. 



'.ity. In producing a plate 

;ai'".'Df with tfac graver, etch- 

--•>ding with 

ved.^ This 



LDfE EXGRAYlJrG. 

So railed heeaose the i«snlt _ ^ ^ 

hination of line^ of rarioas siaee, foras, lengths 
and textnres, is the boot beaatifnl and nacfni 
style of Mahiplying copies of weeks of art. AB 
•tker Bodes are «a^ eSvts at leaaeaing eoal^ Bot 



tiuas iw iiunkaa &^ 
ent into the nMtal 
biitoi with aeid an : 
of the graver, that .-. 
Banipolatioa beat ea . 
architeetnre, anima. - 
point with which tbe - 
the Manner of 
doB and dis{: 
not Rsalt frbiL. 
barnisfaer is i. ■ 
use of this in-' 
tendonesB wh 
engraving, is 
pally nsed to :'- 
Crom the barr. 
their appBeati r. 
tAatofengr^ 
doM aaed, bo: 
eept in ao fitr : 
applicable to buiu. Aw 
tcr is the Modiom of eorr 
lated with ace- 
steeL nepi 
tninedof the- 



l8< 

tna, 3 parts: 
wax in proftor' 
thoraagUy m^ 
and wMk into 



420 



ENGRAVING. 



Liquid Ground. 
Take a ball of etching ground, break it into 
pieces of convenient size, place them in a liottle, 
•nd pour on sulphuric ether. If too thick, add 
ether; if too thin, take the cork out until it evap- 
orates to proper consistency. 

To Lay a Solid Ground, 
Put a ball of ground into a piece of silk; make 
a dabber with a circular piece of pasteboard from 
2 to 3 in. in diameter, and a pad of wadding on 
•ne surface about 1 inch in thickness, tied in a 
piece of kid-skin or good smooth silk, disposed 
evenly over this on the under side. Clean the 
surface of the plate thoroughly with whiting or 
air-slaked lime; attach in hand-vice; heat the 
plate until hot enough to boil spittle on the back ; 
rub the ground evenly over the surface required, 
and use the dabber to distribute it smoothly. If 
the plate has cooled, heat again to former temper- 
ature, then turning the ground downwards, with 
a lighted candle or taper moved slowly back and 
forth, as near the surface as may be without 
touching the ground with the wick, smoke it till 
BufiBciently black. Carefully avoid dust during 
the whole operation. 

To lay Liquid Ground. 
Clean the surface of the plate, first with tur- 
pentine, then a clean rag and whiting; take an 
ordinary etching dabber, or make a small ball 
with raw cotton, cover it with a piece of silk vel- 
vet, carefully drawn tight to avoid creases, then 
dip the dabber in the liquid or pour it on the plate 
>nd draw and streak it quickly and evenly; the 
evaporation of the ether leaves a clear, firm 
ground. 

To Transfer the Outline to the Surface. 
Various plans are used. If the design to be 
copied be the size to engrave, the outline may be 
traced with a pencil on a piece of oil-paper laid 
over it. This tracing may be transferred by lay- 
ing it upon the ground, and while damp passing 
it through the printing press with a piece of damp 
printing paper laid over it. It may also be retraced 
upon the ground by laying between the tracing 
and plate a piece of thin paper, coated on the un- 
der side with vermilion or black-lead, and going 
carefully over the outline with a blunt point, or 
lead-pencil. 

A better plan is to use gelatine paper. Trace 
the outline on this article with a sharp point, cut- 
ting into it; scrape off' the raised edges from the 
lines with a smooth scraper; then fill the cuts 
with vermilion or black-lead ; carefully wipe off 
the superfluous dust; lay in proper position, fix 
down with wax, and, while slightly damp, pass it 
through the printing press, or with the gelatine 
dry burnish over the back sufficiently firm to set 
off' the outline, taking care not to break the 
ground. The best and most recent mode is to get 
a daguerreotype of the design, the requisite size; 
eut cleanly and smoothly with a sharp point into 
the copper over all the outline; this done, remove 
all the raised edges with the scraper, and get an 
impression from the copper. While this is still 
damp place it on the ground and pass it through 
the press. If the impression has been taken with 
red ink, the outline will at once appear; if in 
black, pass a hair-pencil dipped in vermilion 
lightly over the ground, which must be first freed 
from damp, so that the vermilion may adhere 
only to the oil from the impression. 
Etching. 
Fix down with wax, strips of wood or leather 
about i in. thick upon the margin. The best and 
moBt useful point, is a good stub small round file. 



Set it true in a tube, such as are used for handles 
for parasols; grind off the cutting, and smooth on 
an oil-stone. The point must he sharpened by 
rolling It between the palms of the hands, keeping 
the point on the stone ; when once set, it can be 
easily put in order, by holding it in the right 
hand, and, while causing it to rotate between the 
thumb and second finger, draw it smoothlj' down 
upon a piece of fine emery paper until the point 
is perfectly round and sharp, extreme sharpness 
being unde.-irable. Hold the point nearly perpen- 
dicular between the finger and thumb, draw it 
without pressure, gently over the emery. The ex- 
amination of a good specimen of the art will give 
the best idea of the necessary width, style, etc. 
As a general rule, the more distant parts are 
etched close, and the space between the lines 
should increase, as the approach is made forward. 
Sufficient pressure must be e.xerted to cut well into 
the steel, yet not enough to impede an easy mo- 
tion. Cut with a steady and equal pressure, so 
that the lines may all present the same color to 
the eye, as all inequalities show when bitten. 
Biting Hard Steel. 
The etching completed, carefully cover the un- 
etched surface of the plate with stopping-out var- 
nish, composed of asphaltum dissolved in turpen- 
tine, or gum resins, or good sealing-wax, dissolved 
in alcohol. When dry, form a well around the 
work, of walling wax, composed of beeswax and 
burgundy pitch, equal parts dissolved together. 
Make a convenient spout by which to pour off the 
acid. The best acid for biting the steel in ordi- 
nary use is the commercial nitric, 1 part; acetic, 3 
parts. For delicate tints, such as skies, distances, 
etc., this mixture may be diluted at pleasure with 
water to any extent, down to the sharpness of 
strong vinegar. Steel is acted upon by acid, with 
great rapidity as compared with copper; it must 
therefore be quickly put on, and quickly removed, 
and luke-warm water poured over the surface; 
blow dry with the bellows ; the operation is much 
facilitated by heating boih the plate and acid. 
Scrape off small portions of the ground on the 
lighter parts, to judge thereby of the quality of 
line, and stop out carefully all that may be con- 
sidered dark enough. Continue this process until 
the stronger portions assume sufficient color for 
the first biting. 

Biting Soft Steel. 
The use of acids even on hard steel is uncertain 
and precarious, much more so on soft or partially 
decarbonized; on such nitric acid being unsatis- 
factory, resort is had to other materials in search 
of that success denied to the ordinary means. 

1. Corrosive sublimate, J oz. ; alum, i oz. ; dis- 
solved in a pint of warm water, bites a fair line. 
Keep sweeping off the sediment deposited during 
the process, with a hair-pencil or feather. 

2. Spencer's, or magnetic acid; dissolve in i oz. 
of commercial nitric acid and the same quantity of 
water, and 1 oz. of fine silver. In the like propor- 
tions, of acid and water, dissolve 1 oz. of mercury. 
Then mix solution of silver and of mercury, each, 
1 part; water, 25 parts; solution of nitric acid, i 
part. 

This mixture bites very rapidly when once 
started ; it will, however, lie perfectly inactive un- 
til some one of the following plans is used. 1. Heat 
a steel point by rai)id friction or fire, and with it 
touch the steel through the acid and ground ; a 
black deposit at once forms; sweep it off with a 
feather. 2. With a strip of zinc polished at both 
ends, touch with one end the acid, and with the 
other, a clear piece of steel. 3. Wet a part of the 
surface of the plate with Spittle; this is a very 



ENGEAVING. 



421 



reaay means. 4. Dip a point in corrosive subli- 
mate ; this pressed into the steel will force action; 
or, 5. Put corrosive sublimate on for a moment, 
pour rapidly off, and as quickly put on the mag- 
netic acid. 

To Set and Use the Graver, 

Lay the sides, the angles of which form the 
belly, on the oil-stone; rub gently, taking care to 
keep the part flat upon the stone, until the edge is 
suflicietitly sharp ; then, with the handle of the 
graver in the hollow of the hand, and the fore- 
finger on the belly, hold it at an angle of about 30 
degrees, and rub the end till a good point is ob- 
tained. In euttiiiy, hold the handle of the graver 
in the hollow of the hand, and the graver, be- 
tween the forefinger and thumb, the plate lying 
solid upon the table, turning it as occasion may 
require. The outlines of figures are usually dotted 
in with the etching, slightly bitten, and stopped 
out, and the serious part of figure engraving now 
commences, by laying in the lines, according to 
the taste and skill of the workman, lightly at first, 
and gradually cutting deeper and broader into the 
darker parts. Sand-bags and oil-rubbers are ex- 
ploded institutions. 

Aquatint Engraving. 

Etch the outline; bite slightly in the distance 
andjight parts; more strongly those near at home. 
Clean the plate well to lay the ground, which is 
thus done: dissolve resin in proof alcohol; for 
distance, less resin is required. Increase the quan- 
tity for the nearest parts. Pour this mixture over 
the plate, run off the superfluous matter, and in 
drying it will form a granulation on the surface. 
This granulation is fine or coarse in proportion to 
the quantity, more or less, of resin contained in 
the alcohol. When the resin is in excess no granu- 
lation will form. Stop out, bite, and re-bite, as in 
etching. 



MEZZOTINTO ENGRAVING. 

So called from the circumstance that the sub- 
jects treated by this method in the earliest period 
after its invention, were such as admitted of a 
large amount of middle-tint or half-tone in the 
distribution of the masses of light and dark; it 
being then believed that such only were suited to 
this style of art. The process is of the utmost 
simplicity, and as the best general idea of it may 
be obtained from the anecdote related of what 
suggested the invention, it is perhaps advisable 
to begin by repeating the storj', whether founded 
on fact or not. 

Prince Rupert, to whom its origin is popu- 
larly attributed, is said to have taken the idea 
from observing a soldier in caiup polishing a rusty 
sword. The rust had been, on some parts of the 
blade, entirely removed, while on others it re- 
mained in all its original roughness, and in some 
portions the polishing was half done. This acci- 
dent suggested that a rapid and eflcctive style of 
engraving might result, if a metal plate were 
roughened all over its surface by some means, so 
that it would take secure hold of a coating of 
plate-printers' ink when applied, and then, being 
again removed by grinding, or scraping, or bur- 
nishing wherever the middle tints and lights of 
the picture required, would thus retain the prin- 
ters' ink just in proportion to the degree of such 
removal. Where the plate was polished bright, 
the ink would readily wipe clean away, and in 
printing leave the paper unstained, forming the 
high lights of the picture, while in the parts 
where the roughening was left the ink would 
refuse to wipe away, and thus would print the 
extreme darks of the picture. Such was the 



theory framed ; the result of experiment proved it 
to have been well founded, and mezzo-tinto, a com- 
pound Italian term, signifying middle-tint, took a 
permanent and respected position among the arts. 

So it is already seen that the operation of mez- 
zotinto engraving is exactly the reverse of every 
other kind, being from dark to light; as in draw- 
ing a picture by means of white chalk on black 
paper, or by taking a panel of light-colored wood, 
and having charred with fire the whole surface to 
blackness, scrape this away again in various de- 
grees of completeness in such manner as to present 
the lights and shadows of a picture. 

The contrivance first used for producing the 
roughened surface on the copper-plate, termed the 
mezzotinto ground, was a wooden roller, in which 
were securely fixed multitudes of steel points, 
sharp ends outwards. This was rolled over the 
plate with moderate pressure, backwards and for- 
wards in every direction, until no particle of the 
original polished surface remained unpunctured 
by a dot. But the difficulty presented itself of 
there being no means of sharpening the steel 
points when they broke off, or were worn dull by 
repeated use. Consequently there was substituted, 
in place of the roller, the instrument called the 
rocker, or cradle-tool, or more properly the ground- 
ing tool, which continues in use to the present 
day, notwithstanding its obvious imperfections, 
for it can easily be sharpened when dull, lasts a 
long time, and nothing better hag yet been 
thought of. 

The grounding tool is made in form like a broad 
chisel, two inches wide, cut all over one side with 
grooved straight lines parallel to each other, ex- 
actly equi-distant and of equal depth. These run 
lengthwise on the tool, so that when the end is 
sharpened to a bevel, they form a saw-like edge 
of teeth. The toothed edge being sharpened to a 
curved shape, the tool is held in a nearly upright 
position, its teeth resting on the plate, and is 
rocked from side to side, advancing forward with 
a slightly zigzag motion. The handle, attached 
to a shank at the uppe* end, is firmly grasped, 
the wrist being kept stiff. The elbow rests on the 
table as a pivot of the motion. Guide-lines are 
drawn on the plate with a pencil or charcoal 
against a ruler, parallel to each other, and not 
quite so wide apart as the breadth of the tool. 
The grounding tool is then held in the position 
described, not quite upright, but slightly inclined 
forwards, the middle of the tool midway between 
the lines, and the elbow in place so that an ima- 
ginary line between it and the tool is in the same 
direction as the pencil guide-lines on the plate. 
The rocking motion is then made with moderata 
pressure, stopping on each side as nearly on the 
guide-line as possible, great care being observed 
to avoid digging in the corner of the tool by rock- 
ing too wide a line, and also to avoid rocking re- 
peatedly in the same place, thus making a deep 
irremediable cut. Having continued this opera- 
tion until all the spaces between the lines have 
been rocked through, what is termed one way has 
been completed. Precisely the same operation i( 
repeated with the guide-lines in another direction, 
and then in another, and so on until a full black 
ground has been produced, which is when every 
particle of the original polish has dis^ippeared. 
It is well to make a scale to assist in varying the 
direction of the ways, such as a half circle of paper 
with lines drawn on it radiating to the circum- 
ference, like the spokes of awheel; the stiaight 
edge of the paper being laid against the edge of 
the plate, the ruler is laid against one of the lines 
as a guide for the direction about to be worked. 
The outline of the intended picture is then 



422 



ENGRAVING. 



made on the ground, either by sketching it deli- 
cately with the end of the burnisher, using it as 
a pencil, Jiided by division squares; or by trans- 
ferring -an outline previously drawn upon paper, 
on to the plate by means of the copper-plate roller 
press. The entire effect is next obtained by 
scraping away the ground to various degrees of 
lightness, scraping it entirely away only where 
the highest lights of the picture are, and leaving 
it totally unscraped only where the extreme darks 
are. All the sudden bright lights of the picture 
are made with the burnisher, and also the pure 
white lights are finished with it. The scraper 
used is a simple band of steel, about % of an inch 
wide, and not quite thin enough to spring or bend 
in using, sharpened lancet- like towards the end 
where it is applied to the plate, both edges being 
used. It is, when new, 4 or 5 inches long, and is 
employed without a handle. A correct judgment 
of the progress of the work can only be had by 
occasionally procuring a proof of the plate from 
the printer, during the progress. 

As the plate almost always yields an impression 
darker than would be expected, the engraver is 
not apt to scrape his tints too light, but if this 
should happen, the tint must be replaced by means 
of the grounding tool. To do this it is only 
necessary ti> lay what is termed a gauze ground 
over the part requiring renewal ; that is, a ground 
composed of but from five to seven crossings, sel- 
dom more. Then scrape away again delicately 
to the proper degree of lightness. If a light form 
should have been inadvertently extended too far 
over on to its adjoining tint, the defect may he 
corrected by puncturing a few rows of dots by 
means of the rulette, a tool resembling a horse- 
man's spur, only on a minute scale, and then deli- 
cately removing the burr raised with a very sharp 
scraper. 

The foregoing description is of mezzotinto pure 
and simple, but it has become the practice of late 
years to aid and support it largely by a foundation 
of etching, in lines and dots. This is all done on 
the plate before commencing the mezzotinto 
ground. The process is described under its pro- 
per head. The drawing of the outline on the 
plate with the burnisher is then rendered unne- 
cessary, as the etched forms are faintly visible 
through the ground. 

The field of application of this style of engrav- 
ing has been immensely widened since the intro- 
duction to the engravers' use of plates of annealed 
or softened steel, which occurred about the year 
1820, or a little earlier. Previous to that, co|)per 
had been the metal in use from the time of Tomaso 
Finiguerra, the Florentine goldsmith, who, in 
1460, invented the important art of plate-printing. 

Mezzotinto engraving was invented in the ear- 
lier part of the seventeenth century, most proba- 
bly by Ludwig von Siegen, an officer in the service 
of the Landgrave of Hesse. There is a portrait 
print by him in this style extant, of Amelia Eliz- 
abeth a, Princess of Hesse, dated 1643. 



TO ENGRAVE ON WOOD. 

The block is commonly made of pear-tree or 
box, and differs in thickness according to its size. 
The surface for the engraving is on the transverse 
section of the wood ; the subject is drawn upon it 
with a pen and Indian-ink, with all the finishing 
that is required to have in the impression. The 
Bpaces between the lines are cut away with knives, 
chisels, and gouges, leaving the lines that have 
been drawn with the ink. 

The taking impressions from blocks of wood 
differs from that of copper-plate in this, that in the 
latter they are delivered from the incision, while 



in the wooden blocks they are delivered from th« 
raised part. 

J'o Prepare Box-%eood for Engravhig. 

The wood being chosen, and cut into a proper 
form and size, it must be planed as evenly and truly 
as possible, and will be then ready to receive the 
drawing or chalking of the design to be engraved. 

Now take white-lead and temper it with water, 
by grinding; then spread it fir.*t thinly on the 
surface by a brush pencil, and afterwards rub it 
well with a fine linen rag, while yet wet, and when 
it is dry, brush off any loose or powdery part by 
a soft pencil. 

If the design be sketched on the wood by draw- 
ing, it may be done by Indian or common ink (but 
the first is far preferable), either by a pen or pen- 
cil, or by a black-lead pencil, though tliat scarcely 
marks strongly enough for finer work. 
Chill r' Oscnro, 

This method of engraving is performed with 
three blocks. The outline is cut in one, the deep 
shadows in a second, and the third gives a tint 
over the whole, except where the lights are cut 
away. These are substituted in their turn, each 
print receiving an impression from each block. 
This mode of engraving was designed to represent 
the drawings of the old masters. 

To Secure Capper-plates fro7n Corrosion.^ 

Take equal parts of wax and turi)entine and 
double the quantity of olive oil, with the same 
quantity of hog's lard. Melt the whole over the 
fire in an earthen vessel, taking care to mix the 
ingredients well, and leave them to boil some 
time, till they are well incorporated. 

The advantage of this mixture is, that it may 
at any time, being warmed, be put with the finger 
on the places desired to be covered; by which 
means the further operation of the aqun-fortis on 
such places may be instantly prevented without 
any other trouble or preparation, or without in- 
terrupting or delaying the principal operation. 

This mixture may be employed equally well 
with the hard as with the soft varnish. The in- 
tention of using such a composition is, if any 
scratches or false strokes happen in the etching 
they are to be stopped out with a hair-pencil dip- 
ped in this composition, mixed with lampblack, 
previously to laying on the aqua-fortis, or, as it is 
called, biting in. 

To Choose Copper for Engravhig. 

Plates intended for engraving ought to be of the 
best copper, which should be very malleable, firm, 
and with some degree of hardness, free from veins 
or specks. The redness of copper is a presumptive 
mark of its being good, but not an infallible one; 
for though it is, in general, a proof of the purity 
of the cui)per, yet it dues not evince that the qual- 
ities may not have been injured by too frequent 
fusion. 

Copper-plates may be had ready prepared in 
most large towns, but, when these cannot be had, 
procure a pretty thick sheet of copper, rather 
larger than the drawing, and let the brazier plan- 
ish it well; then take a piece of pumice-stone, 
and with water rub it all one way, till it becomes 
tolerably smooth and level. A piece of charcoal 
is next used with water for polishing it still far- 
ther, and removing the deep scratches made by 
the pumice-stone, and it is then finished with a 
piece of charcoal of a finer grain, with a little oil. 
To Etch upon Glass. 

Procure several thick, clear pieces of crown- 
glass, and immerse them in melted wax, so that 
each may receive a complete coating, or pour over 
them a solution of wax in benzine. WheQ per- 



ENGEAVING. 



423 



fectly cold draw on them, with a fine steel point, 
flowers, trees, hHU.«es, portraits, etc. Whatever 
parts of the ilrnwing are intended to be corroded 
with the ncid should be perfectly free from the 
least particle of wax. When all these drawings 
are tinisheil the pieces of glass must be iiniiiersed 
one by one in a square leaden box or receiver, 
where they are to be submitted to the action of 
hvdrofluoric acid gns, made by acting on pow- 
dere<l fluoi- s[)ar by concentrated sulphuric acid. 

When the glasses are sutficiently corroded they 
are to be taken out, and the wax is to lie removed 
by first dipping them in warm and then in hot 
water, or by washing with turpentine or benzine. 
Various colors miiy be applied to the corroded 
parts of the glass, whcrel)y a very fine painting 
Hiiiy be executed. In the same manner sentences 
and initials of mimes may be etched on wine- 
glasses, tumblers, etc. 

Another Method. 

Glass may also be etched by immersing it in 
liquid hydrofluoric acid, after having been coated 
with wa.x and drawn on, as in the last method. 
There is this difi"erence, however, in the use of the 
liquid and the gas, that the former renders the 
etching ti-niiKparent, whilst that produced by the 
gas is quite o/jnque. 

Jn this method the potassa of the glass is set 
free, whilst the sile.v or sand is acted on, conse- 
quently no vessel of glass can ever be employed 
with safety to contain this acid in a liquid state, 
as it would soon be corroded into holes. It is, 
therefore, generally preserved in leudeit bottles, 
on which it has no power to act. 

Glnss ill Imitation of Mnslln. 

This is a simple and ingenious means of giving 
to glass the appearance of delicately-wrought 
miislin. Tlie process, which comes to us from 
Germany, consists in spreading very smo(jtlily a 
piece of lace or tulle and covering it with some 
fatty substance b}' means of a printer's roller. 
The glass being carefully cleaned, the cloth is laid 
upon it so as to leave in fat a print on the surface 
of all the threads of the fabric. The glass is tlien 
exposed about 5 minutes to the vapors of hydro- 
fluoric acid, which roughens the spaces between 
the lines and leaves the polish on the surface 
under the fat. 

A glass thus prepared becomes like a veil, pro- 
tecting from exterior indiscretion persons who, 
from their apartment, desire to look cocimodiously 
outside. 

To Transfer Engravings to Glass. 

Fix the printed surface to the glass with ordi- 
nary paste. Etch with liquid hydrofluoric acid, 
S. g. ri4. At the enil of H or 4 minutes wash oif 
the paper, and the design will be found repro- 
duced upon the glass, the printers' ink having 
protected it. Mr. Napier, the patentee, prefers to 
have the glass ground enamelled or veneered be- 
forehanil, when the object stands out in relief. If 
the veneer or enamel is colored, of course the pic- 
ture remains colored, while the body of the glass 
ie white. 

To Engrave on Precious Stones. 

The first thing to be done in this branch of en- 
graving is to cement two rough diauionds to the 
ends of two sticks large enoifgh to hold them 
steady in the hand, and to rub or grind them 
again.st each other, till they be brought to the 
form desired. The dust or powder that is rubbed 
off serves afterwards to polish them, which is per- 
formed by a kind of mill that turns a wheel of 
Boft iron. The diamond is fixed in a brass dish, 
and, thus applied to the wheel, is covered with 



diamond dust, mixed up with oil of olives; and 
when the diamond is to be cut facet-wise, first one 
face and then another is a|)plied to the wheel. 
Rubies, sapphires, and topazes are cut and formed 
the same way on a copper wheel, and polished 
with tri|)oli diluted in water. Agates, amethysts, 
emeralds, hyacinths, granites, rubies, and others 
of the softer stones, are cut on a leaden wheel 
moistened with emery and water, and polished 
with tripoli (m a pewter wheel. Lapis-lazuli, opal, 
etc. are polished on a wooden wheel. 

To fashion and engrave vases of agate, crystal, 
lapis-lazuli, or the like, a kind of lathe is made 
use of, similar to that used by pewterers, to hold 
the vessels, which are to be wrought with proper 
tools. The engraver's lathe generally holds the 
toi)ls, which are turned by a wheel, and the vessel 
cut and engraved, either in relievo or otherwise, 
the tools being moistened from time to time with 
duimond dust and oil, or at least emery and water. 
To engrave figures or devices on any of these 
stones, when polished, such as medals, seals, etc., 
a little iron wheel is used, the ends of whose axis 
are received within two pieces of iron, placed up- 
right, as in the turner's lathe, and to be brought 
closer, or set further apart, at pleasure; at one end 
of the axis are fixed the proper tools, being kept 
tight by a screw. Lastly, the wheel is turned by 
the foot, and the stone applied by the hand to the 
tool, then shifted and conducted as occasion re- 
quires. 

The tools are generally of iron, and sometimes 
of brass. Tlieir form is various : some have small 
round heads, like buttons; others like ferrels, to 
take the pieces out, and others flat, etc. When 
the stone has been engraved it is polished on 
wheels of hair-brushes and tripoli. 



CLEANING AND PRESERVATION OF 
ENGRAVINGS. 

In commencing to restore an engraving, some 
attention must be given to the kind of injury it 
has suflered. A general brown color more or less 
deep, resulting from atmospheric action only, is 
the least possilde change. Spots and stains, caused 
by ink, colored fluids, oil or insects, must be first 
treated, and all pencil marks removed by India- 
rubber or bread-crumbs. A fluid acid, obtained 
by dissolving 1 oz. of crystals of oxalic acid in i 
pt. of warm water, may be used for application to 
all stains, and the pajier should be wet with it 
thoroughly where spots of any kind exist. 

Excepting in a few cases, this acid will not 
cause the removal of stains immediately, but 
generally it combines with the bases of them, and 
they are removed by subsequent steps; the thor- 
ough wetting should be done a few hours before 
proceeding to clean the engraving. The engrav- 
ing should be placed in a shallow tub or other 
vessel, and allowed to rest upon a piece of open 
cotton stuff, or millinet. This material of suitable 
dimensions, shuuld have 2 rods or sticks sewn to 
opposite edges. These sticks will hang over the 
sides of the vessel, and permit the prints to be 
withdrawn or moved without any risk of injury, 
and they should remain in soak with warm or coll 
water for 12 or 24 hours. When the prints no 
longer disculor the water on being agitated, the 
fluid should be withdrawn, and enough clean water 
added to cover them. Half a pound of chloride 
of lime should be made into a paste with cold 
water, and stirred up with 2 qts. of water, and 
allowed to settle for 6 hours. Part of the clear 
solution should be added to the bath till the smell 
of chlorine is perceived, and the prints should be 
moved to facilitate the action. In very bad cases, 
1 oz. of muriatic acid mixed with a pint of water 



424 



LITHOGRAPHY. 



may be added, and when the blenching is effected 
the prints should be well washed with fresh water 
and slowly dried. 

On the first trial of this process, remarks Dr. 
Hayes, a degree of alarm will be felt in the case of 
a highly prized favorite at this seeming careless 



treatment ; but it must be borne in mind that 
paper is a firmly felted mass of short fibres which 
may be soaked in various fluids for weeks, and 
resist all diluted acids and most chemical agentr 
for a long time wet, if not exposed to mechanical 
abrasion by touch or rapid motion. 



LITHOailiLP»E[Y. 



To Write and Engrave on Stone, 
The stone used in lithography is a limestone 
(carbonate of limestone), of very hard and com- 
pact texture, admitting of being ground to a fine 
surface. There are three qualities recognized by 
dealers, which are called the blue, gray, and yel- 
low stones, of which the blue is regarded as the 
best, and commands the highest price. The best 
lithographic stones are the production of a very 
limited district, in the kingdom of Bavaria. Sev- 
eral localities are known in the United States, and 
some yenrs since it was reported that a quarry had 
been discovered in the State of Missouri, of very 
superior quality. The stone must have the quali- 
ties of imbibing both water and grease or oil ; the 
crayon used in drawing u,pon it licing composed 
of grease, wax, soap, shellac, and ivory-black, 
which is also the composition of the ink used in 
printing, with little variation. 

The stone must be rubbed down with fine sand, 
to a perfect level, after which it is ready to receive 
the drawing ; a weak solution of nitric acid should 
be thrown over the stone. This operation will 
slightly corrode its surface, and dispose it to im- 
bibe moisture, with more facility. While the stone 
is still wet, a cylinder of about 3 inches in diame- 
ter, covered with common printer's ink, should 
be rolled over the whole surface of the stone. 
While the wet part refuses to take the ink, the 
chalk, being greasy, will take a portion of it from 
the roller. The stone is then ready for printing. 

The press consists of a box drawn by a wheel, 
under a wooden scraper, pressing on it with great 
power. After the first impression, the stone must 
be wetted afresh, again rolled over with the cylin- 
der, drawn under the scraper, and so on. 

The same process is employed for ink drawings, 
except that the solution of nitric acid must be 
stronger, and the printing ink stiffer. 

Imitations of wood-cuts are produced by cover- 
ing the stone with lithographic ink, and scraping 
out the intended lights. As the finer touches may 
be added with a hair pencil, prints far superior to 
wood-cuts may be obtained, but the chief advan- 
tage of wood-cuts, that of printing them at the 
same time with the te.xt of the book, is lost. 

Within the last 20 years the art of engraving on 
Stone has been brought to great perfection, and at 
this time nearly all maps used for school atlases, 
and by engineers, surveyors, etc., and nearly all 
bills of exchange, checks, drafts, and other blanks 
used for commercial purposes are thus engraved. 
The engraving is done with a pointed or shar^ in- 
strument, and is very similar to copper-plate en- 
graving. The engraved stones are printed only 
when very small editions are required, transfers 
from these to other stones being much more easily 
printed. 

The art of transferring and printing from trans- 
fers is now one of the most important and useful 
processes of lithography, and in the United States 
eonstitutes the greater part of the business of the 



lithographer. It is applicable to engravings on 
either stone or metal, and it is done from copper- 
plates, to a considerable extent, in maps, charts, 
and other engravings, which consists mainly of 
lines and letters, without elaborate shading. This 
process was invented in Europe about 30 years 
since. An imjiression is taken from the engraved 
plate or stone with a greasy ink, and on paper 
having the surface prepared with a composition 
which is essentially albumen. This impression is 
carefully applied to the surface of another stone, 
and on removing the paper by dampening it, and 
with very careful manipulation, the impression in 
ink remains. It is then treated with diluted acid 
precisely as a drawing, and heeomesfxed, as it ii 
technically called, in relief on the stone, and can 
be printed from with entire facility. Much care ii 
required in this process, and the method of doing 
it was for some years regarded as one of the most 
valuable secrets of the lithographic art. Engrav- 
ings of any kind can, of course, be transferred, 
but in finely engraved pictures, or when there is 
much shading, the fine lines become massed to- 
gether, or blurred in transferring. In printing 
small maps or other suitable descriptions of en- 
gravings, printing from transfers has a great ad- 
vantage over plate-printing, in the fact that seve- 
ral copies of the same engraving can be put upon 
the stone at once, and thus printed much more 
rapidly and economically. Maps printed from well- 
prepared transfers can scarcely be distinguished 
from those printed from copper or steel-plates. 

Laurent's Method of Drawing in Stone. 

Take the outline of the original design upon 
transparent paper, by tracing all the lines of the 
original with a dry point; the outline is then 
glued by its edges on a board, and there is spread 
over it, with a piece of fine linen, a tolerably hard 
paste, formed of lithographic ink, dissolved in es- 
sence of turpentine. The outline is then rubbed 
hard with a piece of clean linen, until the linen 
ceases to have a black tint. The outline is then 
transferred to the stone by means of the press, 
placing in a vertical paper press the stone and the 
outline in contact, laying upon the latter 24 
sheets of paper, wetted in water with some solu- 
tions of calcined muriate of lime. Upon these 
last sheets are placed large plates of paper, about 
1 inch thick, to prevent injury from a thick and 
straight plank, which is to be laid over them. 
Pressure is now applied for 1 hour, when the out- 
line will be found adhering to the stone. The 
paper is to be removed by hot water and the de- 
sign will be left on the stone, which is now 
washed with cold water till no trace of the paper 
remains. 

Thenard and Blainville'a Lithographic Ink. 

Soap, J; mutton-suet, i; yellow wax, 1 part| 
mastic in tears, i; and as much lampblack aa 
necessary. 



NATURE PRINTING. 



425 



Three Different Methods of Printing from Stone. 

In the chemical printing-office at Vienna, 3 dif- 
ferent methods are employed, but that termed in 
relief, is most frequently used. This ia the gene- 
ral mode of printing music. 

The 2nd method is the sunk, which is preferred 
for prints. 

The 3rd method is the flat, that is, neither raised 
nor sunk. This is useful for imitating drawings, 
particularly where the impression is intended to 
resemble crayons. For printing and engraving 
in this method, a block of niiirble is employed, or 
any other calcareous stone that is easily corroded, 
and will take a good polish. It should be 2J inches 
thick, and of a size proportioned to the purpose 
for which it is intended. A close te.xture is con- 
sidered as advantageous. When the stone is well 
polished and dry, the first step is to trace the 
drawing, notes, or letters to be printed with a pen- 
cil; the design is not very conspicuous, but it is 
rendered so by passing over the strokes of the 
pencil a particular ink, of which a great secret is 
made. This ink is made of a solution of lac in 
potash, colored with the soot from burning wax, 
and appears to be the most suitable black for the 
purpose. AVhen the design has been gone over 
with this ink, it is left to dry about 2 hours. After 
it is dry, nitric acid, more or less diluted, accord- 
ing to the degree of relief desired, is poured on 
the stone, which corrodes every part of it, except 
when defended by the resinous ink. The block 
being washed with water, ink, similar to that 
commonly used for printing, is distributed over it 
by printer's balls; a sheet of paper disposed on a 
frame is laid on it, and this is pressed down by 
means of a copper roller or copper press. 

The sunk or chalk method differs from that 
termed relief, only in having stone much more 
corroded by the nitric acid. In the flat method, 
less nitric acid is used. It is not to be supposed 
that the surface is quite plain in this way, but the 
line? are very little raised so that they can scarcely 
be perceived to stand above the ground, but by 
the finger. 

To make Lithographic Pencils. 

Mix the following ingredients: Soap, 3 oz.; tal- 
low, 2 oz. ; wax, 1 oz. 

When melted smooth, add a sufficient quantity 
of lampblack, and pour it into moulds. 
To take Impressions on Pajyer from Designs made 
in Stone. 

The stone should be close grained, and the 
drawing or writing should be made with a pen 
dipped in ink, formed of a solution of lac, in lyes 
of pure soda, to which some soap and lampblack 
ehould be added, for coloring. Leave it to harden 
for a few days ; then take impressions in the fol- 
lowmg manner: Dip the surface in water, then 
d.ib it with printer's ink and printer's balls. The 
ink will stick to the design and not to the stone, 
and the impressions may be taken with wet paper, 
by a rolling or screw press, in the ordinary way. 
Several hundred copies may be taken from the 
same design, in this simple manner. 

Cheap Substitute for Lithographic Stone. 

Paste-board, or card-paper, covered with an ar- 
gillo-caleareous mixture, has been employed with 
complete success, and effects a great saving. The 
material is to be reduced to a powder, and laid on 
wet; it sets, of course, immediately, and may be 
applied to a more substantial article than paper, 
and upon a more extensive scale than the inven- 
tor has yet carried it on. This coating receives 
the ink or crayon in the same way that the stone 
does, ancl furnishes impressions precisely in the 
■ame mauuer. 



Another substitute for lithographic stone is zinc, 
which has been used to some ftLxtent lately for 
transfer-printing. The transfer is made on the 
surface from an engraving on metal or .«tone, and 
the method is nearly the same as that alluded to 
above. 

Printing in colors is now much practised in 
Lithography, and quite attractive show - cards, 
lamp-shades, etc., are produced. Every color re- 
quires a separate design or drawing, and one color 
only is printed at a time. Skill and care is re- 
quired in registering, as it is called, or in making 
the colors properly join together in the picture, 
and also in preparing the colors. Parts of pictures 
intended to be colored by hand in the usual man- 
ner, can frequently be printed more cheaply. 

Photographing on stone is perhaps at present 
the most interesting of newly discovered processes 
in lithography. It is very useful in making either 
reductions or enlargements of drawings or engrav- 
ings intended to be printe<l from stone, and is also 
applicable to obtaining and fixing figures of minute 
olijects obtained by means of the microscope. The 
surface of the stone is prepared in a suitable man- 
ner, and the photograph made upon it; after which 
it is treated and printed as in other processes of 
this art. This method has at present the appear- 
ance of becoming very important and useful in 
lithography. 

Process for Printing from Veneers. 

A process of veneering by transfer is mentioned 
with approval in the French jnurnals. The sheet 
of veneer or inlaying to be copied, is to be exposed 
for a few minutes to the vapor of hydro-chlorio 
acid. This novel plate is then laid upon calico or 
paper, and impressions struck off with a printing- 
press. Heat is to be applied immediately after the 
sheet is printed, when a perfect impression of all 
the marks, figures, and convuluted lines of the 
veneer is said to be instantaneously produced. 
The process, it is affirmed, may be repeated for an 
almost indefinite number of times. The designs 
thus produced are said all to exhibit a general 
wood-like tint, most natural when oak, walnut, 
maple, and the light - colored woods have been 
employed. 

JVeJo Tracing Paper. 

Moisten a sheet of paper with benzine, by means 
of a sponge. The paper becomes temporarily 
transparent, and lines may be traced through it. 
In a few hours the benzine evaporates, and the 
paper becomes opaque as before. 

Rapid Stereotyping. 

The process now adopted by many newspapers 
is to take a cast of the form in a composition of 
strong glue, with alum and plaster of Paris. Into 
this the metal is poured. It requires only sixteen 
minutes to mould, cast, and finish the stereotype 
plate. 

Autography. 

On a plate of chalk or plaster, the artist sketches 
the design with a gummy ink (at present a secret). 
By means of a silk rag, the portions of the plate 
not protected by the ink are rubbed away. A copy 
is then obtained in fusible metal or by the electro- 
type. 



NATURE PRINTING. 
If the original be a plant, a flower, or an insect, 
a texture, or in short, any lifeless object whatever, 
it is passed between a copper plate and a lead 
plate, through two rollers that are closely screwed 
together. The original, by means of the pressuid, 
leaves its image impressed with all its peculiar 
delicacies — with its whole surface, as it were — on 



426 



NATURE PRINTING. 



n 



the lead plate. If the colors nre applied to this 
stamped lead plate, as in printing a cupper plate, 
a copy in the most viwying colors, bearing a strik- 
ing resemblance to the orij^inal, is obtained by 
means of one single impression of each plate. If 
a great number of copies are required — which the 
lead form, on account of its softness, is not capa- 
ble of furnishing — it is stereotyped, in case of 
being printed at a typograpical press; or galvan- 
ized, in case of being worked at a copper-j)late 
press, as many times as necessary; and the im- 
pressions are taken from the stereotyped or gal- 
vanized plate instead of from the lead plate. AVhen 
a copy of a unique object, which cannot be sub- 
jected to pressure, is to be made, the original must 
be ct)vered with dissolved gutta percha; which 
form of gutta percha, when removed from the 
original, is covered with a solution of silver, to 
render it available for a matrix for galvanic mul- 
tiplication. 

This process is also applicable to the purpose of 
obtaining impressions of fossils or of the structure 
of an agate or other stone. In all the varieties 
of agate, the various layers have diiferent degrees 
of hardne.«s. Therefore, if we take a section of an 
agate and expose it to the action of hydrofluoric 
acid, some parts are corroded and others not. If 
ink is ab once applied, very l)eautiful impressions 
can be at onoe obtained ; but for printing any 
number, electrotype copies are obtained. These 
■will have exactly the character of an etched plate, 
and are printed from in the ordinary manner. 
The silicious portions of fossil, and the stone in 
■which they are imbedded, may in like manner 
be acted upon by acid; and from these, either 
stereotyped or electrotyped copies are obtained 
for printing from. 

Dresser's Process of Nature Printing. 
The process is one by which images of foliage 
inay be taken by any who have leisure and 
choose to devo.te an hour or two to the regis- 
tration of the beautiful forms of our leaves. The 
process, by its simplicity, commends itself; and 
the results gained are of the most charming char- 
acter. The Vienna process of nature printing has 
achieved much, and produced results of the most 
admirable character; but the process necessitates 
the u.se of dried vegetable specimens, in order to 
the production of the image. While this is at 
least no dravfback in the case of ferns, and is per- 
haps even an advantage, yet it strongly militates 
against the process in the case of many other 
plants. In order to meet this difficulty. Dr. Dresser 
suggested an ''Improvud Nature Printing" pro- 
cess which he patented, in conjunction with Dr. 
Lyon Playfair, in wh'ch impressions are taken 
from the living plant, and which may be substan- 
tially described as follows : A sheet of foolscap 
■writing-paper should be provided, a handful of 
fine cotton-wool, a piece of muslin, one or more 
tubs of common oil-paint (according to the color 
required), a little sweet-oil, and a quantity of 
smooth, soft, cartridge-paper, or better, plate- 
paper. Having placed the sheet of foolscap-paper 
while doubled (the two thicknesses making it a 
little softer), on a smooth table, squeeze from the 
tube about as much oil-color as would cover a shil- 
ling, and place this on one corner of the sheet of 
foolscap ; now form a " dabber" by enclosing a 
quantity of the cotton-wool in two thicknesses of 
muslin, and tying it up so as to give it roundness 
of form. Take up a portion of the oil-paint from 
the corner of the paper, with the dabber, and by 
dabbing give the central portion of the sheet of 
foolscap a coat of color. This dabbing may be 



continued for half an hour or more with aavan 
tage, taking a small quantity more color when the 
paper becomes dry ; two or three drops of sweet- 
oil may now be added to the paper and distributed 
by the aid of the dabber, if the color is thick, 
when the paper will be fully prepared for use. 

The paper may be left for an hour or two after 
being first coated with color without injury, and, 
indeed, this delay is favorable, for until the pi'.jier 
becomes impregnated with oil, the results desired 
are not so favorable as they become after the paper 
is more fully enriched with this material. While 
the color is soaking into the paper, a number of 
leaves should be gathered which are ])erfect in 
form and free from dust; and these can bo kept 
fresh by placing them in an earthenware [lan, the 
bottom of which is covered with a damp cluth, but 
it will be well to place a damp cloth over the 
orifice of the pan also. Selecting a woolly, hairy 
leaf, place it on the painted portion of ihe sheet 
of foolscap, and dab it with the dabber till it ac- 
quires the color of the paint used ; this being done 
turn the leaf over and dab the other side; now 
lift it from the paint paper by the stalk, and place 
it with care between a folded portion of the 
" plate" or "cartridge" paper, and if the stalk of 
the leaf appears to be in the nay, cut it off wiih a 
pair of scissors ; now bring down the upper portion 
of the folded piece of paper upon the leaf, and rub 
the paper externally with the finger, or a soft rag, 
bringing the paper thus in contact with every por* 
tion of the leaf. If the paper is now opened, and 
the leaf removed, a beautiful impression of both 
sides of the leaf will be found remaining. In like 
manner, impressions of any tolerably flat leaves 
can be taken ; but harsh leaves will be found most 
difficult, and should hence be avoided hy the be- 
ginner. While the paper is yet rich in color, 
downy leaves should be chosen; but color may at 
any moment be added, care being always taken 
to distribute the paint evenly over the paper with 
the dabber before the latter is applied to the leaf, 
and the dabber is always removed from the f)ainted 
paper till the color is exhausted, when the pnper 
is again replenished from the reserve in the 
corner. 

As the color on the paper becomes less and less 
in quantity, smoother leaves maybe employed; 
and when the paper seems to be almost wholly 
without paint, the smoothest leaves will prove suc- 
cessful, for these require extremely little c(dor. 
Should the natural color of the leaf be desired, it 
can be got by using paint of the color required ; 
but, in many cases, purely artificial tints produce 
the most pleasing and artistic results; thus, burnt 
sienna gives a very pleasing red tint; and of all 
colors this will be found to work with the greatest 
ease. 

By the process now described, the most beauti- 
ful results can be gained ; but the effect will b« 
better, if, when the impression is being rubbed 
off, the leaf, together with the paper in which it is 
enclosed, is placed on something soft, as half a 
quire of blotting paper. Should the first attempt 
not prove very satisfactory, a little*experienoe will 
be found to be all that is required, and now the 
most common leaf will be seen to have a form of 
the most lovely character. 

Collections of leaves of forest-trees will prove 
of the deepest interest, or of all the species which 
we have of any kind of plant; thus, if the leaves 
of the black, red, American, and golden currant 
be printed together with that of the gooseberry, 
all of which belong to one botanical genus or 
group, the variation or modification of the form 
will be seen to be of the deepest interest. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES. 



427 



AVEIOHTS ^ND IME^STJmilS. 



Troy Weiqht is used by jewellers and at the 
Milit. It.s dennininations are the pound, lb., = 12 
ounces = 5, TOO grains; ounce, oz., = 480 grains; 
and pel nyweight. dvvt., = 24 grains. 

Apiithecaiitx' Weiijlu is used in prescribing and 
dispensing medicines, and in chemical and phnr- 
maceutieal operations generally. It is the offici- 
nal standard of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. The 
British Pharmacopoeia uses the avoirdupois pound 
and ounce; hence the two agree only in the grain 
measure. The denominations of apothecaries' 
weight are the pound, tb, = 12 ounces = 5,760 
grains; the ounce, i,], = 8 drachms = 480 grains; 
the drachm, 3.)> ~ ^ scruples = 60 grains; the 
Bcruple, 9j, = 20 grains; and the grain, gr. 

Avoirdupois Weiyht is the commercial weight, 
and is generally employed in the receipts in this 
volume. Its pound, lb., = 16 ounces, oz., = 7,000 
grains. The ounce contains 437 5 grains. The 
apothecaries' or troy ounce contains 42^ grains 
more than the avoirdupois ounce, and the apothe- 
caries or troy pound contains 1"240 grains Ickh 
than tlie commercial or avoirdupois pound. The 
troy pound contains 12 oz., the avoirdupois 16 oz. 



RELATIVE VALUE OF TROY AND AVOIR- 
DUPOIS WEIUHTS. 

Useful in determining the troy weight of silver 
by ordinary weights. 

1 lb. troy = 0-822857 lb. av. = 13 oz. 72-5 grs. 

1 lb. avoirdupois = 1-215277 lb. troy = 1 lb. 2 oz. 
280 grs. 

UNITED STATES COINS 
Are convenient standards of weight. Those of 
gold are to be preferred, and when new will rarely 
be found to vary more than the tenth of a grain 
from the following weights : 

Double eagle, $20, weighs 516 



Eagle, $10, 

Half eagle, $5, " 
Quarter eagle, $2 50, " 
Three dollar, -$3, " 
One dollar, $1, " 



258 ' 

129 ' 

64i ' 

77-4' 
26-8' 



MEASURES OF CAPACITY FOR LIQUIDS. 

In the United States the old wine gallon (Cong.), 
of 231 cubic inches = 58,328-8 grains of water at 
60°, is used. In England the Imperial gallon of 



277-274 cubic inches ■-= 70,000 grains = 10 lb. av. 
is used. The niiiiiin of the former = -95 gr., of tha 
latter = -91 gr. The former contains 16 fluid- 
ounces to the pint (0.), the latter 20. The f.dlow- 
ing tables give the value of each in grains of pure 
•■vater, at 60°. 

Wi'ne Measure, (U. S. P.) 
60 minims = f3.i= lU-'-'^~ 56-9 grs. water. 
480 " = (^j = f3viii= 455-7 " " 
7.6S0 " = bj = t^.\vi= 7,291-2 " " 
61,440 " =Congj= bviii = 58,328-8 " " 
Jmperiid Measure, (D. P.) 
60 minims = f3J= Tl\,lx= 54-6 grs. water. 
4S0 " = f5i = f,^viii= 437-5 " " 
9,600 " = 0j=f:5x.\= 8,760 " " 
76,800 " =Congj= 6viii = 70.000 " " 
To convert Imperial (Br.) into Wine (U. S. P.) 
Measure. 
Imperial. Wine or Apothecaries'. 

1 gallon = 6 pts., 13 fl. oz., 2 fl. drs., 23 minims. 

1 pint = 16 " 5 " IS " 

1 fluidounce = 1 " " 20" 

1 fluidrachm= 1 " 2-5 " 

1 minim = 1-04 " 



THE DECIMAL SYSTEM, 
Adopted in France and on the Continent, is used 
in this country in scientific research. The stan- 
dard of length is the metre (jjj.iyn'o.iTi!!) of * 
quadrant of the earth's meridian), which is equal 
(as corrected by Prof. Bache) to 39-36850535 
inches, or, roughly, about 3^ feet. This, as well 
as the measures of capacity and weight, is in- 
creased or divided decimally. The prcti-xes are 
decu (10 times), lifjcto (100 times), kilo {1000 times), 
and myria (10,000 times); deci (,'(y)j centi (xi5g)> 
miY/e (ynVf)'- The kilometre is equal to about 
two-thirds of a mile. 

The cubic decimetre is the unit of capacity, and 
is called a litre, and is equal to 1-765 imperial 
pints, or 2-1135 wine pints (the latter are used in 
the United States). The weight of 1 litre of water, 
^at 39-10°, is called a kilogramme, nnd that of a 
millilitre of water a gramme = 15-434 grains. 
The kilograuime is rather less than 2^ lbs. avoir- 
dupois. The metrical pound of France is half a 
kilogramme. One fluidounce equals in capacity 
29-53 cubic centimetres. 



Comparative Table of Decimal with Avoirdupois and Apothecaries' (U. S.) Weights. 



Name. 


Equivalent in 


Equivalent in 


Equivalent in 


Equivalent in Ap 


ithecn- 


(jrammes. 


Grains. 


Avoirdupois. 


ries' Weight, (U. 


S. P.) 


, 






lb. oz. gr. 


lb. oz. dr. 


gr- 


Milligramme = ... 


•001 


•0154 








Centigramme = ... 


•01 


•1543 








Decigramme = ... 


•1 


1-5434 






1-5 


Gramme = ... 


1- 


15-4340 






15-4 


Decagramme = ... 


10- 


164-3402 


Oi -45 


2 


34-0 


Hectogramme = ... 


100- 


1643 4023 


3i 12-152 


3 1 


43-0 


Kilogramme® = ... 


1,000- 


15434 0234 


2 H 12-173 


2 8 1 


14- 


Myriagramme= ... 


:o,ooo- 


154340-2344 


22 OS 12- 


26 9 4 


20- 



* Abbreviated kUo. 



428 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



Compnnsrin of Decimal Menmtres of Capacity with 

Wine (U. S. P.) and Imperial Measures. 

Wine Measure. 



Apothecaries' or Wine 
Measure. 



Eng. Cubic Inches. 

Millilitre = -061028 = ]6-2:n8 minims. 

Centilitre = '610280^ 2-7053 fluidrachms. 

Decilitre = 6102800= 3-3816 fluidounces. 

Litre = 61028000= 2-1135 pints. 

Decalitre = 610-280000= 2-6419 gallons. 
Hectolitre = 6102 800000 
Kilolitre = 61028000000 

Imperial Measure. 
llitre = 0-22017 galls., 0-88066 qts., 1-76133 pts. 
Stare (cubic metre) = 220-16643 galls. 



CAPACITY OF BOXES. 
Dry Measure, 

A box 20 inches square, and 16J inches deep, 
will contain 1 barrel (3 bushels). 

A box 15 inches square, and 14J inches deep, 
will contain half a barrel. 

A box 17 inches by 14 inches, and 9 inches 
deep, will contain 1 bu.shel. 

A box 10 inches by 12 inches, and 9 inches 
deep, will contain half a bushel. 

A box 8 inches square, and SJ inches deep, will 
contain. 1 peck. 

A box 8 inches square, and 4y's inches deep, will 
contain 1 gallon (dry) = J bushel = 268| cubic 
inches. 

A box 4 inches square, and 452 inches deep, will 
eontain 1 quart. 



LINEAR MEASUREMENT. 

12 inches = 1 foot. 3 feet = 1 yard. 
1 mile = 1760 yards = 5280 feet = 63,360 inches. 

Inches expressed in Decimals of a Foot. 



1 inch = 008333 foot. 


7 inches 


= 0-58333 foot. 


2 inches = 016666 " 


8 




= 0-66666 " 


3 " = 0-26000 " 


9 




= 0-75000 " 


4 « = 0-33333 " 


10 




= 0-83333 " 


6 " = 0-41666 " 


11 




= 0-91666 " 


6 " = 0-50000 " 


12 




= 1-00000 " 



Fractions of an Inch expressed in Decimals of an 
Inch, and in Decimals of a Foot. 



Dec. of a foot. 

= 0-0052083 



Iscb. inch. 

y^g= 0-0625 

i =0-1250 = 0-0104166 
_3g = 0-1875 = 0-0156249 

i =0-2500 = 0-0288332 
_5g = 0-3125 = 0-0260415 

S =0-3750 = 0-0312498 
J?^ = 0-4375 = 0-0364581 
0-0416664 



T5" 

i =0-5000^ 



Inch. inch. Dec. of a foot.. 

_9g = 0-5625 = 0-0468747 

f =0-6250 = 0-0520833 

1^ = 0-6875 = 00572913 

J =0-7500 = 0-0624996 

}§ = 0-8125 = 0-0677079 

i =0-8750 = 00729162 

0-0781245 

0-0833328 



11 = 0-9375 = 

16 = 1. 

Tg '■ 



1. In a rii)ht-an(/lcd triangle the sum of the 
squares of the two shorter sides = the square of 
the hypothenuse : the square of the hypothenuse 
less the square of one side = the square of the 
third side. 

2. The diameter of a circle X 3-1416 = the cir- 
cumference. 

3. The circumference of a circle X 0-31831 = 
the diameter. 

4. Given a chord and versed sine — to find the 
diameter of the circle. Divide the square of half 
the chord by the verseil sine, and add the versed 
line to the product = the diameter. 



5. To find the length of an arc of a circle, when 
the cord of the whole arc and the chord of one- 
half of the arc are knoven, from 8 times the chord 
of one-half the arc, subtract the chord ol the whole 
arc : one-third of the remainder vrill be the length 
of the arc nearly. 

6. Periphery of an elipse. Multiply the square 
root of the sum of the squares of the axes by 2.22. 



SURFACE MEASUREMENT. 

Areas. — Product if two Linear Dimensions (prO' 

portioned to the squares of similar sides). 

144 square inches = 1 square foot. 
9 " feet =1 " yard. 
Acre = 43,560 square feet = 4480 yards = (660 X 

66 feet). 
Square mile = 640 acres. 

1. Parallelinjrum (square, rectangular or 
rhomboidal) = the product of the length of one 
sideX by perpendicular height. 

2. Trian<jle = product of base X by one-half 
the perpendicular height. 

3. Triangle — Area from .S sides given. From 
the half sum of the three sides subtract each side 
separately; multiply the half sum and the three 
remainders together, and the square root of the 
product will be the area. 

4. Trapezoid = the sum of the two parallel sides 
X by half the perpendicular height. • 

5. Circle = the square of the diameter X -7854, 
or square of the circumference X -07958. 

6. Sector of a Circle =^ radius of the circle X by 
one-half the arc of the sector. 

7. Segment of a Circle. — Find the area of a see- 
tor of a circle having the same arc, and deduct the 
triangle formed between the two radii and the 
chord of the arc. 

Superfcial Area of Solids, 

8. Cube. 

9. Parallelopipidon 

10. Prism. 

11. Cylinder = circumference of base X height 
-(- area of bases. 

,„ p 1 f Circumference of bases X 

to" T. ' -J ?•= -s one-half slant height + 
13. Pyramid. 1 J , , fe ■ 

-' J (. area of base. 

Sphere = square of diameter X 3.1416. 

French square metre, 1550-85 square inches — 

10-7698 square feet. 



■■}={ 



= I Sum of area of sides 
and bases. 



SOLID MEASUREMENT. 

Cubic Content. — Product of three Linear Dimen- 
siuns {proportional to cube of similar sides). 

Cubic foot = 1,728 cubic ins. 

" yard =27 cubic ft. = 46,656 " 

Barrel = 4-8125 " = 8,316 " 

Bushel = 1-2438 " = 2,150 " 

Ganon(wine)= = 231 " 

Ton = 2240 lbs. avoirdupois. 

1 gallon of water weighs 58,328-8 grains troy » 
10-126 lbs. troy. 
Cylindrical inches X '0004546 = cubic feet. 

" feet X -02909 = " yards. 

Cubic inches X -00058 = " feot. 

" feet X -03704 = " yards. 

" feet X 7-48 = U. States gallon. 

" inches X -004329 = " " 

Cylindrical feet X 5-874 = " " 

" inches X -0034 = " " 

Contents of Casks. — Add into one sum 39 times 
the square of the bung diameter, 25 times the 
square of the head diameter, and 26 times the 
product of the two diameters ; then multiply the 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 



429 



sum by the length, and the product again by 
00 24 for wine gallons. 

General Ride for JiuiUiig Cubic Content contained 
between two PanMel planes. 
Let A and B be areas of ends of solids, and C 
the area of a section parallel to, and equidistant 
from the ends, and L the distance between the 
ends: 

A + B+ 40 
Solidity = X L. 



1. Cnhe = side X side X side, or = area of base 
X perpendicular height. 

2. PunUleloplpidon ] f Area ofbase Xby per- 
4wer J 1 Pendic"!'^'- height. 

3. Cone 1 — / Area of bases X by J the 
Pyramid J ~ | perpendicular height. 

4. Fnislru7n of Cone or Pyramid = sum of the 
areas of the two ends + the square root of their 
product X by J of the perpendicular height. 

5. Sphere = cube of the diameter X 0-6236. 

6. Spherical Segment = 3 times the square of 
the radius of its base + the square of its height 
X the height X 0-5s36. 



MEASUREMENT OF STONE-WORK 
1 Perch, Masons' or Quarrymen's Measure, 
16i feet long, 
16 inches wide, 
12 " high, 

24"75 cubic feet. To be mea- 
sured in pile. 



:M 



22 cubic feet. To be mea- 
sured in wall. 



=r 



16i feet Ion; 
18 inches wide, 
12 " high, 

1 cubic yard = 3 feet X 3 feet X 3 feet = 2 cubic 
feet. 

The cubic yard has become the standard for all 
contract work of late years. 

Stone walls less than 16 inches thick count as if 
16 inches thick to mason; over 16 inches thick, 
each inch additional is measured. 
Briclcs required for Walls of various Thickness. — 
Number for each Square Fool of Face of Wall. 



Thickness 
of Wall. 

24 inches 46 



Thickness 
of Wall. 

4 inches 7i 

8 " 15 28 

12 " 22i 32 

16 " 30 36 

20 " 37i 42 

Cubic yard = 600 bricks in wall. 
Perch (22 cubic feet) = 600 bricks in wall. 
To pave 1 sq. yard on flat requires 41 bricks 
u u I a « edge " 68 " 



52i 
60 
67i 
75 



BOARD MEASURE. 
Boards are sold by superficial measure at so 
much per foot of 1 inch or less in thickness, adding 
one-fourth to the price for each quarter-inch 
thickness over an inch. 



foot in diameter and 10 feet high, would cont!..ii 
10 cubic feet, 10 X 1000 X 7.207 = 72.070 oz. - 
4500 lbs. 

Specific Gravity of Solids. 

1. By the Pitcher. — I'll a pitcher, or similar 
vessel, brim full, put in tne body, it will displace 
its own bulk of water; catch this water as it over- 
flows and weigh it. Divide the weight of the body 
by that of the water displaced, the quotient will be 
its specific gravity. A very neat instrument for 
performing this process accurately has been con- 
trived by Messrs. Eckfeldt and Dubois, of the 
United States Mint. 

2. By the Hydrostatic Balance. — Weigh the 
body, fasten it, preferably by a horse-hair, im- 
merse it in water, and note the loss of weiyht. The 
weight in air divided by the loss of weight in 
water = the s. g. 

3. When the Body is Lighter than Water. — At- 
tach to it some heavy body of known weight in 
air and water. Weigh the two together, first in 
air and then in water; note the loss. The loss of 
weight of the heavy body in water being known 
the difference between these losses divided into 
the weight of the light body in air, will give the 
specific gravity. Thus, a bit of wood weighed in 
air 200 grains, attached to a piece of copper the 
two weighed in air 2247 grains, and in water 1620 
grains, sufl'ering a loss of 627 grains, the copper 
alone loses in water 230 grains, 627 — 230 = 397, 
the loss of the wood ; 200 -h 397 = .504, s. g. of the 
wood. 

When the Solid is Soluble in Water. 

Take its s. g. in regard to some liquid which 
does not dissolve it, multiply this by the s. g. of 
the liquid. 

Thus, a piece of sugar weighed in air 400 grs., 
it lost in oil of turpentine 217.5. 400 ^ 217.5 = 
1.84. The s. g. of turpentine is .87; 1.84 X .87 
= 1.6., s. g. of the sugar. 

When the Body is in Powder. 

Introduce it into a counterpoise bottle, of which 
the capacity is known. Fill the bottle with pure 
water at 60°. It will hold as much less as is 
equal to the bulk of the powder, and the weight 
of the powder in air divided by this differencs 
will give the s. g. 

Thus, the bottle holds 1000 grs. of water; 100 
grs. of emery are introduced, and the bottle filled 
up with water. If no water were displaced the 
two should weigh 1100 grs., they really weigh 
1070 ; the difference, 30 grs. = the weight of water 
displaced; 100 -^ 30 = 3.333, s. g of the emery. . 

When the Solid is Cotnponnd, 
As a nugget of gold and quartz. Take the s. g. of 
the nugget, that of gold and quartz being known, 
then apply the following formulae : 

s. g. nugget- 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 
In ordinary language the terms density and 
specific gravity (s. g.) are used to represent the 
relative weights of equal bulks or volumes of dif- 
ferent substances. In or<ier to compare these con- 
veniently, pure water at 60° is taken as the stand- 
ard. A cubic foot of water weighs 1000 oz., hence 
to determine the weight of a given bulk of any 
body the specific gravity of which is known, mul- 
tiply the cubic content in feet by 1000, and this by 
the 8. g., and the product will be the weight in 
ounces avoirdupois. Thus, the s. g. of cast-iron 
is 7.207, that is, it is 7.207 times heavier than an 
equal bulk of water. A cylinder of cast-iron 1 



■ s. g. quartz s. g. gold 



X weight 



s. g. gold — s. g. quartz s. g. nugget 

of nugget = weight of gold in nugget. 

8. g. gold — s. g. nugget s. g. quartz 

-j ■ X X weight 

g. g. gold — s. g. quartz s. g. nugget 

of nugget = weight of quartz in do. 

This method will do appro.\imately, but not 
accurately for alloys of metals generally. 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIQUIDS. 
By the Balance. 
Take a bit of glass rod, note its loss when 
weighed in water and in the liquid under trial. Di- 
vide the latter by the former, the quotient will be 
the s. g. of the liquid. Thus a glass rod loses in 
water 171 grs., in alcohol, 143 grs. 143 -r 171=«> 
.836. s. g. of the alcohol. 



430 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



Specific Grnvity hnttles. 
These are made to hold 100 or 1000 grs. of pure 
water at 60°, mid are accompanied by a counter- 
piiise. It is only necessary to fill the bottle with 
the liquid to be tested. Counterpoise and weigh ; 
the weight in grains will be the s. g. Ody and 
viscous matter should never be introduced into 
the s. g. bottle. In ease the s. g. bottle is not at 
hand any light flask will do. Make a file mark on 
tho neck, counterpoise it, fill to the mark with 
pure water at 60*^, note the weight of tlie water. 
Empty, dry thoroughly and fill with the liquid to 
be tested ; the weight of this divided by that of 
the water = 8. g. 

Hydrometert 

Are instruments for determining the specific 
gravity of liquids by noting the depth to which 
a stem sinks. They consist of a cylinder with a 
weight beneiith it to make it float upright, and a 
graduated stem. AVhen intended for liquids light- 
er than water, the or point at which they float in 
pure water at 60° is at the lower point of the stem, 
and as the iiquid is lighter they sink more deeply ; 
for liquids heavier than water the is at the top of 
the scale. Many are graduated according to their 
proposed use, as alcoholometers, lactometers, sac- 
charometers. (See Distillation). The graduation 
most empoycd is that of Beau me. Excellent hy- 
drometers with the degrees and the true s. g. on 
the same stem are made by Dr. W. H. Pile of Phil- 
adelphia. 
To Cdiivert Degrees BenvmS into Specific Gravity^ 

1. For liquids heavier than water — Subtract the 
degree B. from 145, and divide into 145, the quo- 
tient is the s. g. 

2. For liquids lighter than water— Add t>he de- 
gree B. to laO, and divide it into 140. The quo- 
tient is the s. g. 

To Convert Specific Gravity into Degrees BenumS. 

1. For liquids heavier than water. — Divide the 
B. g. into 145, and subtract from 145. The re- 
mainder is the degree B. 

2 For liquids lighter than water. — Divide the 
S. g. into 140 and subtract IHO from the quotient. 
The remainder will be the degree B. 

Table of Specific Gravity. 

Mercury 13,600 

Lead : 11,325 

Copper 9.000 

Cast Brass 8,000 

Steel 7,850 

Wrought Iron 7,780 

Cast Iron 7,207 

Tin 7,300 

Marble 2,690 

Common Stone 2,520 

Brick 1,^00 @ 2,000 

Soil 1,974 

Coal, an hracite 1,436 @ 1,640 

" bituminous 1,270 

Sand 1,520 

Sea-water, 1,030 

COMMON WATER 1,000 

Oak, (dry) 925 

Ash " 800 

Maple " 765 

Elm " 600 

Yellow Pine, " ; 660 

White Pine " 554 

Cork 249 

Carb. Acid 1-9 

Air 1-25 

Coal tias 0-6 

Hydrogen 0-0848 



The specific gravity in table also represents the 
number of ounces in each substance in 1 cubio 
fo()t-5- 16= = lbs. 

1 cubic foot of Cast Iron = 450 lbs. 

1 " " White Pine = 34-6 " 

1 " " Water = 625 " 

10-9 cubic feet of Air = 1-- « 

22 " " Coal Gas = 1-- " 

GAS. 
To Read the Gas Meter. 



1 



lOOTHOUSfli^^ |0;I!^i) |, THOUSAND 




V.6 y %/ \4 e 6/ \G 

10.000 1.000 lOO.EACH 



The figures on the index at the right hand de- 
note even hundreds. When the hand completes 
the entire cin'le it denotes ten hundred, and is re- 
gistered by the hand in the centre circle, pointing 
to one — each figure in the centre circle being a 
thuttsinid — this entire circle being leu thousand, 
and is registered on the index of the left hand 
circle by the hand, there denoting by each figure, 
ten thousand. 

The quantity of gas which passes through the 
meter, is ascertained by reading from the index 
at the time the amount is required to be known, 
and deducting therefrom the quantity shown by 
the index at a previous observation. 
If the whole is registered by the hands on 

the three circles above, it indicates 49,900 

Amount at previous observation, as shown 

by the dotted lines 42,500 



Shows amount which passed through since 

last taken off 7,400 

The register at all times shows the quantity 
that has passed through since the meter was first 
set, by deducting from which the amount that has 
been paid for (without any regard to the time 
when), shows that the difference remains unpaid. 

To Avoid Waste of Gas. 

Turn the gas partly off at the meter; much gas 
is burned to waste by too great pressure in cer- 
tain localities. In buildings of any size a good 
regulator will soon pay for itself. Cresson's is 
the best. 

Gas-burners. 

The following are those in common use : 

Batswiny. — This has a single slit at the top of 
the burner. It is very steady; does not change 
its form under any pressure. It is, therefore, used 
in street lamps. It is not, however, economical. 

Fish-tail. — This form is generally used in houses; 
it has two openings in the top, from which the jets 
of gas issue and form a flat flame, the plane of 
which is at right angles to that of the openings. 
When the pressure is too great the flame elon- 
gates and sintjs, thus calling attention to the waste. 
It is an economical burner, but flickers. This un- 
steadiness is trying to the eyes, and the fish-tail 
should never be used to read or write by. 

Aryand. — These are the steadiest and most 
economical burners, but require a chimney. Tho 
gas is allowed to escape by a ring of holes, and 
the air is admitted both inside and outside of this 
ring. In the patent Argand the outer ring of air 
passes through a series of small openings, and the 
inner ring is deflected into the flame by a button; 



FOREIGN GOLD AND SILVER COINS. 



431 



It requires a swelled chimney. By cutting off the 
button a steadier light is obtained, and the econo- 
my is neaily the .■'ame; straight chimneys are 
more easily obtained than the others. The best 
flint-glass chimneys are in the end the cheapest; 
great loss of light ensues if they are ncit kept 
clean. But putting a chimney into hydrant-wa- 
ter, and gradually heating it, it may l)e cleaned 
safely; paper gives the best finish. The larger 
the burner the greater the relative economy. 

Relative Light for Unit of Gns. 

Batswing consuming 5 feet, I'OOO 

Large patent Argand ] „ 6 " 2-880 

burner j 

Common Argnnd " 5-4" 2132 

Single jet " 2-2 " 1191 

Fish-tail (Union jet) " 4-5" 1.513 

Large Batswing " 11-3 " 203 

Wax candle, 4 to lb..... 0-143 

Sperm " 6 " 0111 

Tallow " 5 " 0.1 

Photometry. 
1 wax candle, 4 to a lb. burns 13 hours. 

1 spermaceti candle, 6 " "8 " 

1 Tallow " 6 " "6 " 40 m. 

Gold 



A STATEMENT OF FOREIGN GOLD AND 
SILVER COINS, FROM THE ANNUAL RE- 
PORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE MINT. 

E.rphmatory Reninrks. 
The first column embraces the names of the 
countries where the coins are issued ; the second 
contains the names of the coin, only the principal 
denominations being given. The other sizes are 
proportional : and when this is not the case, the 
deviation is stated. 

The third column expresses the weight of a sin- 
gle piece in fractions of the Troyounce, carried to 
the thousandth, and in a few cases to the ten 
thousandth, of an ounce. The method is prefera- 
ble to expressing the weight in grains for com- 
mercial purposes, and corresponds better with the 
terms of the Mint. It may be readily transferred 
to weight in grains by th« following rule: Remove 
the decimal point; from one-half deduct four per 
cent, of that half, and the remainder will be 
grains. 

The fourth column expresses the fineness in 
thousands, i.e., the number of parts of pure gold 
or silver in 1000 parts of the cnin. 

The fifth column expresses the valuation of coin 
The value of silver fluctuates. 

Coins. 



Country. 



Australia 

it 

Austria 

Belgium 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Central America 
Chili 

Denmark , 

Ecuador 

England , 

France , 

Germany, North, 
li it 

(( << 

Germany, South, 

Greece 

Hindostau 

Italy 

Japan 

Mexico 

« 

Naples 

Netherland 

New Granada 

Peru , 

Portugal 

Prussia 

Rome , 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Tunis 

Turkey 

Tuscany 



DenominationB. 



Pound of 1852 

Sovereign, 1855-60 

Ducat 

Souverain 

New Union Crown (assumed) 

Twenty-five Francs 

Doubloon 

Twenty Milreis 

Tivo Escudos 

Old Doubloon 

Ten Pesos 

Ten Thaler 

Four Escudos 

Pound or Sovereign, new 

Pound or Sovereign, average., 

Twenty Francs, new 

Twenty Francs, average 

Ten Thaler 

Ten Thaler, Prussian 

Krone (Crown) 

Ducat 

Twenty Drachms 

Mohur 

Twenty Lire 

Old Cobang 

New Cobang 

Doubloon, average 

" new ..., 

Six Ducati, new , 

Ten Guilders 

Old Doubloon, Bogota 

Old Doubloon, Popayan 

Ten Pesos, new 

Old Doubloon 

Gold Crown 

New Union Crown (assumed). 
Two and a half Scudi, new.... 

Five Roubles 

One Hundred Reals 

Eighty Reals 

Ducat 

Twenty five Piastres 

One Hundred Piastres 

Sequin 



Weight. 


Fineness. 


Value. 
1864. 


Oz. Dec. 


Thous. 




0-281 


916.5 


$ 5.32.37 


0-256.5 


916 


4.85.53 


0-112 


986 


2.28.28 


0-363 


900 


6.75.35 


0-357 


900 


6.64.19 


0-254 


899 


4.72.03 


0-867 


870 


15.59.25 


0-575 


917.5 


10.90.57 


0-209 


853.5 


,3.68.75 


0-867 


870 


15.59.26 


0-492 


900 


9.15.35 


0-427 


895 


7.90.01 


0-433 


844 


7.65.46 


0-256.7 


916.5 


4.86.34 


0-256.2 


916 


4.84.92 


0-207.5 


899.5 


3.85.83 


0-207 


899 


3.84.69 


0-427 


995 


7.90.01 


0-427 


903 


7.97.07 


0-357 


900 


6.64.20 


0-112 


986 


2.28.28 


0-185 


900 


3.44.19 


0-374 


916 


7.08.18 


0-207 


898 


3.84.27 


0-362 


568 


4.44.0 


0-289 


572 


3.57.6 


0-867.5 


866 


15.52.98 


0-867.5 


870.5 


15.61.05 


0*245 


996 


5.04.43 


0-215 


899 


3.99.56 


0-868 


870 


15.61.06 


0-867 


858 


15.37.75 


0-525 


891.5 


9.67.51 


0-867 


868 


15.55.67 


0-308 


912 


5.80.66 


0-357 


900 


6.64.19 


0-140 


900 


2.60.47 


0-210 


916 


3.97.64 


0-268 


896 


4.96.39 


0-215 


869.5 


3.86.44 


0-lU 


975 


2.23.72 


0-161 


900 


2.99.54 


0-231 


915 


4.36.93 


0-112 


999 


2.31.29 



432 



CHEMICAL EECEIPTS. 

Silver Coins. 



Country. 



Austria 

Belgium , 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Canada 

Central America 
Chili 

Denmark 

England 

France 

Germany, North 
i, a 

Germany, South 

Greece 

Hindostan 

Japan 

Mexico 

Naples 

Netherlands 

Norway ...' 

New Granada.... 
Peru 

Prussia 

u 

Rome 

Russia 

Sardinia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Tunis 

Turkey 

Tuscany 



Denominations. 



Old Rix Dollar 

Old Sciulo 

Florin before 1858 

New Florin 

New Union Dollar 

Maria Theresa Dollar, 1780 

Five Francs 

New Dollar 

Half Dollar 

Double Milreis 

Twenty Cents , 

Dollar 

Old Dollar 

New Dollar 

Two Rigsdaler 

Shilling, new 

Shilling, average 

Five Francs, average 

Thaler, before 1857 

New Thaler 

Florin, before 1857 

New Florin (assumed) 

Five Drachms 

Rupee 

Itzebu 

New Itzebu 

Dollar, new 

Dollar, average 

Scudo 

Two and a half Guild 

Specie Daler 

Dollar of 1857 

Old Dollar 

Dollar of 1858 

Half Dollar, 18.35-'.38 

Thaler before 1857 

New Thaler 

Scudo 

Rouble ■ 

Five Lire 

New Pistareen 

Rix Dollar 

Two Francs 

Five Piastres 

Twenty Piastres 

Florin 



Oz. Dec. 

0-902 

0-836 

0-451 

0-397 

0-596 

0-895 

0-803 

0-643 

0-432 

0-820 

0-150 

0-866 

0-864 

0.801 

0-927 

0-182.5 

0-178 

0-800 

0-712 

0-595 

0-340 

0-340 

0-719 

0-374 

0-279 

0-279 

0-867.5 

0-866 

0-844 

0-804 

0-927 

0-803 

0-866 

0-766 

0-433 

0-712 

0-595 

0-864 

0-667 

0-800 

0-166 

1-092 

0-323 

0-511 

0-770 

0-220 



Fineness. 


Value. 
18&i. 


Thouj. 




833 


$ 1.02.27 


902 


1.02.64 


833 


61.14 


900 


48.63 


900 


73.01 


838 


1.02.12 


897 


98.04 


903.5 


79.07 


667 


39.22 


918.5 


1.02.53 


925 


18.87 


850 


1.00.19 


908 


1.06.79 


900.5 


98.17 


877 


1.10.65 


924.5 


22.96 


925 


22.41 


900 


98.00 


750 


72.67 


900 


72.89 


900 


41.65 


900 


41.65 


900 


88.03 


916 


46.62 


991 


37.63 


890 


33.80 


903 


1.06.62 


901 


1.06.20 


830 


95.34 


944 


1.0.3.31 


877 


1.10.65 


896 


97.92 


901 


1.06.20 


909 


94.77 


650 


38.31 


750 


72.68 


900 


72.89 


900 


1.05.84 


875 


79.44 


900 


98.00 


899 


20.31 


750 


1.11.48 


899 


39.52 


898.5 


62.49 


830 


86.98 


925 


27.60 



CHEMIC^IL. KEOEIFTS. 



TESTS FOR THE PRECIOUS METALS. 
For Gold. 

To a diluted colorless solution of chloride of 
gold, add a few drops of a solution of any salt 
of tin ; or stir the solution of gold with a slip of 
metallic tin ; in either case, the pro<luction of a 
beautiful purple or port wine color will be the im- 
mediate result. If the mixture is allowed to settle, 
it becomes colorless; a purple powder (which is 
an oxide of gold combined with a little tin) being 
precipitated. This powder is employed in the 
painting of china, and is called the purple precip- 
itate of Cassiua. 

For Silver. 

Let fall a drop of a aolution of nitrate of silver 



into a glassful of water, and add to it a grain of 
common salt. Mutual decomposition of the salts 
will take place, and chloride of silver (in the form 
of a white powder) will be precipitated. This 
precipitate is soluble in ammonia, and blackens 
on exposure to light. 

For Copper. 

Add a few drops of a solution of nitrate of cop- 
per to a test glass of water ; the mixture will be 
colorless; pour into it a little liquid ammonia. 
The mixture will then assume a fine deep blue 
color. 

Another. — Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a 
dense brown precipitate with the salts of copper. 
This is very delicate. 



BOILER INCRUSTATIONS. 



433 



To Detect Copper in Pickles or Green Tea. 

Put a few leaves of the tea or some of the piokle, 
eut small, into a phial with 2 or 3 drs. of liquid 
Binmonia, diluted with one-half the quantity of 
water. Shake the phial ; when, if the most minute 
p irtion of copper be present, the liquid will assume 
a fine blue color. Or immerse a polished knife- 
blade; the copper will deposit upon it. 
For Iron. 

Infusion cf galls gives a bluish black, and ferro- 
eyanide of potassium a blue precipitate. 
For Maitgunese. 

Sulphydrate of ammonia (made by passing a 
current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through 
solution of ammonia until no more is absorbed), 
gives a flesh- colored precipitate. 
For Mercury. 

Protochloride of tin gives a grayish precipitate. 
A piece of gold introduced into a solution con- 
taining mercury iind touched with a piece of iron, 
has the mercury deposited upon it. 
For Lead. 

Sulphydrate of ammonia gives a black precipi- 
tate ; chromate of potassa and iodide of potassium, 
yellow. 

To make Oxygen. 

Heat in a retort, flask, or test tube, finely pow- 
dered chlorate of potassa, mixed with about one- 
fourth its weight of black oxide of manganese. 
The gas must be collected by attaching a tube to 
the flask, the end of which dips underwater; a 
jar full of water being inverted over the end of 
the delivering tube. 

To make Hydrogen. 

Act on zinc scraps with diluted sulphuric acid ; 
say 1 part of acid to 10 of water. A common 
bottle with a perforated cork fitted with a glass 
tube or bit of pipe-stem, and another bottle to 
collect the gas, are all the apparatus required. In 
collecting the gas, the tube must reach quite to 
the top of the collecting vessel. Care must be 
taken that all the air has been driven out of each 
vessel before a light is applied, or an explosion 
will ensue. 

To make Langhtiig Gas. 

Heat gently in a flask or retort, nitrate of am- 
monia (made by adding carbonate of ammonin to 
nitric acid until no more gas comes oS"). It should 
be allowed to stand some time over water before 
being breathed. 

To make Carbonic Acid. 

Pour muriatic acid upon fragments of chalk or 
marble. The gas being heavy may be collected 
without the use of water, by simply allowing the 
delivery tube to pass to the bottom of the receiv- 
ing vessel. 

To make Chlorine. 

Heat gently a mixture of muriatic acid and 
black oxide of manganese. It may be collected 
like carbcnic acid. Care must be taken not to 
inhal<t it. 

T« make Snlphnroua Acid. 

To 12 oz. of sulphuric acid, in a glass retort, 
add 2 oz. of sulphur and apply a gentle heat. 
This is a cheap and easy process. 

To make Sulphuretted Hydrogen, 
Pour dilute sulphuric acid on sulphuret of iron. 
This is made by applying a roll of sulphur to a 
bar of iron heated white hot, or by heating in a 
crucible a mixture of 2 parts, by weight, of iron- 
filings and 1 of flowers of sulphur. 
Gun-cotton as a Filter. 
Gun-cotton, carefully prepared, is scarcely acted 
on by the most energetic chemical agents at ordi- 
28 



nary temperatures. It may therefore be used aa 
a filter for solutions containing strong acids, alka- 
lies, etc. 

To Determine whether Wheat Flour, or Bread be 
Adulterated with Chalk. 
Mix with the flour to be tried, a little sulphuric 
acid; if chalk or whiting be present, an efferves- 
cence (arising from the discharge of the carbonic 
acid of the chalk) will take place; but if the flour 
be pure, no effervescence is produced. 

Another Method. 
Pour boiling water on some slices of bread, and 
then pour into the water some sulphuric acid; if 
there be any chalk in the bread, an effervescence 
will ensue as before ; but if none be in it, no effer- 
vescence will take place. 

To Prepare Soda Water. 
Soda water is prepared (from powders) precisely 
in the same manner as ginger beer, except that, 
instead of the two powders there mentioned, the 
two following are used : For one glass, 30 grs. of 
carbonate of soda; for the other, 25 grs. of tartario 
(or citric) acid. 

To Prepare Ginger-Beer Poioders. 

Take 2 drs. of fine loaf sugar, 8 grs. of ginger, 
and 26 grs. of carbonate of potassa, all in fine pow- 
der ; mix them intimately in a Wedgwood's ware 
mortar. Take also 27 grs. of citric or tartaric acid 
(the first is the pleasantest, but the last is the 
cheapest). The acid is to be kept separate from 
the mixture. The beer is prepared from the pow- 
ders thus : Take two tumbler-glasses, each half 
filled with water; stir up the compound powder 
in one of them, and the acid powder in another, 
then mix the two liquors; an effervescence takes 
place, the beer is prepared and may be drunk off. 

The effervescence is occasioned by the discharge 
of the carbonic acid of the carbonate of potass. 
If the beer is allowed to stand for a few minutes 
it becomes flat; this is owing to its having lost all 
its carbonic acid. The cost of thuse powders is 
20 cents a dozen sets. 

To Determine whether Water he Hard or Soft, 
To ascertain whether or not water be fit for do- 
mestic purposes, to a glassful of the water add a 
few drops of the solution of soap in alcohol. If 
the water be pure, it will continue limpid; if hard, 
white flakes will be formed. 

To Preserve Phosphorus. 
Keep it in places where neither light nor heat 
has access. It is obtained from druggists in rolls; 
these are put into a phial filled with cold water, 
which has been boiled to expel air from it, and the 
phial is enclosed in an opaque case. 

Expeditious Method of Tinning. 
Plates or vessels of brass or copper are rapidly 
and firmly coated with tin by boiling them with a 
solution of stannate of potassa. mixed with trim- 
mings of tin, or by boiling them with tin-filings 
and caustic, potash or cream of tartar. 



PREVENTING AND REMOVING BOILER 
INCRUSTATIONS. 
The following substances have been used, with 
more or less success, in preventing and removing 
the incrustations which are formed by using hard 
water : — 

Krause's Anti-incrustation Potcder for Steam 
Boilers. 
Powdered charcoal, sal soda, alum, each 1 lb. 
sawdust, 8 lbs. Mix. Most of the secret incrus- 
tation powders sold are but modifications of this. 



434 



CHEMICAL RECEIPTS. 



Potatoes. 

By using about l-50th of potatoes to the weight 
of water in a boiler, scale will be prevented, but 
not removed. Their action is mechanical ; they 
coat the calcareous particles in the water, and 
prevent them from adhering to the metal. 
Extract of Oak Bark. 

A mixture has been used of 12 parts of chloride 
of sodium, 2J parts of caustic soda, J extract of 
oak bark, i of potash, for the boilers of station- 
ary and locomotive engines. The principal agent 
in this case appears to be the tannin or the ex- 
tract of oak bark. 

Pieces of Oak Wood, 
Suspended in the boiler and renewed monthly, 
prevent all deposit; even from water containing 
a large quantity of lime. The action depends 
principally upon the tannic acid. 
Saivdnst. 

Mahogany and oak sawdust has been used to 
prevent and remove scale; but care must be exer- 
cised not to allow it to choke up pipes leading to 
and from the boiler. Catechu contains tannic 
acid, and has also been used satisfactorily for 
boilers. A very small quantity of free tannic acid 
will attack the iron ; therefore, a very limited 
quantity of these substances should be employed. 
Slippery -Elm Bark. 

This article has also been used with some suc- 
less in preventing and removing incrustations. 
Soda. 

The carbonate of soda has the sanction of Pro- 
fessors Kuhlman and Fresenius, of Germany, 
Grace Calvert, of England, and others. It is sat- 
isfactorily employed for the purpose. 
Tin Salt. 

The chloride of tin is equal to the muriate of 
ammonia, and is similar in its action in prevent- 
ing scale. 

Extract of Tobacco, and Spent Tanner's Bark 
Have been employed with some degree of satis- 
faction. The sulphate, not the carbonate, of 
lime, is the chief agent in forming incrustations. 
By frequent blowing off, incrustations from car- 
bonate of lime in water will be greatly prevented. 
Ammonia. 

The muriate of ammonia softens old incrusta- 
tions. Its action is chemical ; it decomposes the 
scale. About 2 oz. placed in a boiler, twice per 
week, have kept it clean, without attacking the 
metal. 

Fatty Oils. 

It is stated that oils and tallow in a boiler pre- 
vent incrustations. A mixture, composed of 3 
parts of black-lead, and 18 parts of tallow, ap- 
plied hot, in coating the interior of a boiler, has 
been found to prevent scale. It should be applied 
every few weeks. 

Molasses. 

About l.S lbs. of molasses, fed occasionally into 
a boiler of 8-horse power, has prevented incrusta- 
tions for 6 months. • 



Curious Mode of Silvering Ivory. 

Immerse a small slip of ivory in a weak solution 
of nitrate of silver, and let it remain till the solu- 
tion has given it a deep yellow color; then take 
it out and immerse it in a tumbler of clear water, 
and expose it in the water to the rays of the sun. 
In about 3 hours the ivory acquires a black color ; 
but the black surface on being rubbed, soon be- 
comes changed to a brilliant silver. 
Soluble Silica. 

Add to soluble glass (water-glass) an excess of 
murlatio acid; put it into a box, the bottom of 



which is made of parchment-paper, afloat on the 
surface of water (dialysis) ; after a few days siiica, 
combined with water, will be found in the box. It 
may be used for the preservation of building-stone, 
or to render wood fire and water proof. 

Stoppers of Bottles for Chemical Jie-agents. 
Paraffine is the best material for lubricating the 
stoppers of bottles containing caustic alkali, as it 
is not acted upon by chemical agents under ordi- 
nary circumstances, and lubricates perfectly. 
To Loosen Tight Stoppers. 

1. Tap the stopper gently, upwards and side- 
wise, with a bit of wood. 

2. Fasten the upper part of the stopper in the 
crack of a door or a drawer, and work the bottle 
gently from side to side. 

3. Fasten a string firmly around the stopper 
(see Knots), attach it to a fixed body, and jerk 
the bottle suddenly downward. 

4. When the stopper adheres on account of the 
solidification of matters dissolved in the liquid in 
the bottle, a little of the same liquid poured around 
the base of the stopper, and allowed to remain 
awhile will often dissolve the hardened matter, and 
free the stopper. 

5. The most effectual way, but one requiring 
care, is to heat the neck of the bottle evenly and 
rapidly over an alcohol or gas-flame. The neck 
expands sooner than the stopper, and it is very 
rarely that any difficulty is found in the removal 
of the latter. If the bottle contain inflnmmable 
liquids, it is safer to wrap a cloth dipped in boil- 
ing water around the neck, instead of exposing it 
to the naked flame. 

To Remove Ink from Paper. 

Wash alternately, with a camel's-hair brush, 
dipped in a solution of oxalic acid and cyanide of 
potassium. 

Artificial Tourmalines. 

Dissolve 50 grains of disulphate of quinine in 2 
fl. oz. of acetic acid, and 2 oz. of proof-spirit, 
warmed to 130° Fahr., in a very wide-mouthed 
flask or glass beaker; then slowly add 50 dropi 
of a mixture of 40 grs. of iodine in 1 oz. of recti- 
fied spirits; agitate the mixture, and then set it 
carefully aside for 6 hours, in an apartment main- 
tained at a temperature of about 50° Fahr. The 
utmost care must be taken to avoid any motion 
of the vessel; indeed, all accidental vibrations 
should be guarded against by suspending the ves- 
sel by a string, or by allowing it to rest on a mass 
of cotton and wool. If, in 6 hours, the large lam- 
inae of the salt have not formed, warm the fluid 
with a spirit lamp, and when it has become clear, 
add a few drops of the solution of iodine in spirit. 
The large laminie form on the top of the fluid, and 
should be removed carefully by gliding .under one 
of them a circular piece of thin glass. The speci- 
men should be drained by resting the edge of the 
glass on a piece of bibulous paper, but it must not 
be touched on account of its extreme fragility; if 
any small crystals adhere to its surface, they must 
be washed off by pouring over it a few drops of 
watery solution of iodine. When dry the speci- 
men should be placed for a few minutes under a 
bell-glass by the side of a watch-glass, containing 
a few drops of tincture of iodine; and, lastly, a 
very little fluid Canada balsam should be dropped 
on it, and a thin glass cover applied without heat< 
Specimens may thus be obtained of extieme thin- 
ness, and J an inch in diameter, or even larger, 
possessing scarcely the slightest color, and yet 
completely polarizing transmitted light. 
Neto Materials for Buttons. 

Excellent buttons, and even handsome cameoi^ 



ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS. 



435 



may be made with talc or steatite, provided, after 
they are made, they be heated for sevenil hours at a 
nearly white heat. By this strong calcination the 
steatite gets so hard that it strikes fire with flints, 
and resists the best tempered file. They may be pol- 
ished by emery, tripoli, and jeweller's putty ; and 
colored by mineral or organic matters ; chloride 
of gold colors them purple; nitrate of silver, black ; 
exposure to the reducing flame increases very 
much the brilliancy of the color. 



ARTIFICIAL COLD. 

When a solid body becomes liquid, a liquid va-/ 
por, or, when a gas or vapor expands, heat is ab- 
stracted from neighboring bodies, and the pheno- 
mena or sensation of cold is produced. 

Evaporation produces cold, as is seen familiarly 
in the chilliness caused by a draught of air blow- 
ing on the moist skin. Water may be cooled to 
60°, in warm climates, by keeping it in jars of 
porous earthenware ; a flower-pot, moistened and 
kept in a draught of air, will keep butter, placed 
beneath it, hard in warm weather. In India 
water is exposed at night in shallow pans, placed 
on straw in trenches, and freezes even when the 
thermometer does not fail below 40° Water may 
be frozen by its own evaporation under the re- 
ceiver of an air-pump over sulphuric acid; the 
process is a delicate one, and not adapted for use 
on the large scale. 

Twining's ice-machine freezes water by the 
evaporation of ether, aided by the vacuum pro- 
duced by a pump worked by a steam-engine. The 
same ether may be used over again indetiuitely. 
The apparatus works well, but, in case of a leak, 
the ether vapor, mixed with air, would explode; 
there is always danger of fire. 

Carre'e Apparatus 
Freezes by the evaporation of liquid ammonia, 
the ammoniacal gas produced being absorbed by 
■water which will take up over 600 times its bulk 
of the ammonia, which it gives out again on heat- 
ing. As liquid ammonia boils at 42° below zero, 
an intense cold is produced. This apparatus is 
efficient, but as the internal pressure rises some- 
times to over 100 lbs. to the inch, it is not quite 
safe, although no accidents have yet been re- 
ported. 

Compressed Air. 

Air, when compressed, gives out heat which is 
re-absorbed when it is allowed to expand. By 
forcing the air into a strong receiver and carrying 
off the heat developed by a stream of water, it 
may, on expanding, re-absorb enough to reduce 
the temperature below 32°. It is thus used in the 
paraffine works in England, and would be an ex- 
cellent method of at once ventilating and cooling 
large buildings. 

Freezing Mixtures 
Depend upon the conversion of solid bodies into 
liquids. There are two classes, those used with- 
out ice and those in which it is employed. Where 
extreme cold is required, the body to be frozen 
should be first cooled as much as possible by one 
portion of the mixture, and then by a succeeding 
one. 

Without Ice. — Four oz. each of nitre and sal 
ammoniac in 8 of water will reduce the tempera- 
ture from 50° to 10°. 

Equal parts of nitrate of ammonia and water, 
from 50° to 4°. The salt may be recovered by 
evaporation and used over again. 

Equal parts of water, crystallized nitrate of am- 
monia, carbonate of soda, crystallized and in pow- 
der, from 50° to 7°. 

Five parts of commercial muriatic acid and 8 
of Glauber's salt, in powder, from 50° to 0°. 



[ With lee. — Snow is always preferable. Ice is 
best powdered by shaving with a plane like a car- 
penter's, or it may be put into a canvas bag and 
beaten fine with a wooden mallet. 

Equal parts of snow and common salt will pro- 
duce a temperature of — 4°, which may be main- 
tained for hours. This is the best mixture for 
ordinary use. 

Three parts of crystallized chloride of calciuni 
and 2 of snow will produce a cold sufficient to 
freeze mercury, and to reduce a spirit thermom- 
eter from 32° to — 50°. The chloride may oe recov- 
ered by evaporation. There are many other 
freezing mixtures given in the books, but none are 
so cheap and efficient as the above. 

ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS. 

Antiseptics are bodies which prevent or retard 
decay ; disinfectants those which are supposed 
similarly to retard or prevent the spread of disease, 
whether epidemic or contagious. The latter term, 
however, is popularly applied to deodorizers or 
bodies which remove the offensive smell accom- 
panying decaying organic matter. 
Antiseptics. 

Salt, spices and sugar are too well known to re- 
quire comment. Professor Morgan's method of 
salting meat is to inject the brine into the aorta, 
or main artery; this process is highly recom- 
mended on the score of simplicity and economy. 
Alcohol and glycerine are used as preservative so- 
lutions. The latter does not shrink or alter the 
color of animal or vegetable substances preserved 
in it. 

Ooadhy's Solutions. 

1. (For ordinary use in preserving specimens.) 
Alum, 1 oz. ; bay salt, 2 oz. ; corrosive sublimate, 
1 gr. ; water, 1 pt. In very tender tissues, or 
where there is a tendency to mouldiness, use 2 
grs. of corrosive sublimate. 

2. (For objects containing carbonate of lime,) 
Bay salt, i lb. ; corrosive sublimate, 1 gr. ; water, 
1 pt. 

3. (For old preparations.) Bay salt, J lb. ; ar- 
senious acid (white arsenic), 10 grs. ; water, I pt. 
Dissolve by the aid of heat. When there is a ten- 
dency to softening, add 1 gr. of corrosive sub- 
limate. 

Hehonlet's Solution. 
Nitre, 1 part; alum, 2 parts; chloride of lime, 
4 parts; water, 16 or 20 parts; to be diluted as 
may be necessary. For pathological specimens. 
Stapleton's Solution. 
Alum, 2\ oz. ; nitre, 1 dr. ; water, 1 qt. 
Burnett's Solution 
Is made by adding sc*ap zinc to muriatic acid so 
long as any gas (hydrogen) is evolved. If it bo 
required neutral, add carbonate of soda until a 
slight precipitate is seen. It is largely used in 
the preservation of timber, and in embalming, 
being in the latter case injected into the aorta. 

Kyan's Solution » 
Is a strong solution of corrosive sublimate in wa- 
ter; used for the same purposes as Burnett's, but 
now generally superseded by the latter. 

Coal Tar 
Is used to preserve wood; it is boiled and applied 
as a paint, or forced into the pores of the wood 
under pressure. 



Disinfectants. 
The only true method to prevent the spread of 
contagious or epidemic diseases is thorough clean- 
liness. Abundance of air to di.'iite the poison, and 
the removal of organic effete K^AUCer Ly liberal us* 



436 



CHEMICAL RECEIPTS. 



of water or soap and water, are effectual. Lime 
acts by destroying organic matter and absorbing 
certain offensive gases. Hence the use of white- 
washing. Sulphurous acid checks organic change 
or fermentation. A high temperature, say 240° 
Fahr., is useful in disinfecting clothes, letters, etc. 
Condy's Solution acts by destroying organic mat- 
ter; Solutions of chloride of zinc, corrosive subli- 
mate, persulphate or perchloride of iron act by 
coagulating certain organic matters and prevent- 
ing further decay; they also absorb sulphuretted 
hydrogen. Chloride of lime (bleaching salt), chlo- 
rine, nitrate of lead, and copperas are merely de- 
odorizers. Pastils (see Perfumery), burned sugar, 
vinegar, and burning tar, merely disguise offen- 
sive odors. 

Condy's Solution. 
A saturated solution of permanganate of po- 
tassa is one of the most .efficient and elegant of all 
disinfectants. A teaspoonful in a soup-plate of 
water, exposed in a room, quickly removes any 
offensive smell; when the pink color disappears 
more must be added. It has been used to remove 
the smell of bilge-water and -guano from ships. 
It speedily cleanses foul water and makes it drink- 
able. A teaspoonful to a hogshead is generally 
enough, but more may be added, until the water 
retains a slight pinkish tint. This will disappear, 
by putting a stick into the water for a few min- 
utes. 

Ledoyen's Solution. 
Litharge, 13i oz. ; nitric acid, s. g. 1'38, 12 oz., 
previously diluted with water, 6 pts. It contains 
nitrate of lead, and is merely a deodorizer. 
Chlorine. 
Free chlorine is seldom used, on acount of its 
•ffensive and suffocating qualities. 

Chloride of lime contains hypochlorite of lime 
and chloride of calcium and lime. It is made into 
a paste with water; acids cause it to evolve chlo- 
rine. 

Eau de Javelle is made by adding to chloride of 
lime 1 part, water 15 parts, and agitate at inter- 
vals for an hour; then dissolve 2 oz. carbonate 
of potassa in J pint water. Mix the solutions, and 
when the mixture has settled pour off the clear 
part. Or, by passing a stream of chlorine through 
a solution of carbonate of potassa to saturation. 
It contains hypochlorite of potassa and chloride 
of potassium. 

Laharraque's Solution. 
Pass chlorine through a solution of carbonate 
of soda (1 lb. in water 1 qt.) to saturation ; or, to 
a mixture of chloride of lime ^ lb., and water 3 
pints, add 7 oz. crystallized carbonate of soda, in 
1 pt. of water. Proceed in all respects as for Eau 
de Javelle. These solutions will remove fruit- 
stains from linen. 

'" Iron Compounds. 

Perchloride of Iron is made by dissolving iron 
in muriatic acid, and while boiling add nitric acid 
as long as red fumes are evolved. It is a power- 
ful styptic. 

Monsel'a Solution, subsulphate of iron, is made 
by dissolving copperas 12 oz. (troy), in water 12 
C8., adding sulphuric acid 510 grs., and then while 
boiling adding nitric acid as long as red fumes 
come off. It is much used as a styptic and astrin- 
gent, and is a cheap and powerful deodorizer. 
Copperas mixed with i its weight of lime is a 
cheap and popular agent in deodorizing sinks. 

Carbolic Acid, 
Or coal-tar creosote, coagulates organic matter; 
is a powerful antiseptic and deodorizer. It is used 
mixed with lime. Ridgewood's disinfecting pow- 



der contains 5 to 8 per cent, each of lime and of 
carbolic acid, and 70 to 80 percent, of fuller's earth. 

Charcoal 
Is a useful deodorizer and purifier; it acts by its 
attraction for organic matter and gases. By con- 
densing the latter as well as the oxygen of the air 
in its pores it causes* rapid combination. Small 
animals buried in charcoal are rapidly converted 
into skeletons, while no offensive smell is noticed 
even in warm weather. Water is best kept in 
charred casks; foul water is purified by filtration 
through charcoal. Meat lightly tainted is restored 
by wrapping in powdered charcoal; animal char- 
coal is the best. Lampblack is nearly worthless 
for these purposes. Animal charcoal is an anti- 
dote to all animal and vegetable poisons; it rap- 
idly removes organic coloring matters and also 
vegetable bitters from solution. Picric acid is 
not thus removed, and may in this way be de- 
tected when used instead of hops in brewing. 

Noxious Vapors. 

To prevent the effects of noxious vapors from 
wells, cellars, fermenting liquors, etc., procure a 
free circulation of air, either by ventilators, or 
opening the doors or windows where it is confined, 
or by keeping fires in the infected place; or throw- 
ing in lime, recently burnt or powdered. 

Old wells, vaults, and sewers, which have been 
long shut up from the air, are generally occupied 
by vapors which soon prove fatal to persons 
breathing them. The property which these va- 
pors have of extinguishing flame, affords the 
means of detecting their presence, and thereby 
avoiding the danger of an incautious exposure to 
them. When such places, therefore, are opened 
to be cleaned out or repaired, a lighted caudle 
should be let down slowly by means of a cord, 
before any person is suffered to descend ; and if it 
burns freely until it gets to the surface of the 
water, or other matter covering the bottom, the 
workmen may then venture down with safety. 
But, if without any accident, the candle is extin- 
guished, and continues to be so on repeated trials, 
then the air of the place is highly noxious. 



Parchment Paper 
Is made by immersing unsized paper for a few 
seconds into a mixture (cold) of 2 parts, by measure, 
of commercial sulphuric acid, and 1 part of water; 
then washing in water, and afterwards in dilute 
solution of ammonia. It is water-proof, about 6 
times as strong as paper, and may be used in all 
cases as a substitute for parchment, which it re- 
sembles. The same effect is produced by soaking 
paper in a solution of neutral chloride of zinc, 
s. g. 2100. It is then treated as before. This 
paper is used in Mr. Graham's process for dialysis. 

New Mode of Preparing Paper for the Use of 
Draughtsmen, etc. 
Reduce to a powder, and dissolve quickly in a 
glazed earthen vessel, containing cold water, some 
gum tragacanth, having been well worked with a 
wooden spatula, to free it from lumps. There 
must be a suflScicnt quantity of water, to give to 
this diluted gum the consistence of a jelly. Pa- 
per, and some sorts of stuffs, upon which, if this 
composition be smoothly applied, with a pencil or 
a brush, and dried before a gentle fire, will receive 
either water or oil colors ; in using water colors, 
they must be mixed with a solution of the above 
gum. This cloth or paper, so prepared, will take 
any color except ink. When it is intended to 
retouch any particular part of the drawing, it 
should be washed with a sponge, or clean linen, 
or a pencil (containing some of the above-men- 



IMPRESSIONS IN SAND, ETC. 



437 



tioned liquid) ; if the part is only small, it will 
then rise quickly, and appear as if repainted. 

New Mode of Preserving Impressions in Sand, etc. 
A sheet of thin iron -plate was plaeed over the 
marks made, and supported by an iron stand, at 
a distance of about IJ iuches from the surface of 
the ground ; a quantity of lighted charcoal was 
then placed on the iron plate, which soon became 
red hot, and of course heated the spot over which 
it was placed. When the latter was raised to 100° 
Centigrade (212° Fahr.) the fire, together with the 
plate, was removed, and a quantity of finely- 
divided stearic acid was strewed over the impres- 
sion by means of a sieve. The powder used was 
that of a common stearine candle, dissolved by 
heat in alcohol, and then thrown into a large 
quantity of cold water, when the stearine falls to 
the bottom in the form of a fine precipitate. This 
powder is so light and impalpable, that it is said 
it might be sifted over an impression in the dust 
of a common road, without, in the slightest degree, 
interfering with the faintest mark. The instant it 
touched the heated surface of the ground in ques- 
tion it melted, and, as it were, sealed the whole 
of the loose atoms into one compact mass. When 
a sufiieient quantity of the stearine had been ap- 
plied, the place was left until it had become com- 
pletely cold ; the surrounding earth was then dug 
out carefully at some little distance from the 
edges of the impression, and the portion contain- 
ing this latter was lifted up in one entire block, 
and laid on a cloth several times doubled, the 
edges of which were raised up so as to form a kind 
of border, or rather framing, into which, and 
against the sides of the sandy earth containing the 
impression, plaster of Paris was poured; and 
when the latter was set, the whole could be han- 
dled, without danger, and was firm enough to bear 
packing and carriage to any distance. It is evi- 
dent, therefore, that if necessary it might also be 
used as a mould, from which casts in plaster could 
be obtained. The value of such a process, as an 
aid in criminal cases, is too self-evident to require 
demonstration; the production of the tell-tale im- 
pressions in a court of justice, where every mark 
can be conveniently exhibited and compared with 
the oliject by which it was produced, may be 
equally useful in the proof of guilt and of inno- 
cence, and it would be strange, indeed, if a use 
for such a process be not discovered in matters of 
scientific or practical interest. 

To make Writing Indelible. 

The following simple process will make lead- 
pencil writing or drawing as indelible as if done 
with ink. Lay the writing in a shallow dish, and 
pour skimmed milk upon it. Any spots not wet 
at first may have the milk placed upon them 
lightly with a feather. When the paper is all wet 
over with the milk take it up and let the milk 
drain off, and whip off with the feather the drops 
which collect on the lower edge. Dry it carefully, 
and it will be found to be perfectly indelible. It 
cannot be removed even with India-rubber. It is 
an old recipe and a good one. 

To render Paper Fire-proof. 

Whether the paper be plain, written, printed on, 
or even marbled, stained, or painted for hangiiigs, 
dip it in a strong solution of alum-water, and then 
thoroughly dry it. In this state it will be fire- 
proof. This will be readily known by holding a 
slip thus prepared over a candle. Some paper re- 
quires to imbibe more of the solution than by a 
single inuiiersion, in which case the dipping and 
drying must be repeated until it becouies fully 
saturated. Neither the color nor quality of the 



paper will be in the least affected by this process, 
but, on the contrary, will be improved. 

A Composition to render Wood Fire-proof. 
Glass made by heating sand with twice its weight 
of soda-ash or pearlash is soluble in boiling water, 
when finely powdered. Applied with a brush, it 
renders woodwork fire-proof, and when once dry 
is not affected by cold water. 

To Render Dresses Incombustible. 
Take of a solution of tungstate of soda, of a spe- 
cific gravity 1-14, 100 parts; phosphate of soda, 3 
parts. The articles are dipped in the solution, and 
allowed to dry before ironing. This solution keeps 
well, and is used in the Iloyal laundry. 

Hoiv to Act when the Clothes take Fire. 
Three persons out of 4 would rush right up to 
the burning individual, and begin to paw with 
their hands without any definite aim. It is use- 
less to tell the victim to do this or that, or call for 
water. In fact, it is generally best to say not a 
word, but seize a blanket from a bed, or a cloak, 
or any woollen fabric — if none is at hand, take 
any woollen material — hold the corners as far 
apart as you can, stretch them out higher than 
your head, and, running boldly to the person, 
make a motion of clasping in the arms, most about 
the shoulders. This instantly smothers the fire, 
and saves the face. The next instant throw the 
unfortunate person on the floor. This is an ad- 
ditional safety to the face and breath, and any rem- 
nant of flame can be put out more leisurely. The 
next instant, immerse the burnt part in cold water, 
and all pain will cease with the rapidity of light- 
ning. Next, get some common flour, remove from 
the water, and cover the burnt parts with an inch 
thickness of flour, if possible ; put the patient to 
bed, and do all that is possible to soothe until the 
physician arrives. Let the flour remain until it 
falls off itself, when a beautiful new skin will be 
found. Unless the burns are deep, no other ap- 
plication is needed. The dry flour for burns is the 
most admirable remedy ever proposed, and the in- 
formation ought to he imparted to all. The prin- 
ciple of its action is that, like the water, it causes 
instant and perfect relief from pain, by totally ex- 
cluding the air from the injured parts. Spanish 
whiting and cold water, of a mushy consistency, 
are preferred by some. Dredge on the flour until 
no more will stick, and cover with cotton batting. 

To Bleach Sponges. 
Wash in hot dilute soda lye ; then immerse in 
dilute muriatic acid, 1 part to 10 of water, until 
all gritty particles are removed, and no more gas 
arises ; then immerse in a second bath of dilute 
muriatic acid, containing 3 per cent, of hyposul- 
phite of soda, for 48 hours. 

To take out Mildew. 
Wet the linen where spotted in Labarraque's 
Solution ( solution of chlorinated soda), or solution 
of chloride of lime (bleaching salt), or chlorine 
water; it will immediately disappear. Wash out 
at once with warm water. This is a better plan 
than that given in p. 314. Fruit and wine a dins 
of all kinds may be removed in the same manner. 

Simple Mode of Purifying Water. 
A tablespoonful of pulverized alum sprinkled 
into a hogshead of water (the water stirred at the 
same time) will, after a few hours, by precipitating 
to the bottom the impure particles, so purify it 
that it will be found to possess nearly all the 
freshness and clearness of the finest spring-water. 
A pailful, containing 4 gallons, may be purified 
by a single teaspoonful of *,he alum. 



438 



CHEMICAL RECEIPTS. 



AnotTier. — Add to a hogshead of water a table- 
Spoonful of a saturated solution of permanganate 
of potassa; this effectually destroys all orgnnic 
matter. If the water retain a pink hue, put a stick 
or chip in "it when the color will shortly disap- 
pear. 

To Ctire Dry-rot in Timber. 

Saturate the wood in a weak solution of cop- 
peras, for joists, beams, rafters, and floorings; or, 
soak the wood in lime-water, suffering it to dry, 
and then apply water in which there is a weak 
Bohition of vitriolic acid; or wash it with a strong 
■olution of potash, then with pyroligneous acid 
in which the oxide of lead or iron has been dis- 
golved; and finally, with alum-water. 

A current of air under a floor will always pre- 
vent the dry-rot, and stop it when it has eom- 
menced. 

In boarding kitchens and other rooms on the 
basement story, the planks should be steeped in 
a strong solution of vitriol or alum, and when 
they are dried, the side next to the earth should 
receive a coat of tar or common paint. 

Solutions used in Preserving Timber. 
The following have been employed. They are 
forced into the pores of the wood by putting it 
into a close vessel, exhausting the air, and then 
allowing the liquid to flow in. In some cases the 
timber is merely immersed ; in others the liquid 
flows in under heavy pressure. In Boucherie's 
method the green tree is felled, the branches 
trimmed otf, and a bag containing sulphate of 
copper or other antiseptic agent attached to the 
butt. The sap is gradually expelled by displace- 
ment, and flows from the free end of the log, the 
antiseptic solution taking its place. 

These solutions probably act by coagulating the 
albuminous matters of the wood, and thus pre- 
venting the beginning of decay or dry-rot. They 
also prevent the attacks of insects. Corrosive 
sublimate (Kyan), chloride of zinc (Burnett), sul- 
phate of copper (Boucberie), chloride of calcium, 
followed by sulphate of iron (Payne), crude pyro- 
ligneous acid, saturated with iron scraps (Beth- 
ell), coal tar. 

Prevention of Decay in Timber. 
Well-seasoned timber may be preserved by 
charring the surface. The process adopted in the 
French dockyards is to use a jet of mixed coal-gas 
and air; the two being conveyed by India-rubber 
tubes, which unite at the jet. The air is forced 
in by a bellows worked by the foot of the opera- 
tor. A slight previous coating of tar is useful by 
filling up cracks, and causing a uniformity of 
action of the flame. 

To Check the Warping of Planks. 
The face of the planks should be cut in the di- 
rection from east to west as the tree stood. The 
strongest side of a piece of timber is that which, 
in its natural position, faced the north. 
To Get Oil out of Boards. 
Mix together fuller's earth and soap lees, and 
mh it into the boards. Let it dry and then scour 
it off with some strong soft soap and sand, or use 
lees to scour it with. It should be put on hot, 
which may easily be done by heating the lees. 

To P-eveni the Splitting of Logs and Planks. 

Logs and planks split at the ends because the 
exposed surface dries faster than the inside. Sat- 
urate muriatic acid with lime and ap|ily like white- 
wash tc the ends. The chloride of calcium formed 
attracts moisture from the air, and prevents the 
splitting. 



Mode of Detecting Decay in Timber. 
The Cosmos reports from the other journals a 
simple mode, said to have been adopted from 
immemorial times in the ship-yards of Venice, for 
ascertaining the fitness of timber for their con- 
strnctions. "A person applies his ear to the middle 
of one of the ends of the timber, while another 
strikes upon the opposite end. If the wood is 
sound and of good quality, the blow is very dis- 
tinctly heard, however long the beam may be. If 
the wood were disaggregated by decay oi- other- 
wise, the sound would be for the most part de- 
stroyed. 

To Preserve Polished Irons from Rust. 

Polished iron-work may be preserved from rust 
by a mixture not very expensive, consisting of 
copal varnish intimately mixed with as much 
olive-oil as will give it a degree of greasiness, 
adding thereto nearly as much spirit of turpen- 
tine as of varnish ; or varnish with wax dissolved 
in benzine. The cast-iron work is best preserved 
by rubbing it with black-lead. 

But where rust has begun to make its appear- 
ance on grates or fire-irons, apply a mixture of 
tripoli, with half its quantity of s»l|ihur, inti- 
mately mingled on a marble slab and laid on with 
a piece of soft leather; or emery and oil may bo 
applied with excellent effect; not laid on in the 
usual slovenly way, but with a spongy piece of 
the fig-tree fully saturated with the mixture. This 
will not only clean, but polish, and render the us© 
of whiting unnecessary. 

To Preserve Brass Ornaments. 

Brass ornaments, when not gilt or lackered, may 
be cleaned in the same way, and a fine color may 
be given to them by two simple processes. The 
first is to beat sal ammoniac into a fine powder, 
then to moisten it with soft water, rubbing it on 
the ornaments; which must be heated over char- 
coal and rubbed dry with bran and whiting. The 
second is to wash the brass work with roche alum 
boiled in strong lye, in the proportion of an ounce 
to a pint. When dry it must be rubbed with fine 
tripoli. Either of these processes will give to brass 
the brilliancy of gold. 
Easy Mode of Taking Impressions from Coins, et«- 

A very easy and elegant way of taking the im- 
pressions of medals and coins, not generally 
known, is thus described by Dr. Shaw: Melt a 
little isinglass glue with brandy, and pour it thinly 
over the metal so as to cover its whole surface ; let 
it remain on for a day or two, till it is thoroughly 
dried and hardened, and then taking it off it will 
be fine, clear, and as hard as a piece of Muscovy 
glass, and will have a very elegant impression of 
the coin. It will also resist the effects of damp 
air, which occasions all other kinds of glue to 
soften and bend if not prepared in this way. 

Adamas, 
A substitute for metal in the manufacture of gas- 
burners, journal bearings, taps, etc., is made of 
finely-powdered soapstone, pressed into moulds 
and annealed. 

Soapstone Powder as a Lubricator. 

Soapstone powder, in the form of dust, is pro- 
posed as a lubricant for the axles of machines. 
For this purpose it is prepared as follows : It is 
first reduced to the condition of very fine powder; 
then it is washed to remove all gritty particles; 
then it is steeped for a short period in dilute mu- 
riatic acid (about 1 qt. of acid to 20 of water), in 
which it is stirred until all particles of iron which 
it contains are dissolved. The powder is then 
washed in pure water again, to remove all traces 



BAEOMETERS. 



439 



of acid ; then it is dried, and is the purified stea- 
tite powder used for lubrication. It is not used 
alone, but is mixed with oils and fats, in the pro- 
portion of about 35 per cent, of the powder, added 
to parafifine, rape, or otner oil. This steatite pow- 
der, ini.\ed with any of the soapy compounds, 
which are also now used, in many cases, for lubri- 
cation, also answers a good purpose. It is chiefly 
intended for heavj' machinery, such as the jour- 
nals of water-wheels, railway and other carriages. 

Jiannome's Artificial Stone. 
Make sand or gravel into a paste with fluid sil- 
icate of soda (water-glass), mould ic to the desired 
shape, and dip into a solution of chloride of cal- 
cium. This soluticin is made by neutralizing mu- 
riatic acid with lime, chalk, limestone, or marble. 
The mass becomes solid in a few minutes, and is 
exceedingly strong and durable. 

To Imitate Ground Gloss. 
A ready way of imitating ground glass is to dis- 
solve Epsom salts in beer, and apply with a brush. 
As it dries it crystallizes. 

To Drill Glass. 
Wet an ordinary drill with petroleum or ben- 
zine ; turpentine will answer, but not so well ; it 
will then bore common glass nearly as rapidly as 
steel. If it is intended to bore through, the glass 
should be first countersunk on each side with a 
drill dressed ofif so as to form a verj' flat three- 
sided pyramid. Flint and plate-glass are very 
difficult to bore. 



A New Kind of Electric Machine. 
The electro-magnetic coil has, in a great mea- 
sure, superseded the electric machine ; the latter, 
however, will never cease to be an object of 
interest ; and, it is probable, will always be pre- 
ferred for some purposes. The expense and diffi- 
culty of managing large plates and cylinders of 
glass have hitherto been obstacles to the use of 
large electric machines. These obstacles appear 
now removed — glass being rendered unnecessary 
by the discovery of a far more convenient and 
effective material. M. Edmond Bequerel exhibited 
to the Academy of Sciences on a recent occasion an 
electric machine, the plate of which was made of in- 
durated red sulphur, the invention of a civil engi- 
neer. It was 80 centimetres indiameter,and afforded 
a spark 14 centimetres in length. Noamalgamated 
cushions were required with it, the skin of a cat 
being quite sufiicient to produce every desired 
effect. Sulphur undergoes extraordinary changes 
by successive fusions; becoming extremely hard 
and tenacious. After the third fusion it no longer 
acts on metals, or possesses its characteristic odor. 
The plate used by M. Bequerel was formed by 
fusing the sulphur 3 times in a cast-iron vessel, at 
a temperature between 250° and 300° Cent., and 
allowing it, after each fusion, to cool thoroughly. 
After the 1st and 2nd fusions it was crushed to a 
coarse powder; and, after the 3rd, it was poured 
into a plaster-uiiiuld. Plates, 4 metres in diame- 
ter, may easily lie made in this way ; they cost ex- 
tremely littlf; and, besides being more efficient, 
are far less liygrometric than glass. 



w^EA-THEn i^noaisrosTics. 



TO CONSTRUCT BAROMETERS. 

The tubes intended for barometers ought to be 
sealed hermetically on both ends, immediately 
after they are made at the glass-house, and to be 
kept in this state until they are fitted up. With- 
out this precaution they are apt to be sullied with 
dust, moisture, and other impurities, which it is 
afterwards almost impossible to remove on ac- 
count of the smallness of their diameters. When 
they are opened, which may be done with a file, 
care should be taken' not to breathe into them, 
nor to wash them with spirit of wine, or other 
fluid, experience having proved that in tubes so 
treated, the mercury always stands a little below 
its proper level ; this is owing to the adhesion of a 
little of the spirit of wine to the sides of the tube. 
When cleaning is necessary, it must be done with 
a fine linen rag that has been previously well 
dried. 

The tubes ought to be as perfectly cylindrical 
as possible, though, in some cases, this is not ab- 
golutely necessary. They should be about 33 
inches in length, and the diameter of their bore 
should be at least 2 or 2i lines, otherwise the 
friction, and the capillary action will be apt to 
affect the free motion of the mercury. The glass 
should not be very thick, as it is apt in that case 
to break; when the mercury is boiled in the tube 
half a line is sufficient. 

The mercury ought to be perfectly pure and 
free from all foreign metals. The best is that 
which has been recently revived from cinnabar ; 



the common mercury of the shops being often 
adulterated intentionally with tin, lead, and bis- 
muth, stands at various heights in the tube, ac- 
cording to the nature and quantity of the foreign 
substances with which it is amalgamated. 

To Obtain the Mercury Pure. 
For this purpose take a pound of cinnabar and 
reduce it to powder; mix it well with 5 or 6 oz. 
of iron or steel filings; and, having put the mix- 
ture into an iron retort, expose the whole to the 
heat of a reverberatory furnace; the mercury will 
soon pass over in a state of great purity, and may 
be obtained by adapting to the retort an earthen 
receiver, which has been previously half filled with 
water. Commercial mercury may be purified by 
distilling it over a portion of cinnabar. These 
are i)ut into an iron bottle with an iron tube at- 
tached ; to the end of the iron tube is one made 
of leather or India-rubber which dips beneath the 
surface of water constantly renewed. 

Process of Filling the Tube, 
Before being introduced into the tube, the 
mercury ought to be well heated, or even boiled 
in a glazed earthen pipkin, in order to drive off 
any moisture which may adhere to it, but this will 
be unnecessary if the mercury has been recently 
reduced. 

The mercury ought likewise to be boiled in the 
tube to expel any air or moisture which may still 
remain attached to it, or to the inside of the tube. 
This is done in the following manner : Pour as 



MO 



WEATHER PROGNOSTICS. 



much mercury into the tube as will make it stand 
to the iengih of 3 or 4 inches; and introduce a 
long wire of iron to stir it during the boiling. 
Expose the mercury in the tube gradually to the 
heat of a chafing-dish of burning charcoal, or a 
well regulated gas flame; and when it begins to 
boil, stir it gently with the iron wire, to facilitate 
the disengagement of the bubbles of the air. When 
the first portion of the mercury has been suffi- 
ciently boiled, and all the air extricated, remove 
the tube from the chafing-dish and allow the 
whole to cool, taking care not to bring it into con- 
tact with any cold substance. Introduce an equal 
quantity of mercury, and treat it in the same 
manner, withdrawing the wire a little so that it 
may not reach below the upper part of the mer- 
cury alreadj' freed from air. The chafing-dish 
must also be placed immediately under the mer- 
cury which has been last poured in. Repeat the 
same process with each successive portion of mer- 
cury till the tube is filled, always applying the 
heat very cautiously ; and be equally careful in 
allowing it to cool before a fresh portion of mer- 
cury is poured in. 

The Aneroid Barometer 
Consists of a brass-box partially exhausted of air 
with an elastic lid of corrugated brass. Changes 
of atmospheric pressure are indicated by the move- 
ments of the lid which are transmitted to an index 
hand. It is light, portable, conrains no liquid, 
and is more sensitive than themercu.ial barometer. 



READING THE BAROMETER. 

The following manual of the barometer has 
been compiled by Rear-Admiral Fitzroy, and pub- 
lished by the Board of Trade. It has been slightly 
altered to suit the climate of the United States. 

Familiar as the practical use of weather-glasses 
is, at sea as well as on land, only those who have 
long watched their indications and compared 
them carefully, are really able to conclude more 
than that the rising glass usually fortells less wind 
or rain, a falling barometer more rain or wind, 
or both ; a high one fine weather, and a low one the 
contrary. But useful as these general conclusions 
are in most cases, they are sometimes erroneous, 
and then remarks may be rather hastily made, 
tending to discourage the inexperienced. 

By attention to the following observation (the 
results of many years' practice, and many persons' 
experience), any one not accustomed to use a 
barometer may do so without difficulty. The 
barometer shows whether the air is getting lighter 
or heavier, or is remaining in the same state. The 
quicksilver falls as the air becomes lighter, rises 
as it becomes heavier, and remains at rest in the 
glass tube while the air is unchanged in weight. 
Air presses upon everything within about 40 miles 
of the world's surface, like a much lighter ocean, 
at the bottom of which we live, not feeling its 
weight because our bodies are full of air, but feel- 
ing its currents, the winds. Towards any place 
from which the air has been drawn by suction, air 
presses with a force or weight of nearly 15 lbs. on 
a square inch of surface. Such a pressure holds 
the limpit to the rock when, by contracting itself, 
the fish has made a place without air under its 
ehell. Another familiar instance is, that of the 
fly, which walks on the ceiling with feet that 
stick. The barometer tube, emptied of air and 
filled with pure mercury, is turned down into a 
cup or cistern containing the same fluid, which 
feeliug the weight of air, is so pressed by it as to 
balance a column of about 30 inches (more or less) 
in the tube, where no air presses on the top of the 
column. 



If a long pipe, closed at one end only, were 
emptied of air, filled with water, the open end 
kept in water, and the pipe held upright, the water 
would rise in it more than 30 feet. In this way 
water barometers have been made. A proof of 
this effect is shown by any well with a sucking- 
pump, up which, as is commonly kniiwn, the water 
will rise nearly 30 feet by what is called suction, 
which is, in fact, the pressure of air towards an 
empty place. 

The words on scales of barometers should not 
be so much regarded for weather indications as 
the rising or falling of the mercury, for if it stand 
at "changeable," and then rise towards "fair," 
it presages a change of wind or weather, though 
not so great as if the mercury had risen higher; 
and, on the contrary, if the mercury stand above 
" fair," and then fall, it presages a change, though 
not to so great a degree as if it had stood lower; 
besides which, the direction and force of the wind 
are not in any way noticed. It is not from the 
point at which the mercury may stand that we 
are alone to form a judgment of the state of the 
state of the weather, but from its rising or falling, 
and from the movements of immediately preced- 
ing days, as well as hours, keeping in mind effects 
of change of direction and dryness or moisture, 
as well as alteratiim of force or strength of wind. 

In this part of the world, towards the higher 
latitudes, the quicksilver ranges, or rises and falls, 
nearly three inches — namely, between about thirty 
inches and nine-tenths (30.9), and less than twen- 
ty-eight inches (28.0) on extraordinary occasions; 
but the usual range is from about thirty inches 
and a half (30.5) to about twenty-nine inches. 
Near the Line, or in equatorial places, the range 
is but a few tenths, except in storms, when it 
sometimes falls to twenty-seven inches. 

The sliding scale (Vernier) divides the tenths 
into 10 parts each, or hundredths of an inch. The 
number of divisions on the Vernier exceeds that in 
an equal space of the fixed scale by one. 

By a thermometer the weight of air is not sho*n. 
No air is within the tube, none can get in. But 
the bulb of the tube, is full of mercury which con- 
tracts by cold and swells by heat, according to 
which eff"ect the thread of metal in the small tube 
is drawn down or pushed up so many degrees, and 
thus shows the temperature. 

If a therm(mieter have a piece of linen round 
the bulb, wetted enough to keep it damp by a 
thread or wick dipping into a cup of water, it will 
show less heat than a dry one, in proportion to 
the dryness of the air and quickness of drying. 
In very dump weather, with or before rain, fog, 
or dew, a wet and dry bulb thermometer will be 
nearly alike. 

For ascertaining the dryness or moisture of air, 
the readiest and surest method is the comparison 
of two thermometers, one dry, the other just 
moistened and kept so. Cooled by evaporation as 
much as the state of the air admits, the moist (or 
wet) bulb thermometer shows a temperature nearly 
equal to that of the other one, when the atmos- 
phere is extremely damp or moist; but lower at 
other times in proportion to the dryness of air 
and consequent evaporation — as far as 12° or 15° 
in this climate, 20° or even more elsewhere. From 
4° to 8° of difl'erence is usual in England, and 
about 7° is considered healthy for inhabited ro jms. 
The wet and dry bulb thermometer on the same 
frame, the water being supplied by a bird foun- 
tain, constitutes August's or Mason's hygrometer. 

The thermometer fixed to a barometer iniended 
to be used only as a weather-glass, shows the tem- 
perature of air about it, nearly, but does not show 
the temperature of mercury within, exactly. It 



READING THE BAROMETER. 



441 



does so, however, near enough for ordinary prac- 
tical purposes, provided that no sun, nor fire, nor 
lamp heat is allowed to act on the instrument 
partially. 

The mercury in the cistern and tube being af- 
fected by cold or heat, mnkes it advisable to con- 
sider this when endeavoring to foretell coming 
weather by the length of the column. 

Briefly, the barometer shows weight or pressure 
of the air ; the thermometer, heat and cold, or tem- 
perature ; and the wet thermometer, compared with 
a dry one, the degree of moisture or dampness. 

It should always be remembered that the state 
of the air foretells coming weather rather than 
shows the weather that is present — an invaluable 
fact too often overlooked ; that the longer the time 
between the signs and the change foretold bj' 
them, the longer such altered weather will last, 
and, on the contrary, the less the time between a 
warning and a change, the shorter will be the con- 
tinuance of such foretold weather. 

To know the state of the air not only barome- 
ters and thermometers should be watched, but the 
appearance of the sky should be vigilantly noticed. 

If the barometer has been about its ordinary 
height, say near 30 inches (at the sea level), and is 
steady, or rising while the thermometer falls, and 
dampness becomes less, northwesterly or northerly 
wind, or less wind, less rain or snow may be ex- 
pected. 

On the contrary, if a fall takes place with a ris- 
ing thermometer and increased dampness, wind 
and rain may be expected from the south-east- 
ward, southward or south-westward. A fall with 
a low thermometer foretells snow. A rise during 
frost indicates snow. 

Excejitions to these rules occur when a north- 
easterly wind with wet (rain, hail or snow) is im- 
pending, before which the barometer often rises 
(on account of the direction of the coming wind 
alone) and deceives persons, who from that sign 
only (the rising) expect fair weather. 

When the barometer is rather below its ordinary 
height, say down to near 29 J inches (at the sea lev- 
el), a rise foretells less wind, or a change in its 
direction toward the northward, or less wet; but 
when it has been very low, about 29 inches, the 
first rising usually precedes or indicates strong 
wind; at times heavy squalls from the northwesc- 
ward, northward or northeastward, after which 
violence a gradually rising glass foretells improv- 
ing weather, if the thermometer falls; but if the 
warmth continue, probably the wind will back 
(shift against the sun's course) and more southerly 
or southwesterly wind will follow, especially if 
the barometer's rise is sudden. 

The most dangerous shifts of wind or the heavi- 
est northerly gales happen soon after the barome- 
er first rises from a very low point, or if the wind 
veers gradually at some time afterwards. 

Indications of approaching changes of weather 
and the direction and force of winds are shown 
less by the height of the barometer than by its 
falling or rising. Nevertheless, a height of more 
than thirty (30.0) inches (at the level of the sea) is 
indicative of fine weather and moderate winds, 
except from east to north occasionally or during 
frost, when northeast winds and snow are indi- 
cated. 

The barometer is said to be falling when the 
mercury in the tube is sinking, at which time its 
upper surface is sometimes concave or hollow ; or 
when the hand of the wheel barometer or Aneroid 
moves to the left. The barometer is rising when 
the mercurial column is lengthening, its upper 
aorface being convex or rounded, or when the hand 
moves to the right. 



A rapid rise of the barometer indicates unset* 
tied weather, a slow movement the contrary ; a3 
likewise a steady barometer, which, when contin- 
ued, and with dryness, foretells very fine weather. 

The greatest depressions of the barometer are 
with gales from S.E., S., or S.W. ; the greatest 
elevations, with wind from N.W., N., or N.E., or 
with calm. 

Though the barometer generally falls with a 
southerly and rises with a northerly wind, the 
contrary sometimes occurs; in which cases, the 
southerlj' wind is usually dry with fine weather, 
or the northerly wind is violent and accompanied 
by rain, snow or hail; perhaps with lightning. 

When the barometer sinks considerably, much 
wind, rain (perhaps with hail) or snow will follow; 
with or without lightning. The wind will be from 
the northward, if the thermometer is low, (for the 
season), from the southward if the thermometer is 
high. Occasionally a low glass is followed or at- 
tended by lightning only, while a storm is beyond 
the horizon. 

A sudden fall of the barometer with a westerly 
wind, is sometimes followed by a violent storm 
from N.W., or N., or N.E. 

If a gale sets in from the E. or S.E., and the 
wind veers by the S., the barometer will continue 
falling until the wind is near a marked change, 
when a lull may occur, after which the gale will 
soon be renewed, perhaps suddenly and violently, 
and the veering of the wind towards the N.W., 
N., or N.E., will be indicated by a rising of the 
barometer with a fall of the thermometer. 

Three causes (at least) appear to affect a bar- 
ometer: 

1. The direction of the wind ; the northeast 
wind tending to raise it the most, the southwest to 
lower it the most, and wind from points of the 
compass between them proportionally as they are 
nearer one or the other extreme point. 

N.E. and S.W. may, therefore, be called the 
wind's extreme bearings. 

The range or difference of height shown, due 
to change of direction only, from one of these 
bearings to the other (supposing strength or force 
and moisture to remain the same), amounts in 
these latitudes to about i an inch (as read oif). 

2. Tbe amount taken by itself of vapor (moist- 
ure, wet, rain, or snow in the wind remaining the 
same), seems to cause a change amounting in an 
extreme case to about ^ an inch. 

3. The strength or force alone of wind, from any 
quarter (moisture and direction being unchanged), 
is preceded or foretold by a fall or rise, according 
as the strength will be greater or less, ranging in 
extreme cases to more than 2 inches. 

Hence, supposing three causes to act together, 
in extreme cases, the height would vary from 
near 31 in. (30-9) to about 27 in. (27-0), which has 
happened, though rarely (and even in tropical 
latitudes). 

In general the three causes act much less 
strongly, and are less in accord, so that ordinary 
varieties of weather occur nruch more frequently 
than extreme changes. 

Another general rule requires attention, which 
is, that the wind usually appears to veer, shift, or 
go round with the sun (right-handed, or from left 
to right), and that when it does not do so, or backs, 
more wind or bad weather may be expected, in- 
stead of improvement. 

It is .'"t bj' any means intended to discourage 
attention to what is usually called " weather wis- 
dom." On the contrary, every prudent person 
will combine observation of the elements with 
such indications as he may obtain from instru- 
ments, and will find that the more accurately the 



442 



WEATHER PROGNOSTICS. 



two sources of foreknowledge are compared ar.'l | 
combined, the more satisfactory their results will 
prove. 

A barometer begins to rise considerably before 
the conclusion of a gale, sometimes even at its 
commencement. Although it falls lowest before 
high winds, it frequently sinks very much before 
heavy rain. The barometer falls, but nut always, 
on the approach of thunder and lightning. Be- 
fore and during the earlier part of settled weather 
it usually stands high and is stationary, the air 
being dry. 

Instances of fine weather with a low glass oc- 
cur, however, rarely, but they are always preludes 
to a duration of wind or rain, if not both. 

After very warm and calm weather, a storm or 
squall, with rain, may follow ; likewise at any 
time when the atmosphere is heated much above 
the usual temperature of the season. 

Allowance should invariably be made for the 
previous state of the glasses during some days, as 
well as some hours, because their indications may 
be affected by distant causes, or by changes close 
at hand. Some of these changes may occur at a 
greater or less distance, influencing neighboring 
regions, but not visible to each observer whose 
barometer feels their effect. 

There may be heavy rains or violent winds be- 
yond the horizon, and the view of an observer, by 
which his instruments may be afi'ected considera- 
bly, though no particular change of weather oc- 
curs in his immediate locality. 

It may be repeated that the longer a change of 
wind or weather is foretold before it takes place, 
the longer the presaged weather will last, and con- 
versely, the shorter the warning the less time, 
whatever causes the warning, whether wind or a 
fall of rain or snow, will continue. 

Sometimes severe weather from the southward, 
not lasting long, may cause no great fall, because 
followed by a duration of wind from the north- 
ward, and at times the barometer may fall with 
northerly winds and fine weather, apparently 
against these rules, because a continuance of 
southerly wind is about to follow. By such changes 
as these one may be misled, and calamity may be 
the consequence if not duly forewarned. 

A few of the more marked signs of weather, 
useful alike to seaman, farmer and gardener, are 
the following ; 

Whether clear or cloudy, a rosy sky at sunset 
presages fine weather; a red sky in the morning 
bad weather, or much wind (perhaps rain) ; a gray 
sky in the morning, fine weather; a high dawn, 
wind ; a low dawn, fair weather. 

Soft-looking or delicate clouds foretell fine 
weather, with moderate or light breezes ; hard- 
edged, oily-looking clouds, wind. A dark, gloomy, 
blue sky is windy, but a light, bright, blue sky 
indicates fine weather. Generally, the softer 
clouds look, the less wind (but perhaps more rain) 
may be expected ; and the harder, more " greasy," 
rolled, tufted, or ragged, the stronger the coming 
wind will prove. Also, a bright yellow sky at 
Bunset presages wind ; a pale yellow, wet ; and 
thiis by the prevalence of red, yellow, or gray 
tints, the coming weather may be foretold very 
nearly; indeed, if aided by instruments, almost 
exactly. 

Small, inky-looking clouds foretell rain ; light 
scud-clouds driving across heavy masses sl.ovv 
wind and rain, but, if alone, may indic:ito wind 
only. 

High, upper clouds crossing the sun, moon, or 
• stars, in a direction different from that of the 
lower clouds, or the wind then felt below, foretell 
a change of wind. 



After clear, fine weather, the first signs in the sky 
of a coming change are usually light streaks, curls, 
wisps, or mottled patches of white distant clouds, 
which increase and are followed by an overcast- 
ing of murky vapor that grows into cloudiness. 
This appearance, more or less oily, or watery, as 
wind or rain will prevail, is an infallible sign. 

Usually the higher and more distant such clouds 
seem to be, the more gradual but general the com- 
ing change of weather will prove. 

Light, delicate, quiet tints or colors, with soft, 
undefined forms of clouds, indicate and accom- 
pany fine weather, but gaudy or unusual hues, 
with hard, definitely outlined clouds, foretell rain, 
and probably strong wind. 

Misty clouds forming or hanging on heights, 
show wind, if they remain, increase, or descend. 
If they rise or disperse, the weather will improve 
or become fine. 

When sea-bii]^s fly out early, and far to sea- 
ward, moderate wind and fair weather may be ex- 
pected ; when they hang about the land, or over 
it, sometimes flying inland, expect a strong wind 
with stormy weather. As many creatures besides 
birds are affected by the approach of rain or wind, 
such indications should not be slighted by an ob- 
server who wishes to foresee weatlier. 

There are other signs of a coming change in 
the weather, known less generally than may be 
desirable, and therefoie worth notice, such as when 
birds of long flight, rooks, swallows, or others, 
hang about home, and fly up and down, or low, 
rain or wind may be expected. Also, when ani- 
mals seek sheltered places, instead of spreading 
over their usual range; when pigs carry straw to 
their styes; when smoke from chimneys does not 
ascend readily (or straight upwards during calm), 
an unfavorable change is probable. 

Dew is an indication of fine weather; so is fog. 
Neither of these two formations occur- under an 
overcast sky, or when there is much wind. One 
sees fog occasionally rolled away, as it were, by 
wind, but seldom or never formed while it is 
blowing. 

Remarkable clearness of atmosphere near the 
horizon, distant objects, such as hills, usually visi- 
ble, or raised (by refraction), and what is called 
"a good hearing day," may be mentioned among 
the signs of wet, if not wind, to be expected. 

More than usual twinkling of the stars, indis- 
tinctness or apparent multiplication of the moon's 
horns, haloes, "wind-dogs," and the rainbow, are 
more or less significant of increasing wind, if not 
approaching rain, with or without wind. 

Near land, in sheltered harbors, in valleys, or 
over low ground, there is usually a marked dimi- 
nution of wind during part of the night, and a 
dispersion of clouds. Ac such times an eye on an 
overlooking height may see an extended body of 
vapor below (rendered visible by the cooling of 
night), which seems to check the wind. 

Lastly, the dryness or dampness of the air and 
its temperature (for the season) should always be 
considered, with other indications of change, or 
continuance of wind and weather. 



THERMOMETRIC SCALES. 
The two natural points on the thermometrio 
scale are the temperature of boiling water (at 30° 
in bar.), and that of melting ice. The latter is 
on the Centigrade and Reaumur scale, ;i2° on Fah- 
renheit. The former is 100° on the Centigrade, 80° 
on Reaumur's, and 212° on Fahrenheit's. Hence 
100° C. = 80° R. == 170° Fahr. To reduce Reau- 
mur degrees to Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide 
by 4, and add 32 To reduce Centigrade to Fah« 
renheit, multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. 



V 



ANGLING. 



443 



FISH. 



The Editor is indebted to Mr. Freas, editor of 
the Geruiantown Telegraph, for the following val- 
nable articles : 

ANGLING. 

Among the lakes, rivers and brooks of our coun- 
try, the lover of the "' gentle art " has rare oppor- 
tunities for indulging in his favorite amusement. 
Yet how few there are, comparatively speaking, 
that feel an interest in it. Considering that an- 
gling, and trout-fishing particularly, usually leads 
us among the wildest and most beautiful scenes 
of nature, it is, indeed, remarkable that this de- 
lightful recreation is not mi'Te generally indulged 
in. It is not our intention, however, to etiter into 
a treatise upon this manly sport, but merely to 
embody within the limits of a single article in- 
formation, that may be useful to an unpractised 
hand, in regard to fish which properly come un- 
der the angler's notice. 

Salmon. 

In the United States there is but one distinct 
species of the salmon. He is a bold biter, a sly 
and handsome fish, and, on account rif his strength 
and build, possesses great leaping powers. He is 
a voracious feeder, and may be taken by the an- 
gler with his favorite food, minnows, the sea-sand 
eel, or any small and delicate fish, but the surest 
bait is the common red worm. The rivers of Cali- 
fornia, Oregon, and Washington Territory, are the 
only streams within the limits of the United States 
■where the salmon is numerous, and the angler can 
have good sport. They may also be taken with 
rod and line in considerable numbers in nearly all 
the streams which flow into the St. Lawrence from 
the north, below Quebec, and those whinh empty 
into the Gulf of St. Lawrence and into the Atlan- 
tic, along the coast of Labrador. Anglers usually 
take the salmon with the artificial fly, and use an 
elastic-pointed rod, about 18 feet in length, with 
reel capable of holding from 300 to 600 feet of 
twisted hair and siik line. The fishing season in 
Canada and New Brunswick conomences about the 
lOlh of June, and in Nova Scotia about one month 
earlier. 

Trout. 

This beautiful fish, with the exception of the 
salmon, is the most superb game-fish in the world. 
There are several species. In nearly all the nure 
cold-water streams of the Northern, Middle and 
Eastern States the speckled trout abounds. The 
best bait, in early spring, is the red dung- 
vrorm, but in June and July the fly is probably 
the most killing. In many of the States a very 
proper law is in force for the protection of the fish, 
allowing them to be taken only during the spring 
and summer months. Of the artificial flies the " red 
tackle" is usually preferred. The outfit of the trout 
anglershouldconsist of alight, elastic rod and small 
reel, with 50 or 60 feet of plaited hair and silk 
line, and a silk worm "leader," 6 feet in length, 
attached. Ji.t the end of this, when bait is used, 
fasten a long-shanked Kirby hook of small size, 
and, if the current should be very swift, attach a 
split buck-shot to the leader about a foot above 
the hook. Put a whole live worm on the hook, 
allowing the head and tail to be free, so that it 
■will make as natural an appearance as possible in 
the water. A small woollen bag pinned or but- 
toned to the pantaloons is the best receptacle for 



worms. As it is usually necessary to wade the 
streams, a Inrge and easily-fitting pair of shoes, 
with nails projecting J inch from the soles to pre- 
vent slipping, should be worn. Trout are usually 
found beneath falls, in eddies, or in portions of 
the brook where the current is not very swift. 
The stream should be waded very cauti<iusly, and 
the fly or bait thrown as far as possible, as the 
trout is the most timid of all the finny tribes. 
"When you feel the fish biting, draw the line slowly 
towards you 2 or 3 feet, and if it seems to be se- 
curely fastened draw him directly out of the water 
if small; when otherwise, allow him to remain in 
the water, giving him as much line as he desires 
until suflSciently exhausted to be drawn to the 
shore and lifted out. In Pennsylvania, New Jer- 
sey and Maryland trout are but seldom caught 
e.xceeding a pound in weight. In a day's sport 
in the most favored localities in these StatTs, the 
weight of fish in the angler's reel would not ex- 
ceed i lb. each. In New York and the Eastern 
States the run of trout is much birger. In many 
of the lakes and tributaries of Maine they are ex- 
ceedingly numerous and of very large size. On 
certain days they will not touch the most tempt- 
ing bait, while at other times they rise savagely 
at any kind of artificial flies, and the angler fre- 
quently kills 3 at a cast weighing 2 or 3 lbs. each. 
They are often caught weighing as much as 8 lbs., 
and are most numerous in Maine, in Moosehead, 
Memfremagog, Mubagog and Schudic lakes, and 
their triliutaries. 

The most agreeable months to visit these lakes 
are August and September. Earlier in the season 
black flies, gnats and ticks are very annoying. 
Even early in the spring, before the snow has 
melted from the mountains, they trouble the an- 
gler. Insects of any kind, however, may be kept 
at a respectful distance by covering the hands and 
face with a preparation consisting of J oil of pen- 
nyroyal and the remainder sweet oil. 

The Salmon-trout is a fish of much larger 
growth than the speckled trout, and is less appre- 
ciated as an article of food, but nevertheless af- 
fords the angler capital sport. They are nume- 
rous in many of the lakes of New York and Maine, 
in Lake Superior and in the Straits of Mackinaw. 
The same tackle used for salmon fishing could be 
advantageously used for the salmon-trout or for 
the speckled trout in Maine. 

Perch. 
The white perch is a bold biter and a decidedly 
pretty fish. It is found in nearly all the rivers 
of the Atlantic coast, from Boston to Norfolk. In 
the Delaware. Susquehanna, and Potomac, they 
are particularly numerous, and give the angler 
rare sport. On the Delaware a contrivance for 
catching them called a bow-line or deepsea, is 
much used. Usually about eight small sized hooks 
are attached to it. It can be obtained at the fish- 
ing-tackle stores. This style of fishing requires 
no skill whatever, and is much less interesting 
than angling. Along the edge of the water-docks 
which skirt these rivers, or in among the leaves 
of the plants, when the tide is sufiiciently high, 
fine sport may be had during the summer months 
with rod and line. Dung-worms are the best bait 
for white perch ; but they are often caught of large 
sizo ■«rtlfa the minnow. This fish, when cooked an 



444 



FISH. 



hour or two after being taken, in our opinion, is 
unsurpassed in flavor by any, witii the exception 
of the salmon and shad. It is but seldom killed 
in the rivers by anglers, exceeding a pound and a 
quarter in weight; although in ponds, canals, and 
inlets fed by the rivers, it frequently attains a 
much larger size. Like the salmon, shad, and 
herring, they are a migratory fish ; and when 
enclosed in fresh water ponds they never propa- 
gate, and often become emaciated shortly after the 
migratory season. Those that survive the first 
year usually grow to a large size. 

The yellow perch, although a pretty fish and a 
strong biter, is considered rather inferior as an 
esculent. It inhabits nearly all the rivers and 
large ponds of the Eastern and Middle States. 
They bite at almost anything. Indeed, we were 
informed by a fisherman residing in a cabin on the 
banks of a beautiful pond, in Pike County, Penn- 
sylvania, that he has caught them with a whortle- 
berry attached to a hook. This fish frequently 
attains a weight of from three to four pounds. 

Black Bass, 

This superb member of the finny tribe is pecu- 
liar to the West and South. It is found in the 
greatest numbers in the tributaries of the upper 
Mississippi, in nearly all the lakes of New York 
and Canada, including the great lakes, with the 
exception of Superior, and in the river St. Law- 
rence. He is a fierce biter, and, unlike the trout, 
is not a timid fish. He is particularly fond of 
romantic streams and dilapidated mill-dams. He 
bites freely at the red worm, rises readily at the 
fly or minnow, and may be taken as early as April 
and May, according to location. 
Rock. 

This superb game fish, also known as the Striped 
Bass, is found in all the rivers from the Penobscot 
to Savannah, but is most numerous along the 
shores of Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachu- 
setts, and Maine. Block Island, within four miles 
of the Rhode Island coast, is considered about the 
best locality. Just after a heavy gale is the most 
opportune time to troll for them, as the largest 
fish then come near to shore. Trolling from a 
boat with a rod, is the usual style of angling. For 
a bait, the skin of an eel attached to a " squid," is 
usually used. For still river fishing, minnows or 
the roe of any kind of fish, is most killing. The 
rock frequently attains a weight of 100 pounds. 

Pike. 

This savage creature is considered the longest 
lived of all fresh water fish. In this country, as 
in England, it is also known as the Pickerel, but 
reaches its greatest perfection here. A peculiarity 
of this fish is its great voraciousness, about which 
there are many anecdotes told. He is not very 
particular in regard to food, but it usually con- 
sists of fish and frogs. He inhabits nearly all 
the lakes and inland waters of the Northern and 
Middle States. A simple and good equipment for 
pike fishing is a stout rod and reel, a strong linen 
line, a brass leader, a sharp Kirby hook, and a 
small landing net. For still fishing a live minnow 
is excellent bait, and for trolling a small " shiner" 
should be used. In the winter, when the lakes 
and ponds are frozen, by making an opening in 
the ice very tine pike are frequently taken with 
liv9 minnows. For this purpose the bait should 
be obtained in the summer or fall and kept alive 
in spring-water. Pikb often attain the weight of 
from 50 to 60 lbs. 

3fuskaloiige. 

This fish belongs to the pike family, and usually 
weighs from 20 to 40 Iba. It is a favorite with 



anglers on the great lakes, the upper Mississippi, 
the St. Lawrence, and along the shores of the Ohio 
and the Tennessee. He is very fierce in his na- 
ture and attacks almost every species of the finnj 
tribe. Small fish are excellent bait. 
Catjish. 
These well-known members of the fish family 
are, with one exception, fond of muddy waters, 
and are numerous North and South. Thete are 
several varieties. The white catfish when not ex- 
ceeding a pound or two in weight is excellent eat- 
ing. He is usually found in streams affected by 
the tides, and is fond of clear water. He can 
be propagated, however, in all the Northern 
streams and ponds. The yellow catfish, we be- 
lieve, inhabits ponds, lakes, and rivers in every 
portion of the Union. In the Mississippi they 
grow to the weight of a hundred pounds, but 
elsewhere they don't often exceed ten pounds. 
They may be taken with various kinds of bait. 
The white catfish prefers a piece of minnow or 
the soft portion of clams. 

Simjish. 

This beautifully colored fish is familiar to al- 
most every school boy. They are usually found 
in shallow water, are very strong biters and 
tolerably good eating. They show great intelli- 
gence in constructing nests for the reception of 
their spawn. In the shallow streams of Maryland 
they can be taken in immense numbers. They 
are not very particular in regard to bait, but pre- 
fer either grasshopi)ers, crickets, or young bees. 
To catch them with the greatest satisfaction, a 
short rod, a light line with float, and small Kirby 
hook, are necessary. The sunfish but seldom ex- 
ceeds a pound in weight. The largest are taken 
in August and September, and can be as readily 
captured with the artificial fly as with bait. 
Eel. 

This slippery fish inhabits nearly all the lakesj 
rivers and ponds of the United States. It is a 
singular fact, however, that the great Mississippi 
is destitute of it. AVhen not exceeding 1 or 2 lbs. 
in weight they are capital eating. The most rapid 
way of catching them is with the "bob," com- 
posed of large earth-worms, strung together. For 
this purpose waxed homespun thread, with a long 
needle, should be used. Pass the needle and thread 
through the entire length of the worms, until a 
string about 6 feet in length is formed, which 
should be doubled up with loops a few inches in 
length, securely tied together, and fastened to a 
strong stick 5 or 6 feet in length — an old broom- 
handle would answer very well. Keep the worms 
on the bed of the stream, and when the eels pull 
at them quickly jerk them up into the boat, or 
upon the shore, wherever you may happen to be. 
Frequently 4 and 5 fish are taken at a single hauU 
With rod and line a piece of minnow is excellent 
bait. Young eels, a few inches in length, are a 
very killing bait for perch, pike and rock. 
Chub. 

Throughout the Eastern, Northern and Middle 
States this pretty fish is very numerous. He is a 
bold biter, and is often found in trout streams. 
He takes the fly readily, and is decidedly a game 
fish. Like the trout he is very shy, but for eating 
purposes is quite inferior. He sometimes weighs 
as much as 5 and 6 lbs. 

Sucker. 

Of this rather clumsy fish there appears to be 
two varieties. Those inhabiting cold water streams 
are mor^ slender and more comely shaped thaa 
those found in rivers and ponds. The former are 



PISCICULTURE. 



4i5 



a better flavored fish than chub, and maybe taken 
■with the red worm in deep water at any season. 
They are poor biters, but often show considerable 
fight after l)eing hooked. A lull grown fish weighs 
from 3 to 4 lbs. 

Herring. 

This is the most numerous of all the migratory 
fish in the United States. He will take the red 
■worm or shad-roe. and on clear days, with a south- 
ern wind, will jump at a gaudy fly or piece of red 
flannel fastened to a hook. For eating purposes, 
after going through a course of "curing," he is a 
very palatable fish. He don't often exceed a lb. in 
weight. 

Roacli. 

This fish is found in nearly every portion of the 
United States; is a fair biter, but the poorest of 
all as an esculent, He don't usually exceed J lb. 
in weight, and may be taken at any season with a 
little piece of dough attached to a small hook. 
Redfin. 

This pretty little fish, we believe, is scarcely 
noticed in any of the works on angling. He fre- 
quents many of the streams in the northern and 
middle portions of the United States, but grows 
large in cold-water brooks, and is often taken 
alongside of the trout. He but seldom exceeds 7 
or 8 inches in length, and is an excellent pan-fish. 
Very light tackle, small, long-shanked Kirby 
hook, and red worms for bait, should be used. He 
bites only during the spring months. 

Salt-water Fish. 
We have given a brief account of all the prin- 
cipal fresh-water fish of the United States that 
are of interest to the angler. Of the salt-water 
fish, those that are most fished for, are thesheeps- 
head, Spanish mackerel, weakfish, bluefish, black- 
fish, croaker, flounder, porgy and sea-bass. Fish- 
ermen along the seaboard usually use the hand- 
line, but the true angler should fish with a strong 
rod with reel, and stout flax line with large hooks. 
The usual baits are soft-shell crabs and clams, 
large shrimps, fiddlers, young crabs and muscles. 
The fishing season extends from June to October. 



THE CULTURE OF FISH. 
Pisciculture 
Is the name of a new and very important art 
destined, we believe, ere long, to hold a conspicu- 
ous place in human interests and pursuits. The 
extent to which Nature may be aided by artificial 
methods in the breeding of fishes, is a truly won- 
derful discovery. That eventually, and at no dis- 
tant day, it will become the means of adding 
largely not only to the quantity but the variety 
also of those supplies for man's sustenance and 
luxury, admits scarcely of a doubt. 

Fishes, whether in the freedum of nature or in 
artificial receptacles, show plainly enough the 
approach of spawning. The belly of the female 
becomes distended and yields readily to pressure. 
There is a fluctuation under the hand, which 
■hows that the eggs are free from the ovary and 
easily displaced. This being the case, take up in 
your left hand a female fish, and hold it suspended 
by the head and thorax over a flat-bottomed ves- 
sel containing clear water. Then with the right 
hand passed from above, down wards, squeeze the 
loosened eggs through the anal opening. A male 
fish is then taken, and the milt is expressed in 
the .»ame way, though often it flows by the mere 
act of suspending. This substance, white and 
ereiixu-like, soon gives to the water the appear- 
ance of whey. To insure effectual fecundation, 



the mixture in this state should be gently stirred 
with the hand, or with a soft brush. It requires 
but 2 or 3 minutes to accomplish the fecundation. 




The subsequent processes may be carried on 
upon the spot, or the impregnated eggs may, like 
those of the silk-worm, be packed and transported 
to other places, there to be hatched. 

In the first case, the water with the eggs in it 
is poured immediately into the hatching appa- 
ratus. This may be very simple. Mr. Coste tells 
us that he has often used a long and narrow wooden 
box lined with zinc or lead, with a fish-box of 
earthenware. In the laboratory of the colleges 
of France, the troughs used are of potters en- 
amelled ware. The eggs are spread upon a mova- 
ble frame or grate composed of glass rods, about 
one-tenth of an inch apart. It seeras to be a 
condition of Nature that this operation of hers, 
like the great water lily of the tn)pics, can go on 
well only in running-water. The water which 
supplies the hatching-trough must have a con- 
stant flow. 

Double sieves of wire gauze set in floating 
frames, which keep them immersed, but near the 
surface, have been used for hatching fish in ponds 
and rivers ; but the mud is apt to gather in them, 
incrusting the eggs and making it necessary to 
remove them for the purpose of cleaning. Such 
changes retard the process of incubation. Even 
after they are hatched, the young fish are apt to 
chafe the umbilical vesicle by coming in contact 
with the wire, an injury which generally proves 
fatal. 

In preference to the above M. Coste recommends 
the use of a wooden box with hinged ends and 
cover, in all of which are openings for the water, 
protected by wire gauze, and containing also a 
fourfold frame of glass rods for the accommoda- 
tion of the spawn. 

In the course of a few hours after the process 
of fecundation, a change may be seen in the eggs. 
At first they become opaque, but soon resume their 
transparency. A small, round spot next appears, 
which gradually extends until one end takes the 
shape of a tail, and the other that of a spatula- 
shaped head. Two black points upon the sides 
presently turn into eyes. It is not long before 
the young animal gives sign of life by motion of 



446 



KNOTS. 



the tail. As the eggs open the head and tail first 
emerge, and then the umbilical vesicle attached 
to the belly of the fish, and there retained for some 
time, as the only source of nutriment. 

In case the eggs in the hatching-box become 
covered with film from the impurity of the water, 
they should be cleansed with a feather, or with a 
fine brush of badger's hair. 

The eggs may be transferred from one vessel to 
another by means of a glass pipe, the stem of 
which is closed by the finger. The egg is made 
to enter the tube by removing the finger. 

The young fish very soon displays differences 
of nature and instinct. Some, like the pike and 
perch, quickly free themselves from the umbilical 
vesicle and shoot about with great vivacity. Oth- 
ers, as the salmon and trout, retain their provision 
bags longer, seem more sluggish, and huddle to- 
gether in dark corners. Some kinds are so bold 
and hardy that they require but little care. The 
pike, for instance, and the trout, may very soon 
be put into ponds and rivers, where they will look 
out for themselves. But others, more delicate and 
often more valuable, must be kept in artificial ba- 
sins until they have acquired strength to resist 
the destructive agencies that await them in the 
ravenous waters. 

In a box less than 2 feet long, 6 inches wide and 
4 inches deep. Prof. Coste has sometimes reared to 
a suflficient size for removal, no less than 2000 
salmon at a time. 

The basin used at the College of France may 
serve as a model for the receptacles above named. 
It has ditferent compartments for the fish of dif- 
ferent ages. The wall is built waist-high, that 
the fish may be conveniently overlooked. Here 
and there, on the gravelly bed, are small heaps of 
rounded pebbles. Little shelters of earthenware 
are scattered about, that the fish may have dark 
places in which to hide and rest. A few aquatic 
plants are added to complete the conditions which 
would be found in nature. 

The salmon, the trout and the eel, are fed upon 



boiled beef or horse-flesh, which is prepared fcr 
them by pounding in a mortar. These delicate 
morsels are eagerly seized by the young fish. 
After 8 or 10 days the boiled flesh is exchanged 
for raw, which is pounded and given in little pel- 
lets. At lluinmingue , salmon and tmut are fed 
with the flesh of other and cheaper fish, which is 
prepared for them by pounding. Small earth- 
worms and the minute Crustacea of stagnant wa- 
ters are sought with avidity by these young fry. 

For the proper acclimation of fishes, and for 
other reasons, it is often desirable to transport 
the eggs to a considerable distance. When the 
eggs are free and separate, with a tough covering, 
as in the case with the salmon and the trout, pine 
boxes are used. These are filled with sand or 
moss, or fragments of sponge, or with some aquatio 
plant, in the moist folds of which the eggs are 
ranged in layers. 

The eggs, which come in agglutinated clusters, 
with tender envelopes, such as the spawn of the 
carp, the ro:ich, the perch, etc., cannot be con- 
veyed so easily. The best method is to put them 
into jars three-quarters filled with water and con- 
taining some aquatic plant. There is another 
class of eggs which are deposited upon grass or 
small sticks. Let these, with the objects to which 
they adhere, be wrapped up in a wet cloth, and 
then be put into a box or basket. 

The young fish also are often transported to 
great distances in bottles containing water and 
some living aquatic plants. The water must be 
renewed from time to time. To keep up the sup- 
ply of air, which fishes must have, no less than 
animals which live in it, an ingenious apparatus 
has been devised by some fishermen of the Vos- 
ges. The vessel which holds the fish is swung at 
the back in the style of the rag-picker. A bel- 
lows, like that of the Scotch bagpipe, worked un- 
der the arm, sends at pleasure its current of air 
through the water that contains the fish. An oo- 
easiotial squeeze of the bellows keeps the fish in 
good breathing condition. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 




untied. It is the same as is used in tying shoe- 
strings and neck-ties, except that the ends are 
drawn through. It is essential that the two parts 
of each string should be on the sante side or there 
will be formed a " granny" knot. 

Fig. 2. — The Sheet Bend, 



TO TIE KNOTS. 
Few persons know how to tie a knot; even 
women with their neatness in all other matters tie 
very badly. It is as easy, indeed more easy, to 
make a neat, firm knot, easy to untie, as one 
clumsy, insecure, and readily jammed. In prac- 
tising, it is better at first to use a coarse cord or 
fine rope. The knots given below can all be mas- 
tered in an hour's practice, and will be found of 
daily use. 

Fig. 1. — The Iteejing Knot, 



Also called the weavers' knot, is used where great 
firmness is required; it is small, cannot slip, and 
can be made when one end of the string is just 
long enough to make a loop. It is more liable to 
j.am than the one last named. Bend one end of 
Also called the flat knot, is the one best adapted the cord into a loop, which hold in the left hand, 
for ordinary use in tying the two ends of a string, pass the other end through the loop, around it 
It is neat, flat, does not readily slip, and is easUy and then under lUelf. A little practice will en- 




KNOTS. 



447 



able the learner to use both hands at once, in 
which case it can be tied very quickly. It is 
easily made after learning the flat knot, by pass- 
ing oue end across or under the loop instead of 
through it. It is obvious that in having the free 
end of the loop long it can be used instead of an- 
other end, and thus heavy bodies, as window-sash 
weights and clock weights are hung. 

Fig. 3. — The Binding Knot 




Is used for fastening broken sticks or rods after 
serving them with several turns of the cord which 
should never overlap. Before beginning the serv- 
ing make a loop a little longer than the proposed 
extent of the turns (a Fig. 3). When the serving 
is finished pass the end of the cord through this 
loop, and by pulling in its free end the other is 
drawn within the serving and made secure (6 
Fig. 3). 

Fig. A:.— The Single Half-hitch 




Is made more quickly than any other tie, can be 
instantly undone, and is very secure. It is used 
to fasten ends of ropes in rings, etc., when they 
are to be quickly cast off, and may be used for 
slinging light bodies of small diameter. It is also 
put over the tops of bottles to fasten in the corks, 
and is then called the beer-knot: in this case the 
two ends are afterwards tied. By reversing it it 
becomes a running knot, or "sailor's knot." In 
practising, a? /?r«t take the fixed or "standing" 
part of the line in the left hand, make a loop in 
it ; then make a second loop in the right-hand 
part, and put it through the first (a. Fig. 4). Af- 
terwards try it through rings, and around rods 
and small posts (6, Fig. 4). For large posts use 
the clove-hitch; the single half-hitch will slip. 
Remember that when it is to hold, the strain must 
come on the standing part. It differs but slightly 
from the common single bow-knot, and can be 
made as easily with a little practice. 

Fig. b.— The Clove-hitch. 
One of the most useful of all fastenings ; it is not 
properly a knot, for it is neither tied nor untied. 
It is largely employed on ship-board and in re- 
ducing dislocations, but opportunities for its use 



in ordinary life are of daily occurrence. In prac- 
tising, take the fixed or standing part of the ropo 




in the left hand, turn the free end under it, and 
put it over the thumb ; repeat this, and the hitch 
is made. (Fig. 5.) When the clove-hitch is made 
on the standing part of the rope, after it has passed 
around a post or bo.x, it is called two half-hitches, 
and is the best method of fastening boxes or bun- 
dles. In this case it should never be fastenod to 
the cord at right angles to its own, but that in a 
line with it. (Fig. 6.) 

Fig. 6. 




Fig. 7.— The Bowline 




Is used in slinging heavy bodies; it cannot slip, 
and will never jam under the heaviest strain. It 
is difficult to understand at first, but with a little 
practice can be made very rapidly. Take the 
fixed or standing part of the rope in the left hand 
(this should be done in making all knots), lay the 
free end over it, and then by a twist of the wrist 
make a loop in the standing part which shall in- 
close the free end (a, Fig. 7) ; then carry the free 
end behind the standing part and through the 
loop, parallel with itself {h, Fig. 7). This knot 
will well repay the trouble spent in learning it. 



448 



KNITTING, CROCHETING, ETC. 



KNITTING. 

Shetlmul Wool Shoivl (for the Centre). 

Cnst on 2n0 stitches on needles No. 7. 

First Row. — Knit two; knit two together; 
thread forward ; knit one ; thread forward ; knit 
two together; knit one; knit two together; thread 
forward; knit one; thread forward; knit two to- 
gether ; knit one. 

Second Roto. — Plain knitting. 

Third Row. — Knit two together; knit one; 
thread forward; knit three; thread forward; knit 
three together ; thread forward ; knit three ; thread 
forward ; knit three together. At the end of this 
row plain knit the two last stitches. 

Fourth Row. — Plain knitting. 

Fifth Row. — Knit two; thread forward; knit 
two together; knit one; knit two together; thread 
forward; knit one; thread forward ; knit two to- 
gether ; knit one; knit two together; thread for- 
ward : knit one. 

Sixth Row. — Plain knitting. 

Seventh Row. — Knit three ; thread forward ; knit 
three together ; thread forward; knit three; thread 
forward ; knit three together; thread forward. At 
the end of this row bring the thread forward; knit 
two. 

Eifjhth Row. — Plain knitting. 

These eight rows must be repeated until a square 
is knitted. 

Border for the Shetland Wool Shawl — (This is for 
one-half.) 

Cast on 600 stitches on needles No. 3. 

First Row. — Knit two together four times; 
thread forward ; knit one eight times : knit two 
together four times; purl one; knit two together 
four times ; thread forward ; knit one eight times; 
knit two together four times ; purl one. 

Second Row.- — Purl knitting. 

Third /?o)('.— Plain knitting. 

Fourth Row. — Purl ; commence again as at first 
row. After having knitted a piece half a yard in 
depth, knit six rows plain and purled alternately; 
then six rows of holes, worked thus : one row 
plain, second row thread forward ; knit two in one, 
and so on ; third plain ; then six rows of plain and 
purled. To form the corner two and three stitches 
must be knitted together in the centre and at the 
ends, commencing from the plain rows. 

A Knitted Muff, in Imitation of Sable — pretty for 
Children. 

Cast on 70 or 80 stitches. 

First, Second, and Third Rotes. — Plain knitting. 

Fourth Row. — Bring the wool forward; knit two 
together, taken at the back ; continue the same to 
the end of the row. 

Repeat these 4 rows until the piece be about 18 
inches long, admitting that the shading comes in 
correctly. 

Two No. 19 needles are required, and double 
German wool, in 4 distinct shades, to match the 
color of sable. Commence with the lightest shade ; 
then the second, third, and darkest, reversing them 
again to the lightest. 

Another Muff, 

Cast on 45 stitches. 

Every row is worked the same, with a slip-stitch 
at the beginning; knit one; purl one; repeat to 
the end of the row. 

It will require a piece of about 20 inches long 
to make a moderate-sized muff, which must be 
lined with silk, and stuffed with wool and a suflfi- 
cient quantity of horse-hair to retain it in shape. 
Cord and tassels to match the color of the muff 
may be sewn at the ends, or it may be drawn up 
with ribbons. 



CROCHETING. 

A pretty Toilet Slipper. 

Make a chain of fifteen stitches in single cro« 
chet; crochet two stitches in the middle stitch of 
every row, until yon have completed twelve rows, 
which is sufiicient for the front. Take up twelve 
stitches on one side ; crochet thirtj' rows, and join 
them to the other side of the front ; then catch the 
stitches up round the top. and crochet one row. 

For the frill, crochet the stitches in every loop in 
single crochet, very loose, to form a full frill. 

When finished, turn the slipper inside out, and 
sew in a cork sole ; then pass the ribbon round 
under the frill and tie in fmnt in a bow. The 
above is exceedingly pretty in shaded Berlin wool. 



MANAGEMENT OF CANARY BIRDS 
Breeding. 

The breeding cage should have plenty of fine 
gravel or sea-sand at the bottom, and a lump of 
old mortar, for the birds to pick. Goats' hair 
must be supplied for the nest. The birds when 
put up should be fed on bread, the yolk of boiled 
eggs and a little sugar. Let them have fresh 
greens in moderation. The birds should not be 
allowed to breed more than twice or thrice a year. 
The period of incubation is 14 days; in very warm 
weather, 1.3. The last of March is early enough 
to put the birds in the breeding-cage. 

If the hen desert her eggs, they are probably 
bad, and should be thrown out. 

If the hen eat her eggs, feed her well very early 
in the morning, or late at night. If the male 
break the eggs, let him have two hens ; these 
must not be allowed in the same cage, or they 
will fight. 

If the hen neglect to feed her yo«?((7, stir her out 
of the nest and supply her with an abundance of 
delicate food. As soon as the young are hatched, 
place beside the usual feeding-trough a cup con- 
taining finely grated hard-boiled egg and stale 
bread rubbed fine and soaked in milk ; also, one 
containing crushed rape-seed, boiled and after- 
wards washed with fresh water. 

The young may be placed in separate cages in 
about 4 weeks. 

Feeding. 

Canary-seed alone is sufficient, but usually a 
mixture of canary, hemp, millet and rape, known 
as bird-seed, is used. Each cage should have a 
piece of cuttle-fish bone. Food is best supplied 
in the evening, and all stale food and refuse of 
every kind should be removed daily. The bottom 
of the cage should be strewn with fine gravel or 
sand, fresh water supplied daily, and a saucer of 
water for bathing twice a week. Greens should 
be cautiously supplied. 

To Distinguish the Sex. 

The throat of the male vibrates while singing; 
this never happens with the hen. The males are 
larger, more yellow above the bill, under the throat 
and in the pinions of the wings. The body of 
the male is longer and more tapering. 
Singing. 

Birds with long, straight and tapering bodiea 
are the best singers. By putting 2 or 3 birds to- 
gether they will vie with each other. 

Biaeuaes. 
Surfeit from improper or excessive food is shown 
by swelling of the belly, which, on blowing up 
the feathers, appears transparent and covered 
with little bloodvessels. In birds from 1 to 3 years 
old it shows itself in scabs and humors about the 
head. Take away canary-seed, and add some 



BIRDS, DOGS, ETC. 



449 



grits, which will purge; put a little saffron in the 
Wiiter. Anoint the affected parts with almond-oil. 

Husk, from cold. It produces a dry, husky 
cough, and is diflBcult to cure. Ciive them some 
fla.^seed mi.xed with the bird-?eed and a little 
rock candj' in the water, and for a few mornings a 
little boiled bread and milk. 

Exceinive, peispirntii/n from a warm season, con- 
fined locality, or sitting too closely on the nest. 
The feathers are ruffled and damp, and the bird' 
feoble. Wash with salt and water for several 
mornings, or sprinkle a few drops of sherry over 
the bird, and j)ut it in the sun to drj'. 

.E^/'j-boniiil, frova cold. Give the. bird a little 
moist suj;ar, or anoint the abdomen with warm 
Bweet oil ; if these fail, give a drop of castor-oil. 

Mniiltiuy. — Avoid cold, give sunshine, some 
bread and egg, with saffron in the water. 

Sneezing is caused by obstruction of the nostril, 
which may be removed by a small quill. 

Fits. — Plunge the bird suddenl3' into cold wa- 
ter, and cut two of its claws short enough for the 
blood to run. 

Lice. — Allow the birds to bathe frequently; 
keep the cage very clean, with plenty of dry sand 
in the bottom. Put some hollow sticks in the 
cage ; the lice will collect in them, and may be 
removed. 

Drooping. — When a bird continues sickly with- 
out apparent cause, give a little powdered char- 
coal mixed with bread and egg. 

Accidents. — For a broken leg or wing, put the 
bird in a cage without perches, and covered at the 
bottom with soft hay. Let its food be within easy 
reach, and keep the cage covered. 



DOGS. 

0/ the Best Breed of Dogs /or Shooting Game. 

" The bree<l of dogs which I prefer, beyond all 
others, are those which are bred between a setter 
and a pointer, but not bred from those setters 
which have no natural point in them, for I have 
no idea of shooting to a dog which does not stop 
at birds the very first day he is taken into the 
field. I have not had a setter which was broken 
by force for above 20 years, nor ever will have one. 
Leave them at home only one week, for the next 
two days you must turn to dog-breaking, and not 
to shooting. I prefer those between a pointer and 
a setter, which take after the setter, for, generally 
speaking, they have better feet, which is a great 
point in a dog, for certain they have more hair on 
tJieir feet, which is a great preservative to the 
foot, if it be kept clean. I never kept a cocker 
spaniel in my life ; I always shoot to pointers, even 
in the strongest covers, with bells round their 
necks. I know, for certain, you will not find so 
much game, but then what you find you are sure 
to shoot at. Here is the great benefit of shooting 
to pointers : you may shoot every day in a wood, 
and not drive the game away. I3ut, if you turn 
oocking spaniels into a wood, which quest, when 
they come on to the foot of a pheasant, in a very 
few days you will drive every pheasant out of the 
wood. A Newfoundland dog, tutored to keep be- 
hind you in the fields, and not to go above a dozen 
or twenty yards from you in a wood, is of wonder- 
ful utility in retrieving and bringing wounded 
game. I have had several that were uncommonly 
useful." 

How to know the Age of a Dog until he ia Six 
Years Old. 

A dog has a very visible mark in his teeth, as 

well as a horse, which mark does not disappear 

totally until he is very near or full 6 years old. 

Look to the 4 front teeth, both in the upper and 

29 



lower jaw, but particularly to the teeth in the up- 
per jaw, for in those 4 front teeth the mark re- 
mains the longest. At 12 months old you will ob- 
serve every one of the 4 front teeth, both in tho 
upper and under jaw, jagged and uneven, nearly 
in the form of a fleur de lis. but not quite so 
pointed at the edges of the jags as a Jleiir de lit 
is. As the dog advances in age these marks will 
wear away, gradually decrease and grow smoother 
and less jagged every year. Between 3 and 4 
years old these marks will be full half worn down, 
and when you observe all the 4 front teeth, both 
in the upper and lower jaw, quite worn smooth 
and even, and not in the least jagged, then you 
may conclude that the dog is nearly if not full 6 
years old. When those marks are worn quite flat 
and even, and those teeth quite level and even, 
you can no longer judge the age of a dog. Many 
huntsmen and game-keepers ignorantly look at 
the side and ej-e-teeth of a dog; there are many 
dogs not 2 years old which have had the canker 
in the mouth, with hardly one sound tooth in their 
heads. 

Distemper {n Dogs 
Is characterized by a running from the nose and 
eyes, and a short dry cough, followed by a wast- 
ing of the flesh, and loss of strength and spirits. 
At length the brain suffers, and fits, paralysis of 
the extremities, or convulsions come on. Give a 
teaspoonful of magnesia every other night, or the 
same quantity of washed flowers of sulphur. 

Mange in Dogs 
Is allied to the itch in man, and requires the same 
treatment. Wash with soft soap, and apply sul- 
phur ointment. 

Worms in Dogs 
Are a frequent cause of fits, and when they get 
into the nostrils, windpipe, etc., generally cause 
death. For these in the bowels, louatt recom- 
mends powdered glass made up into a roll with 
butter or lard. Cowhage (cow-itch, mucuna) is 
probably quite as effectual, and is safer. A teaspoon- 
ful may be given in lard, and repeated if neces- 
sary. Turpentine should not be given to dogs. 

Sportsman's Beef. 
Take a fine round of beef, 4 oz. of saltpetre, f 
of an oz. of allspice ; rub it well on the beef, and 
let it stand 24 hours; then rub in as much com- 
mon salt as will salt it. Lay it by 12 days, turn- 
ing it every day; then put it into a pan, such as 
large pies are baked in, with 3 or 4 lbs. of beef- 
suet, some under, some over. Cover it with a 
thick crust, and bake it for 6 hours. It wUl keep 
for two months, and most excellent it is. 



TO DESTROY INSECTS. 
Persian Insect Powder 
Ts the pt/rethrum roseum Caucasicum. The central 
or tubular florets are alone used. They are ground 
to powder. Although destructive to insect life it 
is harmless to man or domestic animals. 

To Destroy Body Lice. 

1. Mercurial ointment well rubbed on the in- 
fected part and washed off with warm water and 
soap. In the army a common practice was to 
wear a string saturated with the ointment around 
the waist as a means of protection. This might 
produce salivation. 

2. Corrosive sublimate, 1 dr.; sal ammoniac, 2 
drs. ; water, 8 oz. This is to be used as the first; 
it is more cleanly. 

3. Coculus indicus, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pt. ; 
use when cooL 



450 



INSECTS. 



To T'estroy Fleas on Animals. 
Wash with infusion of coculus Indicus, or with 
•oal-oil, and then with soap and warm water. 

Chloride of Lime to Destroy Insects. 

By scattering chloride of lime on a plank in a 
stable, biting fleas are driven away. Sprinkling 
beds of vegetables with a weak solution of this 
salt eflFectuaily preserves them from caterpillars, 
slugs, moths, etc. It has the same effect when 
sprinkk'd on fruit trees or shrubbery. Mi.xed in 
a paste with fatty matter and applied in a narrow 
band around the trees, it prevents insects from 
creeping up. 

Coal-oil a Remedy for Insects. 

At a late meeting of the Cincinnati Horticultural 
Society, Mr. Wells made the following statements: 

He said he had found coal-oil &. very eilectual 
remedy for all insects, both on plants and trees. 
When he desired to rid his trees of the trouble- 
some pests, as had been the case a year ago, when 
hit^ (jlum crop threatened from their inroads to be 
a total failure, he had used with entire success 
the folUiwing truly valuable preparation : One pt. 
of soft soiip mixed with half the quantity of coal- 
oil, the whole then being stirred into 7 or 8 galls, 
of rain-water. The application he had made with 
a powerful syringe, deluging the tops after the 
blossoming of the tree, and when the immature 
fruit began to fall, continuing the operation for 
3 or 4 nights in succession, and afterwards once 
or twice a week. 

He had also tried coal-oil on his cabbage plants, 
to prevent the depredations of the cut-worm, and 
had found the remedy uniformly successful. In 
this case he saturated the coarse chips from a 
planing-mill with undiluted oil, placing a hand- 
ful of them, so prepared, arcjund each plant. 

He had tried experiments on plants, using dif- 
ferent preventions with the following results: 
One hundred cabbage plants treated in the cus- 
tomary manner, with ashes, were still attacked by 
the worm, and suffered from the depredations of 
the louse. One hundred plants surrounded with 
common planing-mill chips — one plant slightlj' 
eaten ; worm found dead iieneath the leaves. One 
hundred plants surrounded with chips saturated 
with coal-oil — free from lice and untouched by 
the worm. He had been equally fortunate in his 
application of coal-oil to melon and other vines to 
prevent the inroads of the bugs. 

To Destroy Slugs and Earthworms 
Water the plants with a solution of carbonate 
of ammonia, 1 oz. to the gallon. They will come 
to the surface and perish. The ammonia will pro- 
mote the growth of the plants. 
Roach Poison. 
Put a drachm of phosphorus in a flask with 2 
oz. of water; jilunge the flask into hot water, and 
■when the phosphorus is melted, pour the contents 
into a mortar with 2 or ;^ oz. of lard. Triturate 
briskly, adding water, and i lb. of flour, with 1 or 
2 oz. of brown sugar. Plaster of Paris, with oat- 
meal, is said to destroy roaches. 
Roach Wafers. 
These are made with flour, sugar, and red-lead, 
heated in wafer irons. 

Ant -Trap. 
Procure a large sponge, wash it well and press 
it dry, which will leave the cells quite open; then 
gprinkle it with fine white sugar, and place it 
near where the ants are troublesome. The ants 
will soon collect u|)on the sponge, and take up 
their abode in its cells. It is then only necessary 



to dip the sponge in boiling water when the ant« 
will be destroyed, and it may be set over and 
over again. Cyanide of potassium is employed 
in Cuba, but is* a violent poison and its use is not 
recommended. 

To keep Ants ont of Closets or Drawers. 

Draw a line with a brush dipped in the follow- 
ing solution around the shelf to be protected. The 
ants will not cross it. Corrosive sublimate, 1 oz.; 
muriate of ammonia, 2 oz. ; water, 1 pint. This 
solution maj' also he used to destroy bed-bugs by 
applying it to the cracks with a feather or brush.^ 

Destruction of Insects in Grain. 

In M. Louvel's plan the grain is put into a 
hollow east-iron cylinder, from which the air is 
partially exhausted. No animal can there live, 
fermentation itself ceases as it has neither air 
nor moisture. On the large scale, the vacuum is 
created by filling a communicating cylinder with 
steam, which is then condensed. A vacuum of 20 
inches is quite suflBcient. 

To Drive away Moths. 

If the articles are to be wrapped up, enclose 
camphor, snuff', or Persian insect powder. Fura 
should be kept in cedar boxes, and opened out 
and beaten occasionally during the summer. It 
is stated that the Russians preserve furs by wrap- 
ping up with them a quill containing a small 
quantity of mercury and securely corked. la 
collections of birds open bottles of ether are placed 
in the cases; benzine is much cheaper and would 
probably answer. When articles become infested 
the surest remedy is to bake them in an oven at 
a temperature below that which would scorch 
them. Feathers may be preserved by dipping 
them in a solution of 16 grs. of strj'chnia in a 
pint of alcohol. ^ 

Bihron's Antidote for Snake-Bites. 

Take of bromine, 2i drs. ; iodide of potassium, 
2 grs. ; corrosive sublimate, 1 gr. ; diluted alcohol, 
30 fl. drs. Dose, 1 fl. dr., in 1 tablespoonful of 
wine or brandy, to be repeated as required by the 
case. 

For Bites and Stiyigs of Small Reptiles and Insects. 

The local pain produced by the bites and stings 
of reptiles and insects, in general, is greatly re- 
lieved by the following application : Make a lotion 
of 5 oz. of distilled water, and 1 oz. of tincture of 
opium. To be applied immediately. 

Another. — Mix 5i oz. of soft water, and i oz. 
of water of ammonia. Wash the part repeatedly 
with this lotion until the pain abates. 

To Remove Bugs, etc. 
The bedsteads ought to be taken down three or 
four times a year, the screws rubbed with pure 
oil, and a good manual cleaning given to all its 
parts. This plan, which has been slightly noticed 
under the general head of cleanliness, will render 
all poisonous mixtures unnecessary. 

To Avoid Injury from Bees. 

A wasp or bee swallowed may be killed before 
it can do harm by taking ateaspoonful of common 
salt dissolved in water. It kills the insect and 
cures the sting. Salt at all times is a good cure 
for external stings ; sweet-oil, pounded mallows, 
or onions, powdered chalk made into a paste with 
water, or weak ammonia, are also efficacious. 

If bees swarm upon the head, smoke tobacco 
and hold an empty hive over the head, and they 
will enter it. 



PETEOLEUM, TELEGRAPH. 



451 



PETROLEUM. 

This name, meaning rock oil, is applied to cer- 
tain bituminous fluids found in the earth. Solid 
bitumen, or asphalt, differs but little in chemical 
compiisition from petroleum, both being com- 
pounds of carbon and hydrogen. 
1 Many varieties of petroleum, and perhaps all, 
become thicker by exposure to the air, and finally 
solid, reseuibling asphaltum. Bitumen, and doubt- 
less (letroleuui also, was known from the earliest 
ages, being the '• pitch " which Noah used in build- 
ing the Ark, and the "slime" used for mortar in 
the Tower of Babel, being dug from pits in the Val- 
ley of Sodom, precisely as is done in the same 
rogion at the present day, where the Arabs an- 
nually e.Ktract considerable quantities. 

The fluid petroleum has been collected in Bur- 
mah for at least 15 centuries. It is used by the 
inhabitants for light and fuel. The product ob- 
tained, at the present time, from 520 wells, is said 
to be 420,000 hogsheads annually. In the United 
States, petroleum is not, as many suppose, a new 
discovery. Years ago springs of it were known 
at many localities, but its use was very limited. 
No method of purifying it was known, so that it 
was looked upon as valueless, and several wells 
bored for salt water were abandoned on account 
of the oil rendering the salt impure. In 1S61 it 
■was purified, and introduced extensively as an 
illuminating oil, to take the place of burning fluid 
(camphene and alcohol), the price of which was 
greatly enhanced, and which, by the explosive 
qualities of its vapor, was causing many severe acci- 
dents. The trade increased, new wells were bored, 
and some of them yielding several hundred bar- 
rels a day, and making their possessors at once 
■wealthy, started what has been known as the oil 
fever. Lands sold for fsibulous prices, sometimes 
for 500 times as much as 2 or 3 years before. 

Petroleum has probably been formed by a slow 
decomposition of organic matter under the earth's 
surface. It is found in cavities and crevices, and 
through the substance of the rock. In mining for 
it, a well 3 or 4 inches in diameter, and sometimes 
700 or 800 feet deep, is bored by drills, generally 
by steam-power. When rock containing petroleum 
is being bored through, what is called "a show of 
oil" is found. The chips and water drawn up 
from the well show and smell of the oil, but, un- 
less the drill strikes a cavity or crevice filled with 
oil, the well is not productive. This uncertainty 
is the most unfortunate peculiarity of oil-mining, 
and makes it, to a great extent, a lottery, for 
there are no surface indications by which these 
cavities can be discovered. 

Petroleum is much lighter than water, of a dark 
green or black color, with a peculiar, and, to most 
persons, unpleasant odor. It is commercially di- 
vided into two kinds, the heavy, or lubricating oil, 
and the light oil. The former is more dense, and 
sometimes of the consistence of thin molasses. It 
is used, without preparation, for lubricating ma- 
chinery, for which it is admirably suited. The 
light oil, before it can be used, is submitted to 
several purifying processes, the most important of 
which is distillation. 

For this purpose the crude oil is pumped into 
stills holding from 200 to 1000 galls, each, and 
submitted to a gradually increasing heat, the 
Tapors being passed through a worm immersed in 
cold water. At first there comes over a very light, 
mobile, and volatile liquid exceedingly inflam- 
mable. This is benzine, largely used as a cheap 
substitute for turpentine in painting, and as a 
solvent for India-rubber. It differs from benzole 
(obtained by distillation from coal-gas tar), and 
the beautiful colors obtained from the latter can- 



not be made from the benzine of Petroleum. The 
terms benzine and benzole are often confounded, 
and even used as synonyms, but the name benzole 
is properly applied only to one of the many sub- 
stiinces contained in coal tar, and from which the 
aniline colors are obtained. 

Next, there condenses a less volatile and in- 
fliiinraable liquid, of greater specific gravity. This 
is the burning oil, and is generally the most abun- 
dant and valuable product. When the heat rises 
to near 500° Fahr., the oil that comes over is no 
longer suitable for burning, but is an excellent 
lubricant for light machinery. Finally, a sub- 
stance (parafiine) solid at common temperatures, 
distils over, and there remains in the retort, as 
the heat has been less or greater, a thick tarry 
matter, or a porous coke. When the lubricating 
oil, just mentioned, is exposed to cold, a consider- 
able portion of parafiine separates from it, and 
can be collected upon filters, purified, and used 
for candles, and for other purposes. 

All these products, and especially the burning 
oil, require further purification after the distilla- 
tion. This usually con.-'ists in agitation, first 
with water, followed by strong sulphuric acid, 
caustic soda, and finished with water. The 
effect of this is to render the oil colorless, and to 
diminish the odor. 

The relative amount of these several products 
varies very greatly in different regions, and in- 
deed in the oil of different wells in the same region. 
Thus, the oil from Canada contains little or no 
benzine, much burning oil, and much p:irafiine, 
while that from Ohio and Western Virginia con- 
tains much benzine, about the same amount of 
burning oil as the former, and but little parafiine. 

Petroleum is found in many localities on this 
continent. Among these may be mentioned as 
the most important, Canada West, Pennsylvania, 
Ohio, Western Virginia, California, Kentucky, and 
Tennessee. The first four yield more than nine- 
tenths of all now obtained, but it is probable that 
other regions will yield equally well when as 
thoroughly explored. 

To Teat Burning Oil. 

Burning oil is sometimes adulterated with ben- 
zine, or with the heavy oil. To detect the former, 
pour an ounce or two into a small tin-cup, and 
put it on a stove or over a lamp, placing the bulb 
of a thermometer in the oil. Then as the teiii [■cia- 
ture rises, try with a lighted taper when tlie oil 
gives off inflammable vapor. If this be below 
100° — 110° Fahr., the oil is dangerous to use, as 
its vapor becoming mixed with air in the lamp 
may take fire and explode. The adulteration 
with heavy oil is shown by dimness of the flame 
after having burned for some time, accompanied 
by a charring of the wick. 
To Extinguish the Flame of Petroleum or Benzine. 

Water, unless in overwhelming quantity, will 
not extinguish the flame of petroleum or benzine. 
It may, however, be speedily smothered by a 
woollen cloth, or carpet, or a wet muslin or linen 
cloth, or earth or sand being thrown over it. 
These act by excluding the air, without which com- 
bustion cannot be maintained. 



ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH. 

This telegraph is based upon the principle that 
a magnet may be endowed and deprived at will 
with the peculiarity of attracting iron by connecting 
or disconnectmg it with a galvanic battery; all 
magnetic telegraphs are based solely upon this 
principle. The telegraphs bearing the names of 
the several inventors, as Morse (who may be called 
the pioneer in this invention), House, Bain, etc.. 



452 



TELEGRAPH, BOOK-KEEPING, ETC. 



are simply modifications in the application of this 
great principle. 

It is by breaking oflF the magnetic circuit, which 
is done near the battery, that certain marks are 
produced by means of a style or lever, which is 
depressed when the current is complete, and of 
the length of the interval of the breaking of this 
current, that signs of different appearances and 
lengths are produced and written out upon paper, 
making in themselves a hieroglyphic alphabet, 
readable to those who understand the key. This 
is the entire principle of electro-magnetic tele- 
graphing. 

It was formerly considered necessary to use a 
second wire to complete the magnetic circuit, now 
but one wire is used, and the earth is made to per- 
form the office of the other. 

Where the distance is great between the places 
to be communicated with a relay battery is neces- 
sary to increase the electric current, and in this 
manner lines of great length may be formed. 

The House apparatus differs from the Morse 
only that by means of an instrument resembling a 
piano-forte, having a key for everjj letter, the ope- 
rator, by pressing upon these keys, can reproduce 
these letters at tlie station at the other end of the 
line, and have them printed in ordinary printing 
type upon strips of paper, instead of the characters 
employed on the Morse instrument to represent 
these letters. 

The Bain telegraph differs from either of the 
two preceding methods, simply in employing the 
ends of the wires themselves, without the means 
of a magnet or style to press upon the paper, the 
paper being first chemically prepared; so that 
when the circuit of eieetricity is complete, the cur- 
rent passes through the paper from the point of 
the wires, and decomposes a chemical compound, 
with which the paper is prepared, and leaves the 
necessary marks upon it. There is not the same 
need for relay batteries upon this line as upon the 
others. 

The greatest and most important telegraphic 
attempt is the successful laying of the cable across 
the Atlantic Ocean, which was finally completed 
and open for business July 28th, ]8fi6. The cable 
lost in mid-ocean in the unsuccessful attempt of 
the summer of 1865, has been recovered, and now 
forms the second cable laid, connecting the Eastern 
with the Western Continent. 

The operation of telegraphing is very simple, and 
can easily be learned, being purely mechanical. 



BOOK-KEEPING. 

Double-entry book-keeping consists simply in 
this great principle — that every debit must have a 
corresponding credit, and every credit a correnpoiid- 
ing debit. This simple rule is the whole theory of 
Doiib/e-entri/ book-keeping. For instance, you 
charge a person with $100 worth of merchandise. 
Merchandise must have a corresponding credit of 
$100 {or X'l'odwing this debit or charge: and the 
entry would read thus: — A. B. to Merchandise, 
Dr., $100; Merchandise, Cr. by A. B.,$100; thus 
making an equalization in the two entries. 

Two other short rules in book-keeping are im- 
portant : 

Debit, that which cost us value. 

Credit, " " produces us value. 

Merchandize in the case above cited, produced 
the charge to the individual, hence merchandize 
gets credit, and the party who receives gets the 
•harge or debit. 

The Day -Book 
Is used to enter all daily transactions, as its name 
imports^ excepting those belonging to Cash. 



The Cash-Book, 
For cash entries only. The left hand, or debit 
side, for receipts; the right hand, or credit side, 
for payments. 

The Jonrnal, 
To arrange together in more convenient form for 
posting (or entering into the Ledger) the several 
entries in the Day-Book, Cash-Buok, and such 
other books as may be kept. 

The Ledger 
Is to contain the finrd results of the preceding 
books, arranged under their proper heads. The 
left hand side, in individual accounts, shows all 
the party owes — the right hand side, his payments, 
or other credits due him. 



The Editor of this work recommends the fol- 
lowing (furnished by a practical printer, Mr. J. 
H. Morris) to the attention of authors, editors, 
and all those who write for the press : 

ON PREPARING COPY AND MARKING 

PROOF. 

Hints from a Typo. 

As there are not a few who undertake to write 
for newspapers and to " make books," who do not 
appear to know how to prepare their copy, tho 
writer of this article, who knows how copj' should 
he ^jce;j((cerf, respectfully offers a few suggestions : 

A sentence, composed of fine, well-chosen words, 
may be so marred by inaccurate punctuation and 
arrangement, as to seem to an ordinary reailer but 
a senseless string of words. Now, it is the in- 
terest of an author, as well as his duty, not only 
to select the words, but to arrange and punctuate 
them so that his meaning may be readily per- 
ceived by any reader ])ossessed of common sense. 
This duty should not be forced upon the composi- 
tor. It is no part of a compositor's business to 
edit what he " sets up ;" in fact, it is not generous, 
or even just, to expect him to lose time (which to 
him is bread) in "making sense" by punctuating, 
capitalizing, paragraphing, or otherwise arrang- 
ing, his copy. 

Copy sh()uld be written only on one side of each 
leaf, in a clear, legible hand, and, as far as possi- 
ble, without erasures or interlineations ; when these 
are unavoidable, they should be so marked as to 
leave no excuse for mistake. Proper names, tech- 
nical or scientific terms, and all unusual words, 
should be so written as to show each letter dis- 
tinctly. If the author wish a word emphasized 
by Italics or small capitals, he should under- 
score it, with one line for the former, and two lines 
for the latter; three lines under a word indicate 
that it is to be in CAPITALS. It is always safer 
to indicate where paragraphs are to be commenced 
by prefixing to the first word the paragraph mark,^. 
When a word is to have a capital initial letter, 
it is well to make three strokes under the letter, 
though this is unnecessary if the writer makes an 
unmistakable difference between his capitals and 
lower case or common letters. If cuts or engrav- 
ings are to be inserted, they should all be ready 
before the copy is put in hand, and should be 
marked in just where the author wishes them in- 
serted. If the work contain formuUe, algebraic 
problems, tables, or other peculiar matter, special 
care should be bestowed upon them, so as to have 
their arrangement clear to the compositor; it, must 
be borne in mind that not every first-rate com- 
positor understands the sciences and kindred sub- 
jects. The author should always make his com- 
mas, semi-colons, colons, periods, dashes, paren- 
theses, etc., just where he wishes them to appear 
in print. If the work is to be set in different 



PROOF-EEADINQ. 



453 



eizes or styles of type, the copy should be marked 
accordingly. Poetry should always be properly 
indented by the author. 

In short, copy should be, in all respects, pre- 
pared as it is intended to appear in print, so that 
the author need see no proof, or if he desire, for 
any reason, to see proofs, it may be unnecessary for 
him to make alterations. It should be borne in- 
mind that the making of alterations is charged 
extra by the compositor, and, in proportion as 
they are numerous, they entail a heavy extra out- 
lay on the part of the publisher. 



It was proposed to give some rales for punctua 
tion, but to be reasonably exact in giving such 
rules would take up more space than such a work 
as this can spare; hence, I will only say that, as 
the object of punctuation is to make the meaning 
of the author clear to the reader, commas and 
other points should only be used where the sense 
would be obscure without them. 

The following example of proof-marking, with 
the brief remarks appended, may be instructive to 
authors and others who are called upon to read 
proof, as well as interesting to the curious : 

n , CASTING TYPES. 

CASTING Types. ii^^K ^ 

== ='—Xp While there has been much diversity of 

■e,, Whil^ there has been much diversity of/ \J^ opinion with respect to the name of the in- 

jX opinion with respect to the nameot the m-\ /. 

"k ■ ' ventor (as well as the time of the inven- 

i\) ventorias well as the time of the invention/ tjo^) of Printing, there can be no question 

but that to Peter Sch(effeb of Gem- 
sheim belongs the honor of originating 
the casting of metal letters, thus utilizing 



-oW; 



f€ 



. Mv ventorias well as the time ol tne invention/ 

L I ^ A I 

vC If^l of Printing, there caniquestion but that to . | 
\).(L Peter schceffer of Gernsheim belongs the & I — 



honor of originating the casting e a s ting of 



% 



C\ metal leters, thus utilizing the krt of arts. CL\ ll| the art of arts, 
^pl .he had learned froi|r the world^renowned /nlj-j He had learned from the world-renowned 

l£^^! Guttembergs the art of cutting let^fst fr<*«- iA^ 
wood 



.^ 



Guttembergs the art of cutting letters 
from wood. Not satisfied with this slow, 
tedious mode of making letters, he happily 



ff^ ' CNot satisfied with this sIjw tedious mode . / >C 

_L J of makinglletters) belhit/happii.v\upon the ' 'h^ ^^^ "P0° t^^ expedient of cutting the cha- 

e\ ' expedient of cutting the characters _^:^ in (R^y^y- '■^''*^" ^"''^ '° " matrix; in this the let- 

^\Mi' a matrix : Jthus many letters might be madTo^^ ^"' '"'g^* ^« °«^*' ^^'i ^^""^ '"^"y !«"«" 

-Vjt. in the sa^e time that it had formerly (g;^f|S^"'S^* ^« "^^^^ ^° »*"« '""^^ ^'""^ that it 
"' - - — ■-^^ — ■ had formerly taken, by the cutting me- 



by the cutting method, to make each orieT]'^ 
U TT I Faust was so pleased with Schosffers dis- ii/ 
^ covery, that he gave himh is only daugh; l-l 
^ I tir Christina in marriage. |_Little did either m 
' anticipate the vast triumphs to be achieved £,1 
/Ox// ithis discovery. ' 



The caption to an article is sometimes rtm in 
befol'e the first paragrajjh with a period and short 
dash, . — (in which case Itnli'cs or small capitals 
are generally used); but usually it is put above 
the article, in the centre of the line, in capitals, as 
in the example, or in some appropriate head -letter. 

The marks above explain themselves, but, al- 
though, in my efforts to illustrate as many marks 
as possi'ole, I have made the example dirtier than 
I should like to see the proof of any fellow-crafts- 
man, I yet have been unable to show all the marks 
that are used in correcting proof. Two or three 
of the above marks need a word of explanation : 

If a word or line, from any cause, is crooked, 
draw a line above and below, and two horizontal, 
parallel lines in the margin. 

If a sentence or more than four words be left 
out, make a carat where the omission occurs, and 
on the margin write — Out, — see copy. 

When the proof-reader doubts the correctness 
of a word, phrase, or anything else, he encircles 
or underscores it, and in the margin writes Qr., 
with or without a suggested corredion, encircled. 
Should the author adopt the suggestion, he draws 
a line across only the Qr. ; if he rejef ts it, he 
crosses also the correction. When the author, not 
having the copy at hand, suspects a deviation 



tbod, to make each one. 

Faust was so pleased with SchoefFer's dis- 
covery, that he gave him his only daugh- 
ter Christina in marriage. 

Little did either anticipate the vast tri- 
umphs to be achieved through this dis- 
covery. 

from copy, and wishes the copy literally followed, 
he encircles or underscores the doubtful word or 
phrase, and writes in the margin — Qr., see copy. 

I might perhaps extend these remarks, but it is 
impossible to mention every supposable correction 
that can be made, and I think any author, with 
the above example and remarks and the exercise 
of his own common sense, should be able to maik 
a proof intelligibly. 

THE ART OF ROWING, 

ReouisiteK for a Perfect Strolce. 
\. Taking the whole reach forward, and falling 
back gradually a little past the perpendicular, 
preserving the shoulders throughout square, and 
the chest developed at the end. 

2. Catching the water and beginning the stroke 
with a full tension on the arms at the instant of 
contact. 

3. A horizontal and dashing pull through the 
water immediately the blade is covered, without 
deepening in the space subsequently traversed. 

4. Rapid recovery after feathering by an elas- 
tic motion of the body from the hips, the arms 
being thrown forward perfectly straight simulta- 
neously with the body, and the forward motion of 
each ceasing at the same time. 



454 



ROWING, ETC. 



5. Lastly, equability in all the actions, preserv- 
ing full strength without harsh, jerking, isolated 
and uncompensated movements in any single part 
of the frame. 

Faults in Rowing. 

The above laws are sinned against when the 
rower 

1. Does not straighten both arms before him. 

2. Keeps two convex wrists instead of the out- 
side wrist flat. 

3. Contrives to put his hands forward by a sub- 
sequent motion after the shoulders have attained 
their reach, which is getting the body forward 
without the arms. 

4. Extends the arms without a corresponding 
bend on the part of the shoulders, which is get- 
ting the arras forward without the body. 

5. Catches the water with unstraightened arms 
or arm, and a slackened tension as its consequence; 
thus time may be kept, but not stroke; keeping 
stroke always implying uniformity of work. 

6. Hangs before dipping downwards to begin 
the stroke. 

7. Does not cover the blade up to the shoulder. 

8. Rows round and deep in the middle, with 
hands high and blade still sunken after the first 
contact. 

9. Curves his back forward or aft. 

10. Keeps one shoulder higher than the other. 

11. Jerks. 

12. Doubles forward and bends over the oar at 
the feather, bringing the body up to the handle, 
and not the handle up to the body. 

13. Strikes the water at an obtuse angle, or rows 
the first part in the air. 

14. Cuts short the end, prematurely slackening 
the arms. 

15. Shivers out the feather, commencing it too 
soon and bringing the blade into a plane with the 
water while work may yet be done; thus the oar 
leaves the water in perfect time, but stroke is not 
kept. This and No. 5 are the most subtle faults 
in rowing, and involve the science of shirking. 

16. Rolls backward, with an inclination towards 
the inside or outside of the boat. 

17. Turns his elbows at the feather instead of 
bringing them sharp past the flanks. 

18. Keeps the head depressed between the shoul- 
ders instead of erect. 

19. Looks out of the boat instead of straight be- 
fore him. (This almost inevitably rolls the boat.) 

20. Throws upTme water instead of turning it 
well aft off the lower angle of the blade. A wave 
thus created is extremely annoying to the oar fur- 
ther att; there should be no wave travelling as- 
tern, but an eddy containing two small circling 
swirls. 



MACADAMIZED ROADS. 

Stone is to be procured in some form in almost 
every part of the country, and a road made of 
small broken stone to the depth of 10 inches, will 
be smooth, solid, and durable. 

The size of stones for a road should be about 
that of a hen's egg. It must be in due proportiim 
to the space occupied by a wheel of ordinary di- 
mensions on a smooth level surface; this point of 
contact will be found to be longitudinally, about 
1 inch ; and every piece of stone put into a road, 
which exceeds 1 inch in any of its dimensions, is 
mischievous. 

In repairing an old road no addition of mate- 
rials is to be brought upon it, unless in any part it 
be found that there is not a quantity of clean stone 
equal to 10 inches in thickness. 

The stone already in the road is to be loosened 



up. The road is then to be laid as flat a? possible, 
a rise of 3 inches from the centre to the side is suf- 
ficient for a road 30 feet wide. 

The stones when loosened in the road are to be 
gathered ofi" by means of a strong heavy rake to 
the side of the road, and there broken. 

When the large stones have been removed, the 
road is to be put in shape, and a rake employed 
to smooth the surface. 

When the road is so prepared, the stones that 
have been broken by the side of the road are then 
to be carefully spread on it — not to be laid on it 
in shovelsful, but scattered over the surface, one 
shovelful following another, and spreading oyer 
a considerable space. 

When additional 3tone is wanted on a road that 
has consolidated bi use. the old hardened surface 
of the road is to be loosened with a j)ick, in order 
to make the fresh materials unite with the old. 

Every road is to be made of broken stone, with- 
out mixture of earth, clay, chalk, or any other 
matter that will imbibe water and be affected with 
frost; nothing is to be laid on the clean stone on 
pretence of binding; broken stone will combine by 
its own angles into a smooth solid surface that 
cannot be afTected by vicissitudes of weather, or 
displaced by the action of wheels, which will pass 
over without a jolt, and consequently without in- 
jury. 

Flint makes an excellent road, if due attention 
be paid to the size : but, from want of that atten- 
tion, many of the flint roads are rough, loose, and 
expensive. 

Limestone, when properly prepared and ap- 
plied, makes a smooth, solid road, and becomes 
consolidated sooner than any other material; but 
from its nature is not the most lasting. 



To Manage Wciter-pipes in Winter. 

When the frost begins to set in, cover the wa- 
ter-pipes with hay or straw bands, twisted tight 
round them. Let the cisterns and water-butts be 
washed out occasionally ; this will keep the water 
pure and fresh. 

In pumping up water into the cistern for the 
water-closet, be very particular, in winter time. 
Let all the water be let out of the pipe when done; 
but if this is forgotten, and it should be frozen, 
take a small gimblet and bore a hole in the pipe, 
a little distance from the place where it is let off, 
which will prevent its bursting. Put a peg into 
the hole when the water is let off. 

To make an ^olian Harp. 

Of very thin cedar, pine, or other soft wood 
make a box 5 or 6 inches deep, 7 or 8 inches wide, 
and of a length just equal to the width of the win- 
dow in which it is to be placed. Across the top, 
near each end, glue a strip of wood half an inch 
high and a quarter of an inch thick, for bridges. 
Into the ends of the box insert wooden pins, like 
those of a violin, to wind the strings .around, two 
pins in each end. Make a sound-hole in the mid- 
dle of the top, and string the box with small cat- 
gut, or blue first-fiddle strings. Fastening one 
end of each string to a metallic pin in one end of 
the box, and, carrj'ing it over the bridges, wind it 
around the turning-pin in the opposite end of the 
box. The ends of the box should be increased in 
thickness where the wooden pins enter, by a piece 
of wood glued upon the inside. Tune the strings 
in unison and place the box in the window. It is 
better to have four strings, as described, but a 
harp with a single string produces an exceedingly 
sweet melody of notes, which vary with the force 
of the wind. 



CLEANING OF FURNITURE, ETC. 



455 



To Cure Smohy Chimnci/s. 
■ The ooramon causes of smok3' chimneys are 
cither th;it the wind is too much let in above at 
the luouth of the shaft, or else that the smoke is 
etifleil below. They may also proceed from there 
being too little room in the vent, particularly 
wlie-e several open into the same funnel. The 
situation of the house may likewise affect them, 
especially if backed by higher ground or higher 
buildings. 

The best method of cure is to carry from the air 
a pipe under the floor and opening under the fire; 
or, when his/her objects are the cause, to fix a 
movable cowl at the top of the chimney. 

In regard to smoky chimneys, a few facts and 
cautions may be useful; and a very simple rem- 
edy may often render the calling in of masons and 
bricklayers unnecessary. 

Observe that a northern aspect often produces a 
smoky chimney. 

A single chimney is apter to smoke than when 
it forms part of a stack. 

Straight funnels seldom draw well. 

Large fire-places are apt to smoke, particularly 
when the aperture of the funnel does not corres- 
pond in size. For this a temporary remedy may 
be found in opening a door or window— a perma- 
nent cure by diminishing the lower aperture. 

When a smoky chimney is so incorrigible as to 
require a constant admission of fresh air into the 
room, the best mode is to introduce a pipe, one of 
whose apertures shall be in the open air and the 
other under the grate; or openings may be made 
near the top of the apartment, if lofty, without 
any inconvenience even to persons sitting close by 
the fire. 

This species of artificial ventilation will always 
be found necessary for comfort where gas is used 
internally, whether a fire is lighted or not. 

AVhere a ctiimney only smokes when a fire is 
first lighted, this may be guarded against by al- 
lowing the fire to kindle gradually; or more 
promptly by laying any inflammable substance, 
such as shavings, on the top of the grate, the rapid 
combustion of which will warm the air in the 
chimney, and give it a tendency upwards, before 
any smoke is produced from the fire itself. If old 
Stove-grates are apt to smoke, they may be im- 
proved by setting the stove further back. If that 
fails, contract the lower orifice. 

In cottages, the shortness of the funnel or chim- 
ney may produce smoke ; in which case the lower 
orifice must be contracted as small as possible by 
means of an upright register. 

If a kitchen chimney overpowers that of the 
parlor, as is often the'case in small houses, apply 
to each chimney a free admission of air, until the 
evil ceases. 

When a chimney is filled with smoke, not of its 
own formation, but from the funnel next to it, an 
easy remedy offers, in covering each funnel with 
a conical top, or earthen crock, not cylindrical, 
but a frustum of a cone, by means of which the 
two openings are separated a few inches, and the 
cold air or the gust of wind no longer forces the 
smoke down with them. 

If these remedies fail it will be generally found 
that the chimney only smokes when the wind is 
in a particular quarter, connected with the posi- 
tion of some higher building, or a hill, or a grove 
of trees. In such cases the common turncap, as 
made by tinmen and ironmongers, will generally 
be found fully adequate to the end proposed. A 
case has occurred of curing a sm.>ky chimney ex- 
posed to the northwest wind, and commanded by 
a loftv liuiMing on the southeast, by the follow- 
ing contrivance. 



A painted tin cap, of a conical form, was sus- 
pended by a ring and swivel, so as to swing over 
the mouth of the chimney-pot by means of an 
arched strap or bar of iron nailed on each side of 
the chimney. When a gust of wind laid this cap 
(which, from its resemblance in form and use to 
an umbrella, is called a paravent or wind-guard) 
close to the pot on one side, it opened a wider 
passage for the escape of the smoke on the oppo- 
site side, whichever way the wind came, while 
rain, hail, etc. were eBectually prevented from de- 
scending the flue. 

To Clean Chimneys. 

The top of each chimney should be furnished 
with a pot somewhat in tbe shape of a bell, un- 
derneath the centre of which should be fixed a 
pulley, with a chain of sufiicieat length for both 
ends to be fastened, when not in use, to nails or 
pins in the chimney, out of sight, but within reach 
from below. One or both of these ends should be 
adapted to the reception of a brush of an appro- 
priate construction ; and thus chimneys may be 
swept as often as desired, by servants, with very 
little additit)nal trouble. 

To Extiiigiiinh a Cldmney on Fire, 

Shut the doors and windows, throw water on 
the fire in the grate, and then stop up the bottom 
of the chimney. 

Another Method. 

The gas prouuced by throwing a handful of 
flowers of sulnaur on the burning coal, where a 
chimney is ou fire, will immediately extinguish 
the flames. 

To Clean Furniture. 

Keep the paste or oil in a proper can or jar, that 
there may be no danger of upsetting when using 
it. Have two pieces of woollen cloth, one for 
rubbing it on, the other for rubbing it dry and 
polishing; also an old linen cloth to finish with, 
and a piece of smooth soft cork to rub out the 
stain. Use a brush if tbe paste be hard. Always 
dust the table well before the oil or paste is put 
on ; and, if it should be stained, rub it with a 
damp sponge, and then with a dry cloth. If the 
stain does not disappear, rub it well with a cork 
or a brush the way the wood grows ; for if rubbed 
cross-grained it will be sure to scratch it Be 
careful to keep the cork and brush free from dust 
and dirt. When the dust is cleaned otf and the 
stains have been got out, put on the oil or paste, 
but not too much at a time; rub it well into the 
wood. If oil, be as quick a* possible in rubbing 
it over the table, and then polish it with another 
woollen cloth. If wax, put a little bit on the wool- 
len cloth, with the finger or a small stick; rub it 
well with this till the table has a high polish, then 
have another cloth to finish it with. Be very care- 
ful to have the edges of the table well cleaned, and 
the oil and wax well rubbed uif. 

The furniture which is not in constant use will 
not require to be oiled above once a week ; it ought, 
! however, to be dusted every day and well rubbed, 
i Tables which are used daily must be well rubbed 
every morning, and great care should be taken to 
remove all spots from them, particularly ink. 
This can very easily be done, if not left to dry 
long, by putting on a little salt of lemons with the 
finger. 

AVhen cleaning tables or chairs, be careful to 
remove them into the middle of the room, or at a 
distance from the wall. If the sideboard or side- 
table is fixed to the wall, be still more careful in 
cleaning it, and roll up the woolien cloth tight is 
the hand, and into a small compass. 

To Clean Looking-glasses, Mirrors, etc. 
If they should be hung so high that they cannot 



456 



CLEANING OF PUENITURE, ETC. 



be conveniently reached, have a pair of steps to 
stimd upon; but mind that they stand steady. 
Then take a piece of soft sponge, well washed and 
cleaned from everything gritty, just dip it into 
■water and squeeze it out again, and then dip it 
into some spirit of wine. Rub it over the glass; 
dust it over with some powder blue, or whiting 
sifted through muslin; rub it lightly and quickly 
off again with a cloth; then take a clean cloth 
and rub it well again, and finish by rubbing it 
with a silk handkerchief. 

If the glass be very large clean one half at a 
time, as otherwise the spirit of wine will dry be- 
fore it can be rubbed off. If the frames are not 
Tarnished the greatest care is necessary to keep 
them quite dry, so as not to touch them with the 
sponge, as this will discolor or take off the gilding. 

To clean the frames, take a little raw cotton in 
the state of wool, and rub the frames with it ; this 
will take off all the dust and dirfwithout injuring 
the gilding. If the frames are well varnished rub 
them with spirit of wine, which will take out all 
spots and give them a fine polish. Varnished 
doors may be done in the same manner. Never 
use any cloth to frames, or drawings,' or unvar- 
nished oil-paintings, when cleaning and dusting 
them. 

To Clean Knives and Forks. 

Procure a smooth board, free from knots, or one 
covered with leather. If the latter, melt a suffi- 
cient quantity of mutton-suet, and imt it hot upon 
the leather witii apiece of flannel; t!ien take two 
pieces of soft Bath brick, and rub them one against 
the other over the leather till it is eo. ered with 
the powder, which rub in until no grease comes 
through when a knife is passed over the leather, 
which may easily be known by the knife keeping 
its polish. 

If only a plain board, rub the Bath brick 2 or 
3 times over it; for if too much be put on at once 
it will make the blades of the knives look rough 
and scratched. Let the board be of a proper 
height, and set so that the person may be a little 
on the stoop while cleaning the knives. Take a 
knife in each hand, holding them back to back ; 
stand opposite the middle of the board ; lay the 
knives fiat upon it, and do not bear too hard upon 
them ; by this method it will be easier to clean two 
knives at a time than one, anil they will be less 
liable to be broken, for good knives will snap when 
pressed on too heavily. Many will say that they 
cannot clean two knives at once, or that they can 
get through them faster one by one ; but if they 
will only try it a few times in the way recom- 
mended, they will find it not only much more ex- 
peditious, but easier. 

Be careful in keeping a good edge on the knives. 
Carving-knives in particular ought to be kept 
sharp, which may easily be done by taking one in 
each hand, back to back when cleaning, scarcely 
letting them touch the board when expanding the 
arms, but when drawing the hands together again 
bearing a little hard on the edge of the knives; 
this will give them both a good edge and a fine 
polish, and is much better than sharpening theui 
with a steel. 

The best way to clean steel forks is to fill a 
small barrel with fine gravel, brick-dust, or sand, 
mixed with a little hay or moss; make it moder- 
ately damp, press it well down, and let it always 
be kept damp. By running the prongs of the 
gteel forks a few times into this, all the stains on 
them will be removed. Then have a small stick, 
shaped like a knife, with leather round it, to pol- 
ish between the. prongs, having first carefully 
brushed off the dust from them as soon as they 
are taken out of the tub. A knife-board is often 



spoiled in cleaning forks upon it, and likewise the 
backs of the knives; to prevent this have a piece 
of old hat or leather put on the board where the 
forks and backs of the knives are cleaned. 

Always turn the back of the knives towards the 
paltn of the hand in wiping them, this will prevent 
all danger from cutting. In wiping the forks put 
the corner of the cloth between the prongs, to re- 
move any dirt or dust that may not have been 
thoroughly brushed out; and if there should be 
silver ferules on the knives and forks, or silver 
handles, they must be rubbed with a piece of lea- 
ther ami plate powder, keeping the blades covered 
while the handles are cleaning. 

Wipe the knives and forks as soon as possible 
after being used, as the longer they are left with 
grease and stains on them the harder they will be 
to clean; particularly if they have been used for 
acids, salads, tarts, etc., have then a jug of hot 
water ready to put them into as soon as done with, 
and wipe them as before directed. 

In order to keep knives and forks in good con- 
dition when they are not in use, rub the steel part 
with a flannel dipped in oil; wipe the oil off after 
a few hours, as there is often water in it; or dust 
the blades and prongs with quicklime, finely 
powdered and kept in a muslin bag. 
To Brush Clothes. 

Have a wooden horse to put the clothes on, and 
a small cane to beat the dust out of them ; also a 
board or table long enough for them to be put 
their whole length when brushing them. Have 
two brushes, one a hard bristle, the other soft; use 
the hardest for the great coats, and for the others 
when spotted with dirt. Fine cloth coats should 
never be brushed with too hard a brush, as this 
will take off the nap, and make them look bare in 
a little time. Be careful in the choice of the cane; 
do not have it too large, and be particular not to 
hit too hard. Be careful also not to hit the but- 
tons, for it will scratch if not break them ; there- 
fore a small hand-whip is the best to beat with. 

If a coat be wet and spotted with dirt, let it be 
quite dry before brushing it; then rub out the 
spots with the hands, taking care not to rumple 
it in so doing. If it want beating do it as before 
directed, then put the coat at its full length on a 
board ; let the collar be towards the left hand and 
the brush in the right. Brush the back of the 
collar first, between the two shoulders next, and 
then the sleeves, etc., observing to brush the cloth 
the same way that the nap goes, which is towards 
the skirt of the coat. When both sides are prop- 
erly done fold them together; then brush the in- 
side, and last of all the collar. 

To Clean a Hair-Brush. 

Put a tablespoonful of spirits of hartshorn 
(aqua ammoniae) in a pint of water and wash the 
brush in it; it will very quickly make the brush 
clean as new. This is also an excellent method 
of cleansing or shampooing the hair. 

Japanning Old Tea-Trays. 

First clean them thoroughly with soap and 
water and a little rotten-stone; then dry them by 
wiping and exposure at the tire. Now get some 
good copal varnish, mix with it some bronze pow- 
der, and apply with a brush to the denuded parts. 
After which set the tea-tray in an oven, at a heat 
of 212° or 300°, until the varnish is dry. Two 
coats will make it equal to new. 
To Cleanse Silver. 

Clean silver with hot water, followed by a solu- 
tion of equal parts of spirits of ammonia and spiriu 
of turpentine; and after this, if necessary, pre- 
pared chalk, whiting, magnesia, or rouge. 



CLEANING OF CHINA, ETC. 



457 



To Pack Gloss or China. 

Procure some soft straw or hay to pack them 
Ln, and, if they are to he sent a long way and are 
heavy, the hay or straw should be a little damp, 
which will prevent them slipping about. Let the 
largest and heaviest things be always put under- 
most in the box or hamper. Let there be plenty 
of straw, and pack the articles tight; but never 
attempt to pack up glass or China which is of 
much consequence, till it has been overlooked by 
some one used to the job. The expense will be 
but trifling to have a person to do it who under- 
stands it, and the loss may be great, if articles of 
such value are packed up in an improper manner. 
To Clean China and Glass. 

The best material for cleaning either porcelain 
or glassware is fuller's earth, but it must be beaten 
into a fine powder and carefully cleared from all 
rough (;r hard particles, which might endanger the 
polish of the brilliant surface. 

To Clean Wine Decanters. 

Cut some brown paper into very small bits, so 
as to go with ease into the decanters; then cut a 
few pieces of soap very small, ami put some water, 
milk warm, into the decanters, upon the soap and 
paper: put in also a little pearlash. By well work- 
ing this about in the decanters it will take off the 
crust of the wine and give the glass a fine polish. 
Where the decanters have been scratched, and the 
wine left to stand in them a long time, have a 
small cane, with a bit of sponge tied tight at one 
end ; by putting this into the decanter any crust 
of the wine may be removed. When the decanters 
have been properly washed let them be thoroughly 
dried and turned down in a proper rack. 

If the decanters have wine in them when put 
by, have some good corks always at hand to put 
in instead of stoppers; this will keep the wine 
much better. 

To Decant Wine. 

Be careful not to shake or disturb the crust 
•when moving it about or drawing the cork, par- 
ticularly Port wine. Never decant wine without 
a wine-strainer, with some fine cambric in it to 
prevent the crust and bits of cork going into the 
decanter. In decanting Port wine do not drain it 
too near; there are generally two-thirds of a wine- 
glass of thick dregs in each bottle, which ought 
not to be put in ; but in white wine there is not 
much settling. Pour it out, however, slowly, and 
raise the bottle up gradually. The wine should 
never be decanted in a hurry; therefore always do 
it before the family sits down to dinner. Do not 
jostle the deciinters against each other when mov- 
ing them about, as they easily break when full. 
To Preserve Hats. 

Hats require great care or they will soon look 
shabby. Brush them with a soft camel-hair 
brush ; this will keep the fur smooth. Have a 
stick for each hat to keep it in its proper shape, 
especially if the hat has got wet. Put the stick 
in as soon as the hat is taken off, and when dry 
put it into a h:it-box, particularly if not in con- 
stant use, as the air and dust soon turn hats brown. 
If the hat is very wet, handle it as lightly as pos- 
sible; wipe it dry with a cloth or silk handker- 
chief, then brush it with the soft brush. If the 
nap sticks so close, when almost drj', that it can- 
not be got loose with the soft brushes, then use 
the hard ones ; but if the nap still sticks, damp it 
a little with a sponge dipped in beer or vinegar; 
then brush it with a hard brush till dry. 
To Clean Boots and Shoes. 
Good brushes and blacking are indispensably 
necessary. First remove all the loose dirt with a , 



wooden knife, and never use a sharp steel one, as 
the leather is too often cut. and the boots and shoes 
spoiled. Then take the hanl brush and brush off 
the remainder, and all the dust; they must also 
be quite dry before blacking, or they will not 
shine. Do not put on too much blacking at a 
time, for if it dries before using the shining brush 
the leather will look brown instead of black. If 
there are boot-trees, never clean boots or shoes 
without them, but take care that the trees are al- 
ways kept clean and free from dust. Never put 
one shoe within another, and when cleaning la- 
dies' boots or shoes, be careful to have clean 
hands, that the linings may not get soiled. Al- 
ways scrape off the dirt when wet from boots or 
shoes, but never place them too near the fire when 
dry, as that cracks the leather. 

To Keep Up Sash Windmcs. 

This is performed by means of cork, in the sim- 
plest manner, and with scarcely any expense. 
Bore 3 or 4 holes in the sides of the sash, into 
which insert common bottle-cork, projecting about 
the sixteenth part of an inch. These will press 
against the window frames along the usual groove, 
and bj' their elasticity support the sash at any 
height which may be required. 

To Choose a Carpet. 

Always select one the figures of which are 
small ; for in this case the two webs in which the 
carpeting consists, are always much closer inter- 
woven than in carpets where large figures upon 
ample grounds are represented. 
Starch. 

Use two kinds of clear starch in washing. For 
shirts and collars the pearl starch is preferred. It 
should be well boiled and smooth. To 1 qt. of 
starch put in a piece of spermaceti as large as a 
walnut; or dissolve 2 oz. of gum Arabic in 1 pint 
of water, and strain through a cloth; of this add 
a tablespoonful to each pint of starch. In bottling, 
a very little corrosive sublimate may be put with 
the gum to make it keep. 

To Stain Floors. 

To strong lye of wood-ashes add enough cop- 
peras for the required oak shade. Put this on 
with a mop, and varnish afterwards. 
To Tell Good E(j(j8. 

Put them into water; if the butt ends turn up 
they are not fresh. This is said to be a certain 
test. 

Preservation of Egr/s. 

A writer says: The best method I know of to 
preserve eggs is to fill the pores of the shell with 
fresh, clean lard, so as to exclude all the air. It 
is my opinion that this simple and easy method is 
preferable to any now in use. Some put them in 
lime-water, some lay them down in salt, some put 
them in saw-dust. But the lime cooks them, so 
that they have a dried appearance ; salt has a sim- 
ilar effect, while eggs saturated with lard (as far 
as my experience goes) open fresh and nice. In 
Paris, ho wever,where they understand these thinga 
thoroughly, eggs are preserved by immersion in 
hot water, as follows : Water is made to boil in a 
kettle, a dozen eggs are put into a colander, which 
is plunged into the kettle, left there about a min- 
ute, and then withdrawn with the eggs. By this 
means a thin layer or yolk becomes coagulated, 
and forms in the interior surface of the shell a 
sort of coating, which opposes itself to the evapo- 
ration of the substance of the egg, and conse- 
quently to the contact of the air which rushes in 
to fill the void left by the evaporation. 

A Method of Preserving Lime-Jiiice. 

The juice, having been expressed from the fruit, 



453 



PRESERVATIOlSr OF FOOD, POTICHOMANIA, ETC. 



was strained and put into quart bottles ; these hav- 
ing heen carefully corked, were put into a pan of 
cold water, which was then by degrees raised to 
the boiling point. At that temperature it was 
kept for half an hour, and was then allowed to 
cool down to the temperature of the air. After 
being bottled for 8 months the juice was in the 
state of a whiti.^h, turljid liquor, with the acidity 
and much of the flavor of the lime; nor did it 
appear to have undergone any alteration Some 
of the juice, which had been examined the year 
before, and which had since only been again 
lieated and carefully bottled, was still in good 
condition, retaining much of the flavor of the re- 
cent juice. Hence it appears that, by the appli- 
cation of the above process, the addition of rum 
or other spirit to lime or lemon-juice, may be 
avoided, without rendering it at all more liable to 
spontaneous alteration. 

To P.cneive Milk. 

Provide bottles, which must be perfectly clean, 
sweet, and dry. Draw the milk from the cow into 
the bottles, and, as they are filleJ, immediately 
cork them well up, and fasten the corks with 
pack-thread or wire. Then spread a little straw on 
the bottom of a boiler, on which place the bottles 
with straw between them, until the boiler contains 
a sufficient quantity. Fill it up with cold water; 
heat the water, and as soon as it begins to boil 
drav? the fire, and let the whole gradually cool. 
When quite cold take out the bottles, and pack 
them with straw or saw-dust in hampers, and 
stow them in the coolest part of the house or 
ship. Milk preserved in this manner, although 
18 months in the bottles, will be as sweet as when 
first milked from the cow. 

To Prenerve Cabbages and other Esculent Vegeta- 
bles Fresh during a Sea Voyage or a Severe 

Winter. 

Cut the cabbage so as to leave about 2 inches 
or more of the stem attached to it; after which 
scoop out the pith to about the depth of 1 inch, 
taking care not to wound or brui^^e the rind by 
the operation. Suspend the cabbage by means of 
a cord tied around the stem, so that that portion 
of it from which the jiith is taken remains upper- 
most, which regularly fill every morning with fresh 
water. By this simple method cabbages, cauli- 
flowers, brocoli, etc. may be preserved fresh during 
a long voyage, or in a severe winter, for domestic 
use. 

Fish-House [Stale of Schuylhill) Punch. 

One-third pt. of lemon-juice, j lb. white sugar, 
i pt. peach brandy, i pint cogniac brandy, J pt. 
Jamaica rum, no water, but a large lump of ice. 
To Whitewash. 

Put some lumps of quicklime into a bucket of 
cold water, and stir it about till dissolved and 
mixed, after which a brush with a large head, and 
a long handle, to reach the ceiling of the ro6m, is 
used to spread it thinly on the walls, etc. AVhen 
dry, it is beautifully white, but its known cheap- 
ness has induced the plasterers to substitute a mix- 
ture of glue size and whiting for the houses of 
their opulent customers; and this, when once 
used, precludes the employment of limewashing 
ever after, for the latter, when laid on whiting, be- 
comes j'ellow. 

AVhitewashing is an admirable manner of ren- 
dering the dwellings of the poor clean and whole- 
tome. 

First. For rough outside walls — those exposed 
to the weather — the best mixture is clear lime and 
water. Any animal or vegetable substance added 
diminishes the adhesion and durability of the wash. 

Second. But if the wall is hard and smooth, the 



wash is improved by a mixture of very fine sand- 
as much as will mix and can be applied. 

Third. For inside walls an additi^m of a littlfl 
glue — say J lb. to .3 pailfuls — increases the ad- 
hesion. If it is desired to have the walls very 
white, the whites of eggs may be used in the place 
of the glue. 

To Prevent the Smoking of a Lamp. 

Soak the wick in strong vinegar, and dry it well 
before you use it; it will then burn both sweet 
and pleasant, ami give much satisfaction for the 
trifling trouble in preparing it. 
Easy Method of Presenting Meat in the Country, 

for a Few Days, without Salt and without Ice. 

Put the meat into the water running from a 
spring. It will sink — examine it daily — when it 
begins to rise from the bottom it must be used; it 
will be found perfectly sound and tender, and may 
be boiled or roasted. Meat may be preserved in 
this manner 3 or 4 days in summer-time, free from 
taint. The outside will appear soniewhat whitened, 
but the flavor is not injured. It would be advis- 
able to have a box or tub, with a cover, into and 
out of which the water shall have free passage, 
which may be put either inside or outside of the 
spring-house. 

Ready Mode of Mending Cracks in Stoves, Pipes, 
and Iron Ovens, as Practised in Germany. 

When a crack is discovered in a stove, through 
which the fire or smoke penetrates, the aperture 
may be completely closed in a moment with a 
composition consisting of wood-ashes and common 
salt, made up into paste with a little water, and 
plastered over the crack. The good effect is 
equally certain, whether the stove, etc., be cold or 

hot. 

POTICHOMANIA ; 
Or, to make Glass Jars look like China. 

After painting the figures, cut them out, so that 
none of the white of the paper remains, then take 
some thick gum Arabic water, pass it over all the 
figures, and place them on the inside of the glass to 
taste; let them stand to dry for 24 hours, then 
clean them well with a wet cloth betwixt the prints, 
and let them stand a few hours longer lest the water 
should move any of the edges, then take white wax 
and flake white, ground very fine, jind melt them 
together; with a japanning-brush go over all the 
glass above the prints; done in this manner they 
will hold water; or, boil isinglass to a strong 
jelly, and mix it up with white lead, ground line, 
and lay it on in the same manner; or use nut-oil 
and flake-white. For a blue ground, do it with 
white wax and Prussian blue, ground fine; for 
red, wax and vermilion, or carmine ; for green, 
wax and verdigris ; for a chocolate color, wax 
and burnt umber. 

To make Grindstones without Moulds. 

Take of river sand, 3 parts; of seed-lac, washed, 
1 part. Mix them over a fire in a pot, and form 
the mass into the shape of a grindstone, having 
a square hole in the centre; fix it on an axis with 
liquefied lac, heat the stone moderately, and by 
turning the axis it may easily be formed into an 
exact circular shape. Polishing grindstcmes are 
made onlj' of such sand as will jiass easily through 
fine muslin in the proportion of 2 parts of sand to 
I of lac. This sand is found at llagimaul. It ia 
composed of small angular crystalline particles 
tinged red with iron ; 2 parts to 1 of black mag- 
netic sand. The stone-cutters, instead of sand, 
use the powderof a very hard granite called corune. 
These grindstones cut very fast. When they want 
to increase their power they throw sand upon them, 
or let them occasionally touch the edge of a vitri 



EXPECTATION OF LIFE, ETC. 



459 



fied brick. The same composition is formed upon 
Sticits for cutting stones, shells, etc., by the hiind. 

To mahe Wax Cundlen. 
Place a dozen wicks on an iron circle, at equal 
distances, over a large copper vcs.sel tinned and 
full of melted wax; pour a ladlcfull of the wax 
on the tops of the wicks, one after another; what 
the wick does not take will drop into the vessel, 
■which must be kept warm by a pan of coals; con- 
tinue this process till the candles are as large as 
required. If they are wanted of a pyramidal 
form, let the first three ladlesl'ul be ))oured on at 
the top of the wick, the fourth at the height of 
three-quarters, the fifth at half, and the sixth at 
a quarter; then take them down hot, and lay them 
beside each other in a feather-bed folded in two 
to preserve their warmth and keep the wax soft ; 
then take them down and mil them one by one 
on a smooth table, aud cut off the thick end as 
required. 

To malce Kitchen Vegetablen Tender. 
"When peas, French beans, etc., do not boil 
easily, it has usually been imputed to the coolness 
of the season, or to the rains. This popular no- 
tion is erroneous. The difficulty of boiling them 
soft arises from an excess of gypsum imbibed 
during their growth. To correct this, throw a 
snfall quantity of Carbonate of soda into the pot 
alone with the vegetables. 

To Prevent Haystacks from Tiikhu/ Fire, 
When there is any reason to fear that the hay 
■which is intended to be housed or stacked is not 
sufficiently dry, let a few handfuls of common salt 
be scattered between each biyer. This, by ab- 
sorbing the humidity of the hay, not only pre- 
Tents the fermentation, aud consequent inflamma- 
tion of it, but adds a taste to it, which stimulates 
the appetites of cattle and preserves them from 
many diseases. 

To Frame a Polygraph, or Instrument for Writing 
Two Letters at Once. 

In this instrument, two pens, and even three, if 
necessary, are joined to each other hj' slips of wood 
acting upon the pivot; one of these pens cannot 
move without drawing the other to follow all its 
movements; the rules are inflexible, and they 
preserve in all their positions the parallelism which 
is given by uniting them. The movements of one 
of these pens are identically the same as those of 
the other; the characters traced by the first are 
the e.xact counterpart of those which the second 
has formed ; if the one rise above the paper and 
cease to write, or rather, if it make a scratch, or 
advance towards the ink-bottle, the other, faithful 
to the movements which are transmitted to it by 
the species of light wood which directs it, either 
rises or scratches or <lraws ink, and that without 
having occasion to give any particuhir attention to 
it. The copy is made of itself, and without ever 
thinking of it. 

The polygraph is not expensive ; it is used with- 
out difficulty, and almost with the same facility as 
in ordinary writing. The construction is as sim- 
ple as it is convenient; all the parts are collected 
BO as to be taken to pieces, and put up again very 
easily. Its size admits of its taking every desira- 
ble position, horizontal, perpendicular, or oblique, 
according to the application which is made of it, 
and the piece of furniture to which it is to be 
adapted ; for it may be fixed to a drawer, a desk, 
an inkstand, an easel, or simply laid upon the 
table; it is generally accompanied by a drawer, 
and a case of the form aud bulk of an ordinary 
desk. 



Castor Oil as a Dressing for Leather. 

Castor nil, besides being an excellent dressing 
for leather, renders it vermin-proof; it should 
be mixed, say half and half, with tallow or other 
oil. Neither rats, roaches, nor other vermin will 
attack leather so prepared. 

Substitute for a Corkscrew. 

A convenient substitute for a corkscrew, when 
the latter is not at hand, may be found in the usa 
of a common screw, with an attached string to pull 
the cork. 

Another. — Stick two forks vertically into the 
cork on opposite sides, not too near the edge. 
Run the blade of a knife through the two, and 
give a twist. 

Another. — Fill the hollow at the bottom of the 
bottle with a handkerchief or towel; gr:isp the 
neck with one hand, and strike firmlj- and steadily 
with the other upon the handkerchief. 
To send Messages in Ci/pher, 

Any document written in cypher, \)y ■which 
signs are substituted for letters, or even for words, 
is liable to be decyphered. The following plana 
are free from such objection : The correspondents 
select two copies of the same edition of a book, the 
word to be used is designated by figures referring 
to the page, line, and number of the word in the 
line; or the message may be written on a slip of 
paper wound s|)irally around a rod of wood ; these 
can only be decyphered by bringing them into 
their original position, by wrapping around a 
second rod of the same size. [For Sympathetic 
Inks, see Inks.] 

Expectation of Life at any Age from Five to Sixty 
Years. 

Everyman, woman, and child has a property in 
life. What is the value of this property? Mr. 
Clinrb's M. Willich bus establshed an extremely 
easy rule lor expressing this value — this " Expec- 
tation of Life" at any age from 5 to 60. His for- 
mula stand thus: e^§(80— a); or, in plain words, 
the expectation of life is equal to two-thirds of the 
difference between the age of the parly and 80. 
Thus, say a man is now 20 years old, lietween that 
age and 80 there are GO years; two-thirds of 60 
are 40 ; and this is the sum of his exjieetation of 
life. If a man be now 60 years, he will have an 
expectaiion of life nearly 14 years more. By the 
same rule, a child of 5 has a lien of life for 50 
years. Every one can apply the rule to his own 
age. Mr. Willich's hy[)othesis may be as easily 
remembered as that by De Moivre in the last cen- 
tury, which has now become obsolete, from the 
greater accuracy of the mortality tables. The re- 
sults obtained by the new law correspond very 
closely with those from Dr. Farr's English Life- 
Table, constructed with great care from an im- 
mense mass of returns. 

Grafting Wax. 

Five parts of rosin, 1 part of beeswax, 1 part of 
tallow. Melt these in a skillet, tin cup, or any 
metal vessel ; the skillet being preferable, as it can 
lie handled better, and the wax keeps warm longer 
in it. Mix these over the fire, and mi.x together 
well. When the scions are set — say as many as 
20 or 30, or as few as wished — have the mix- 
ture ready and apply it warm with a small wooden 
paddle. See that every part is covered, and the 
air completely excluded. It requires no bandage. 
We have made the wax in different proportions to 
the above, but we find these to be best adapted to 
the purpose. The object to be attained is to have 
the wa.x of such consistency that it will not crack 
in the cold winds of March and April, nor run in 
the hot suns of summer. 



460 



MISCELLANEOUS MEDICAL EECEIPTS. 



To Prepare a cheap Hortu8 Siccus, 
All the smaller plants should be expanded under 
water, in a plate, upon a piece of writing-paper 
Bnni\ to the bottom. In this state they will assume 
their natural form and position. The paper, with 
the [ilant upon it, must be withdrawn from the 
water gently : and the plant and paper afterwards 
placed betwixt two or three sheets of blotting- 
paper and pressed with a book or flat board. It 
is then to be laid up in a quire of blotting paper, 
under pressure, for a day or two, when, if dry, it 
may be placed permanently upon writing-paper. 

To make Artificial Red Cora! Branches, for the 
Embellishment of Grottoes. 

Take clear rosin, dissolve it in a br.ass pan ; to 
every ounce of which add 2 drs. of the finest ver- 
milion; when stirred well together, choose the 
twigs and branches, peeled and dried, then take a 
pencil and paint the branches all over whilst the 
composition is warm; afterwards shape them in 
imitation of natural coral. This done, hold the 
branches over a gentle coal fire, till all is smooth 
and even as if polished. In the same manner 
white coral may be prepared with white-lead, and 
black coral, with lampblack. A grotto may be 
built, with little expense, of glass, cinders, peb- 
bles, pieces of large flint, shells, moss, stones, 
counterfeit coral, pieces of chalk, all bound or 
cemented together with the above described 
cement. 

To Prevent Gold Feet at Night. 

Draw off the stocking, just before undressing, 
and rub the ankles and feet with the hand as hard 
as can be borne for 5 or 10 minutes. This will 
difl"use a pleasurable glow, and those who do so 
will never have to complain of cold feet in bed. 
Frequent washing and rubbing them thoroughly 
dry with a linen cloth or flannel, is useful for the 
same purpose. 

A Natural Dentifrice. 

The common strawberry is a natural dentifrice, 
and its juice, without any preparation, dissolves 
the tartareous incrustations on the teeth, and 
makes the breath sweet and agreeable. 

Fine Clay as a Dressing for Sores. 
Dr. Schreber, of Leipzic, recommends the use 
of clay as the most " energetic, the most innocent, 
the most simple, and the most economical of pal- 
liative applications to surfaces yielding foul and 
moist disch;irges." He, moreover, considers that; 
it has a specific action in accelerating the cure. 
Clay softened down in water, and freed from all 
gritty particles, is laid, layer by layer, over the 
affected part to the thickness of about a line. If 
it become dry and fall off, fresh layers are applied 
to the cleansed surface. The irritating secretion 
is rapidly absorbed by the clay, and the contact 
of air prevented. The cure thus goes on rapidly. 
This clay-ointment has a decisive action in cases 
of foetid perspiration of the feet or arm-pits. A 
single layer applied in the morning will destroy 
all odor in the day. It remains a long time sup- 
ple, and the pieces which fall off in fine powder 
produce no inconvenience. 

To Prevent the Effects of Drinking Cold Liquors in 
Warm Weather, or when Heated by Exercise. 
Avoid drinking water whilst warm, or drink only 
a small quantity at once, and let it remain a short 
time in the mouth before swallowing it, or wash 
the hands and face and rinse the mouth with cold 
water before drinking. If these precautions have 
been neglected, and the disorder incident to drink- 
ing cold water or eating ice when the body is 
heated, has been produced the first and in most 



instances the only remedy to be administered ia 
60 drops of laudanum in spirits and water, or 
warm drink of any kind. 

If this should fail of giving relief, the same 
quantity may be given 20 minutes afterwards. 

When laudanum cannot be obtained, rum and 
water, brandy and water, or even warm 'vater 
alone, should be given. 

To Remedy the Effects of Dram-drinking. 

Whoever makes the attempt to abandon spirit- 
drinking, will find, from time to time, a rankling 
in the stomach, with a sensMtion of sinking, ciild- 
ness and inexpressible anxiety. Tliis may be re- 
lieved by taking often a cupful of an infusion of 
cloves made by sleeping about an oz. of them in 
a pint of boiling water for 6 hours, and then strain- 
ing off the liquor, or from a teaspoon ful to a table- 
spoonful of elixir of valerianate of ammonia. In 
a state of permanent languor and debility, \h oz. 
of the casearilla bark (being also first bruised in 
a mortar), should be adiled to the infusion. This 
mixture taken in the quantity above specified 3 
times a day will he found a useful strengthencr 
of the stomach and bowels when they have been 
disordered by frequent excess and intoxication. 
The Portland Powder. 

Take of aristolochia rotunda, or birthwort root, 
gentian root, tops and leaves, germander, tops and 
leaves, ground pine, tops and leaves, centaury, 
tops and leaves. Take of all these, well dried, 
powdered and sifted fine, equal weight; mix them 
well together, and take 1 dr. of this mixed pow- 
der every morning, fasting, in a cup of wine and 
water, broth, tea, or any other vehicle you like 
best; keep fasting 1 J hours after it; continue this 
for 3 months without interruption, then diminish 
the dose to | dr. for 3 months longer, then to J 
dr. for fi months more, taking it regularly every 
morning if possible; after the first year it will be 
sufiicient to take i dr. every other day. As this 
medicine operates insensibly, it will jierhaps take 
2 years before you receive any great benefit, so 
you must not be discouraged, though you do not 
perceive at first any great amendment; it works 
slowly but surely; it does not confine the patient 
to any particular diet, so one lives soberly, and 
abstains from those meats and liquors that have 
always been accounted pernicious in the gout, as 
champagne, drams, high sauces, etc. 

In rheumatism which is not habitunl, a few of 
the drachm doses may do, but if habitual or of 
long duration, the powder must be taken as for 
the gout. The remedy requires patience, as it 
operates but slowly in both distempers. 
Pradier's Cataplasm. 

Pradier's remedy for the gout was purchased by 
the Emperor Napoleon, jun; bono pnblieo, for £2500. 
Take of l):ilm of Mecca, 6 dr.; red bark, 1 oz. ; 
saflron, J oz. ; sarsaparilla, 1 oz. ; sage, 1 oz. ; rec- 
tified spirit of wine, 3 lbs. Dissolve separately 
the balm of Mecca in J of the spirit of wine: ma- 
cerate the rest of the substances in the remainder 
for 48 hours; filter, and mix the two liquors for 
use; the tincture obtained is mixed with twice or 
thrice the quantity of lime-water; the bottle must 
be shaken in order to mix the precipitate settled 
at the bottom by standing. 

Mode of Application. 
The following is the mode of applying the 
remedy; A poultice must be prepared of linseed 
meal, which must be of good consistency and 
spread very hot of the thickness of a finger on a 
napkin, so as completely to surround the part af- 
fected ; if it bo required for both legs, from the 
feet to the knees, it will take about 3 qts. of lin- 



LIEBIG S SOUPS FOR INVALIDS AND CHILDREN. 



461 



seed meal. When the poultice is prepared, and 
as hot as the patient can bear it, about 2 oz. of 
the prcpareil liquor must be poured equally over 
the whole of the s irface of each, without its being 
imbibed ; the part aifected is then to be wrapped 
up in it, and hour A up with flannel and bandages 
to preser/e the heat. The poultice is generally 
changed every 24 hours, sometimes at the end of 
twelve. 

Liebig's Soup for Invalids. 
Take J lb. of newly-killed beef or fowl, chop it 
fine, add IJ lbs. of distilled water, with 4 drops 'of 
pure muriatic acid, and 34 to 67 grains of common 
salt, and stir well together. After an hour the 
■whole is to be thrown on a conical hair-sieve, and 
the fluid allowed to flow through without any 
pressure. The first thick portions which pass 
through are to be returned to the sieve, until the 
fluid runs off quite clear. Half a lb. of distilled 
water is to be poured, in small portions at a time, on 
the flesh residue in the sieve. There will be ob- 
tained in this way about 1 lb. of fluid (cold extract 
of flesh), of a red color, and having a pleasant 
taste of soup. The invalid is allowed to take it 
•old, a cupful at a time, at pleasure. It must not 
be heated, as it becomes muddy by heat, and de- 
posits a thick coagulum of albumen and coloring 
matter of blood. In soup prepared in the usual 
way by boiling, all those constituents of flesh are 
■wanting which are necessary for the formation of 
blood albumen ; and the yolk of egg, which is 
added, is poor in those substances, for it contains 
in all 82i per cent, of water and fat, and only 17'} 
par cent, of a substance, the same or verj' similar 
to albumen of egg. But whether it is equal in its 
power of nutrition to the albumen of flesh, is at 
least doubtful from the experiments of Magendie. 
Besides the albumen of flesh, the new soup con- 
tain s a certain quantity of coloring matter of 
blood, and with it a much larger quantity of the 
necessary iron for the formation of the blood-cor- 
puscle.s, and finally, the muriatic acid to assist di- 
gestion. A great obstacle to the use of this soup 
in summer is its liability to change in warm 
■weather. It enters into fermentation like sugar 
with yeast, but without acquiring a bad odor. 
What may be the substance which gives rise to 
this fermentation is a question well worthy of 
being investigated. The extraction of the flesh 
must consequently be made with very cold water, 
and in a cool place. Iced water, and external 
cooling with ice, completely removes this difficulty. 
But the most important point to be attended to is 
to employ meat quite recently killed, and not sev- 
eral days old. The soup has been successfully 
employed in low fevers and the summer-complaint 
of children. 

Liebig's Soup for Children, 

With that remarkable estimation of the great- 
ness of small things which is the most valuable of 
Lis many high intellectual qualities, and with a 
tender appreciation of the importance of small 
people. Baron Liebig devotes a special article in 
an English scientific periodical to the description 
of a new diet which he conceives to be the most 
fitting substitute for the natural nutriment of chil- 
dren robbed of their mother's milk. It is well 
known the cow's milk does not adequately repre- 
sent the milk of a healthy woman, and when 
wheaten flour is added, as it commonly is, Liebig 
points out that, although that starch be not un- 
fitting for the nourishment of infants, the change 
of it into sugar in the stomach during digestion 
imposes an unnecessary labor on the organiza- 
tion, which will be spared it if the starch be 
changed into the soluble forms of sugar and dex- 



trine. This he eff'ects by adding tc the wheaten 
flour a certain quantity of malt. As wheaten flour 
and malt flour contain less alkali than woman's 
milk he supplies this when preparing the soup. 
This soup may be shortly prepared, as follows: 
" Half an oz. of wheaten flour and an equal quan- 
tity of malt flour; 7i grs. of bicarbonate of pcitash 
and 1 oz. of water are to be well mixed ; 5 oz. of 
cow's milk are then to be added, and the whole 
put on a gentle fire; when the mixture begins to 
thicken it is removed from the fire, stirred during 
5 minutes, heated and stirred again till it becomes 
fluid, and finally made to boil. After the separa- 
tion of the bran by a sieve it is ready for use. By 
boiling it for a few minutes it loses all taste of the 
flour." The immediate inducement for Baron 
Liebig making this soup arose from the fact that 
one of his grandchildren oould not be suckled by 
its mother, and that another required, besides his 
mother's milk, a more concentrated food. The 
soup proved an excellent food — the children 
thrived on it. Baron Liebig has himself Uf^ed this 
soup with tea as a breakfast, and a most thor- 
oughly nutritious meal it must be. The tempera- 
ture before boiling should not exceed 148° Fahr. 

To Write for the Use of the Blind. 
Let an iron pen be used, the point of which ia 
not split. Blind per^ns writing without ink, and 
pressing on a strong paper, will produce charac- 
ters in relief, which they can immediately read by 
passing their fingers over the projecting charac- 
ters on the opposite side of the paper, in the con- 
trary direction. 

On the Honing and Stropping of a Razor. 
Let the hone be seldom and but sparingly re- 
sorted to, and never, unless by frequent and re- 
peated stropping the edge of the razor is entirely 
destroyed ; use the best pale oil, and be careful 
to preserve the hone clean and free from dust. 
Previously to the operation of shaving, it will be 
found of service, particularly to those who have a 
strong beard and a tender skin, to wash the face 
well with soap and water, and the more time is 
spent in lathering and moistening the beard, the 
easier will the process of shaving become. Dip 
the razor in hot water before applying it to the 
face ; use the blade nearly flat, always taking care 
to give it a cutting instead of a scraping direc- 
tion. Strop the razor immediately after using it, 
for the purpose of eflTectually removing any mois- 
ture that may remain upon the edge, and be care- 
ful not to employ a common strop, as the compo- 
sition with which they are covered is invariably 
of a very inferior quality, and injurious to a ra- 
zor. The strop should always be of the best 
manufacture, and when the composition is worn 
ofl" it will be found particularly useful to rub it 
over, lightly, with a little clean tallow, and then 
put upon it the top part of the snufi" of a candle, 
which, being a fine power, will admirably supply 
the place of the best composition ever used for 
the purpose. Another excellent mode of renova- 
ting a razor-strop is by rubbing it well with pew- 
ter, and impregnating the leather with the finest 
metallic particles. 

Paste for Sharpening Itazors. 

Take oxide of tin levigated, vulgarly termed 
prepared putty, 1 oz. ; saturated solution of oxalio 
acid, a sufficient quantity to form a paste. This 
composition is to be rubbed over the strop, and 
when dry a little water may be added. The fixa- 
lic acid having a great attachment for iron, a little 
friction with this powder gives a fine edge to the 
razor. 



462 



DANGERS AND EMERGENCIES. 



Horses Pulling at the Halter. 

Many remedies have been proposed for curing 
this bii<l habit, but a simple and effective one is to 
discard the common halter, and get a broad, strong 
leather strap to buckle around the neck for a few 
inches below the cars. A horse may pull at this, 
but will soon give it up. 

To Escape from or Go into a House on Fire. 

Creep or crawl with your face near the ground, 
and although the room be full of smoke to sufiFoca- 
tion, yet near the floor the air is pure, and may be 
breathed with safety. The best escape from upper 
■windows is a knotted rope, but if a leap is una- 
voidable, then a bed should be thrown out first, or 
beds be placed by those outside for the purpose. 

To Bring Horses out of a Stable on Fire. 

Throw the harness or saddles to which they may 
have been accustomed, over the backs of the horses 
in this predicament, and they will come out of the 
stable as tractably as usual. 
How to know whether a Horse has a Strong and 

Good Eye, or a Wealc Eye, and likely to go Blind. 

People generally turn a horse's head to a bright 
light to examine his eyes. You can know very 
little by this method what sort of an eye the horse 
has, unless it be a very defective one. You must 
examine the eye first, when'the horse stands with 
his head to the manger. Look carefully at the 
pupil of the eye in a horse ; it is of an oblong 
form ; carry the size of the pupil in your mind, 
and turn the horse about, bring him to a bright 
light, and if in the bright light the pupil of the 
eye contracts and appears much smaller than it 
was in the darker light, then you may be sure the 
horse has a strong, good eye, but. provided the 
pupil remains nearly of the same size as it ap- 
peared in the darker light, the horse has a weak 
eye, therefore have nothing to do with him. There 
are contracting and dilating muscles in the eye, 
which will plainly show you in what state the eye 
is, whether it be a strong or a weak one. 
How to Catch Wood-pigeons. 

Wood-pigeons are very easily caught in hard 
weather, particularly when snow is on the ground. 
You have but to sweep the snow on one side for 
about a dozen yards long and about 3 feet broad. 
Lay about 20 small eel-hooks, fastened by a peg 
into the ground, and with a small bean on each ; 
be sure you put the puint of the hook only through 
the top of the bean and the barb standing quite 
out on the side, otherwise if the hook be totally 
buried in the bean, when the bird struggles he will 
pull the hook out of his throat. 

I think as good a way as any is to punch 2 or 3 
holes in horse-beans with an iron bodkin, and 
then boil them iu some common gin ; many will 
be so drunk that they cannot fly up ; others will 
perch on the adjacent trees; watch them, and you 
will see them tumble down. 

How to Catch Wild-fold. 

If you have a large pond or lake frequented by 
wild-fowl, in the shallow water, about 1 ft. deep, 
where you observe them feed, lay a few rabbit- 
traps, with a few beans on the bridge of the trap, 
under the water. This is a sure method of catch- 
ing them. Where the water is about 2 ft deep, 
put a stick in about 1 foot above the water; cut a 
slit at the top of th^ stick; tie a strong piece of 
pack-thread round a brick-bat, or to a large stone ; 
kt the string, after having tied it round the stone, 
be aiiout a foot longer ; to the other end fasten a 
small eel-hook, baited with a piece of bullock's 
lights, sheeji's paunch, or a horse-bean ; then about 
3 or 4 in. from the brick-bat fasten a stick nearly 



as big as your little finger and about 4 in. long, 
tying the string with a single knot exactly to the 
centre of the stick ; then place that part of the 
string which is between tfie brick-bat and the 
short stick into the notch at the top of the long 
stick which is stuck in the bottom of the pond. 
The short stick will prevent the weight of the 
brick-bat from drawing the string through the 
notch, and the hook will hang a few inches from the 
water and the brick-bat hang fast by the notch in 
the top of the stick. When the water-fowl takes 
the baited hook he pulls the stick and the brick- 
bat, and the latter pulls him under water and 
drowns him. 

Assistance to a Person in Danger of Drowning. 

If the spectator is unable to swim, and can make 
the suflFerer hear, he ought to direct him to keep 
his hands and arms under water until assistance 
comes; in the mean time throw towards him a 
rope, a pole, or any thing that may help to bring 
him ashore, or on board; he will eagerly seize 
whatever is placed within his reach ; thus he may, 
perhaps, be rescued from his perilous situation. 

But this desirable object appears attainable by 
the proper use of a man's hat and pocket handker- 
chief, which, being all the apparatus necessary, is 
to be used thus: Spread the handkerchief on the 
ground, or deck, and place a stifi' hat, with the brim 
downwards, on the middle of it ; then tie the hand- 
kerchief round the hat, like a bundle, keeping the 
knots as near the centre of the crown as possible. 
Now, by seizing the knots in one hand, and keep- 
ing the opening of the hat upwards, a person 
without knowing how to swim, may fearlessly 
plunge into the water, with whatever may be neces- 
sary to save the life of a fellow creature. 

The best manner in which an expert swimmer 
can lay hold of a person he wishes to save from 
sinking, is to grasp his arm firmly between the 
shoulder and the elbow; this will prevent him 
from clasping the swimmer in his arms, and thus 
forcing him under water, and, perhaps, causing 
him to sink with him. 

To Estimate the Distance of a Thunder-cloud. 

Sound travels at the rate of 1120 feet per second. 
Count the number of seconds between the flash 
and the thunder, and multiply by 1120. By this 
means the distance of a cannon or blast of rocks 
may also be estimated. The pulse of a healthy 
adult beats about 70 times a minute. 

To Escape the Effects of Lightning. 

When persons happen to be overtaken by a 
thunder-storm, although they may not be terrified 
by the lightning, yet they naturally wish for 
shelter from the rain which usually attends it; 
and, therefore, if no house be at hand, generally 
take refuge under the nearest tree they can find. 
But in doing this, they unknowingly expose them- 
selves to a double danger; first, because their 
clothes being thus kept dry, their bodies are ren- 
dered more liable to injury — the lightning often 
passing harmless over a body whose surface is wet; 
and secondly, because a tree, or any elevated ob- 
ject, instead of warding off, serves to attract and 
conduct the lightning, which, in its passage to the 
ground, frequently rends the trunks or branches, 
and kills any person or animal who hapjiens to 
be close to it at the time. Instead of seeking pro- 
tection, then, by retiring under the shelter of a 
tree, hay-stack, pillar, wall, or hedge, the person 
should eiller pursue his way to the nearest house, 
or get to a part of the road or field which has no 
high object that can draw the lightning towards 
it, and remain there until the storm has subsided. 

It is particularly dangerous to stand near leaden 



DIALYSIS, RIDING. 



463 



spouts, iron gates, or palisadoes, at such times ; 
metals of iill kinds having su strong :in attraction 
for lightning, as frequently to draw it out of the 
course wliicli it would otherwise have taken. 

When in a house, avoid silting or standing near 
the window, dcor, or walls, during a thunder- 
storm. The nexrer a person is to the middle of a 
room the hettev. 

Means of Restoring Persons who have been 
jF'iniiehed. 

In our attempts to recover those who have suf- 
fered under the calamities of famine, great cir- 
cumspection is required. Warmth, cordials, and 
food, are the means to be employed: but it is evi- 
dent that these may prove too powerful in their 
operation, if not administered with caution and 
judgment. For the body, bj' long fasting, is re- 
duced to a state of more than infantile debility; 
the minuter vessels of the brain, and of the other 
organs, collapse for want of food to distend them; 
the stomach and intestines shrink in their capa- 
city ; and the heart languidly vibrates, having 
scarcely sufficient energy to propel the scanty cur- 
rent of blood. Under such circumstances a pro- 
per application of heat seems an essential measure, 
and may be effected, by placing on each side, a 
healthy man in contact with the patent. Pedi- 
luvia, or fomentation of the feet, may also be used 
with advantage. 

The temperature of these should be lower than 
that of the human body, and gradually increased 
according to the effects of their stimulus. New 
milk, weak broth, or water-gruel, ought to be 
employed, both for the one and the other ; as 
nourishment may be conveyed into the system 
this way, by passages, properly the most pervious 
in a state of fasting, if not too long protr.acted. 

It appears safer to advise the administration of 
cordials in very small doses, and, at first, consider- 
ably diluted with either wine or spirits; but slen- 
der wine whey will very well answer this purpose, 
and afford, at the same time, an easy and pleasant 
nourishment. When the stomach has been a littla 
strengthened, an egg may be mixed with the whey, 
or administered under some other agreeable form. 
The yolk of one was, to Cornaro, sutBcient for a 
meal ; and the narrative of that noble Venetian, 
in whom a fever was excited by the addition of 
only two ounces of food to his daily allowance, 
shows, that the return to a full diet should be 
conducted with great caution, and by very slow 
gradations. 

Welsh Babbit. 

Cut your cheese into small slips, if soft ; if hard, 
grate it down. Have ready a spirit-of-wine lamp, 
etc., and deep block-tin dish ; put in the cheese 
■with a lump of butter, and set it over the lamp. 
Have ready the yolk of an egg whipped, with half 
a glass of Madeira, and as much ale or beer; stir 
your cheese when melted, till it is thoroughly 
mixed with the butter, then add gradually the 
egg and wine, keep stirring till it forms a smooth 
mass. Season with Cayenne and grated nutmeg. 
To be eaten with a thin hot toast. 

Impromptu Chafing Dish. 
It often happens that in travelling, the mate- 
linls for a rabbit may be had when there is nothing 
else in the house the gourmand can eat. In this 
case, if there is no blazer, or chafing dish, an ex- 
cellent substitute is formed in a moment by two 
soup plates, se( arated from each other by pieces 
of a bottle cork placed on the rim of the lower 
one, which should contain any kind of spiiits. 
Put your cheese into the top one, fire the spirits 
with a slip of paper, and set your rabbit on the 



corks. ; it answers as well as the most expensive 
heater in Christendom. 



DIALYSIS 
Is the term applied by Professor Graham to a pro- 
cess devised by him for separating bodies by taking 
advantage of their tendency to form crystals or to 
remain in the amorphous or glue-like condition. 

It is well known that many bodies have a ten- 
dency to crystallize, such as salt, sugar and alum; 
others, as albumen (white of egg), glue and the 
like are never known to assume the crystalline 
form. Professor Graham has found that if a mix- 
ture of the former, which he terms cri/atalloids, 
with the latter (colloids), be plnced in a vessel hav- 
ing its sides or bottom constructed of animal mem- 
brane or parchment paper (page 4.S6) and floated 
or immersed in water, the crystalloid will pass 
through into the surrounding liquid, while the 
colloid will remain. This is not an action analo- 
gous to ordinary filtration, for the membrane is 
water-proof, but is of a more complex nature. 

The dialyzer of Professor Graham consists of a 
hoop of wood having its bottom made of parch- 
ment-paper; it resembles, in fact, an ordinary tam- 
bourine. This is floated on the surface of a liquid 
and the mixture is poured into it. After a time 
the liquid gives on evaporation the crystalloid, salt, 
for instance, while the colloid, jelly, for instance, 
remains within the dialyzer. 

Among the results of investigation with this ap- 
paratus have been the discovery of silica (sand, 
rock-crystal) in a soluble form (page 4.34) and the 
separation of crystalline poisons from organic mat- 
ters in the stomach after death ; many others will 
be found in the recent scientific journals. 

Utilization of Brine. 
Mr. A. Whitelaw has proposed to use the process 
of dialysis for obtaining the large amount of nu- 
tritious matter which exists in the brine of salted 
meats, and which is usually thrown away. Ac- 
cording to Mr. W., 2 galls, of brine yield 1 lb. of 
solid extract, which makes a palatable and nutri- 
cious soup. It is only necessary to enclose the 
brine in bags of animal membrane, and immerse 
them in water ; the salt passes through, and the 
albuminous and extractive matters remain. 

To Freshen Salt Meat. 

Another applicath^n of dialysis is that of ren- 
dering salt meat more juicy, tender and digesti- 
ble. The meat is placed in a bag of untanned 
skin, which is nearly filled with brine from the 
beef-barrel. This is placed in sea-water for sev- 
eral days, when the brine, having lost its salt by 
dialysis, becomes reduced in strength to that of 
sea-water. The beef, which had been contracted 
by the action of the salt, gives up its salt to the 
brine in the bag, swells and absorbs part of the 
juice which it had given out to the brine. In this 
way no loss is sustained by steeping, and the brine 
left in the bags, after a nightly dialysis, may be 
used for soup. 

Thoroughly salted meat without bone gradually 
takes up nearly J of its weight of juices from the 
brine. It becomes then somewhat like fresh meat, 
and may be cooked in a variety of ways which are 
inadmissible for salt meat. 



RIDING. 
Sitting a Hoi<^e. 
The body of the rider is divided into three parts, 
of which two are movable «nd one immovable; 
one of the first consists of all the upper part of 
the body down to the waist, the other of the lower 
part of the legs, from the knee down j the immov- 



464 



EIDING AND MISCELLANEOUS, 



able portion is from the waist to the knees. The 
rider should sit square on the middle of the sad- 
dle, the upper part of. the body ]ircsenting a free 
and unconstrained appeariince, the cliest n(jt much 
thrown forward, the ribs resting freely on the hips, 
the waist and loins not stiffened, and thus not ex- 
posed to tension or eti'ort from the motions of the 
horse; the upper part of the body should lean 
slightly to the rear, rat*her than forward ; the 
thighs, inclining a little forward, lie flat and firmly 
on the saddle, covering the surcingle, of which only 
a small part behind the knee, should be seen ; the 
lower pari of the leg, hanging vertically from the 
knees, touches the horse, but without the slightest 
pressure; the toes are pointed up without con- 
Btraint, and on the same line with the knees, for if 
the toes are turned outward it not only causes the 
horse to be unnecessarily pricked by the spurs (if 
worn), but the firmness of the seat is lost; the heels 
Bhould be seven-eighths of an inch below the toes, 
and the stirrups so adjusted that when the rider 
raises himself on them, there miiy be the breadth 
of 4 fingers between the crotch and the saddle; to 
make this adjustment, when the rider has acquired 
a firm and correct seat he should, without chang- 
ing that seat, push the bottom of the stirrup to 
the hollow of the foot, and then, with the foot hori- 
zontal, feel a slight support from the stirrup ; when 
this is accomplished he replaces the foot properly 
in the stirrup, and the heel will then be seven- 
eighths of an inch below the toes. 

To give the rider a correct seat, the instructor, 
having caused him to mount, seizes the lower part 
of his leg, and stretches it straight toward the 
fore-quarters of the horse, so as to bring the but- 
tocks of the rider square on the saddle; then, 
resting one hand on the man's knee, he seizes the 
lower part of the leg with the other, and carries 
back the thigh and knee so as to bring the crotch 
square on the saddle, the thighs covering the sur- 
cingle, the lower part of the leg, from the knee 
down, also over the surcingle, and sees that the 
rider does not sit too much on his crotch, but has 
his buttocks well under him. He then explains to 
the rider that the firmness of the seat consists in 
this : that the rider grasps the horse with his legs ; 
that both thighs press equally upon the saddle, in 
conformity with the movements of the body, and 
that the general movements of the body and thighs 
must conform to those of the horse. He should 
be taught, too, how to hold the feet, without al- 
lowing him to place them in the stirrups, for this is 
one of the most essential conditions for a good seat. 



Dough-nuts, 
Take two deep dishes, and sift | of a pound of 
flour into each. Make a hole in the centre of one 
of them, and pour in a wineglassful of the best 
irewer's yeast ; mix the flour gradually into it, 
netting it with lukewarm water; cover it, and set 
it by the tire to raise for two hours. In the mean- 
time, cut up 6 oz. of butter into the other dish of 
flour, and rub it fine with your hands ; add i lb. 
of powdered sugar, a teaspoonful of powdered 
cinnamon, a grated nutmeg, atablespoonful of rose- 
water, and i pint of milk. Beat 3 eggs very 
light, and stir them hard into the mixture. Then, 
when the sponge is perfectly light, add it to the 
Other ingredients, mixing them all thoroughly 
with a knife. Cover it, and set it by the fire for 
another hour. When it is quite light, flour your 
paste-board, turn out the lump of dough, and cut 
it into tnick diamond or round shape cakes. If 
you find the dough so soft as to be unmanagable, 
mix in a little more flour. Have ready a skillet 
of boiling lard, put the dough nuts into it, and 
frj them brown. 



CntUers. 

One and a half lbs. of flour, 5 eggs, j of a lb, 
of sugar, 6 oz. of butter, 1 teaspoonful of cinna- 
mon and/nuttneg mixed, 1 wineglassful of rose- 
water, 1 tablespounful of saleratus. Rub the but- 
ter, sugar, and flour together, add the spice, rose- 
water, and saleratus. Beat the eggs very light, 
mix all into a dough, knead it well, and roll it 
out an inch thick. Cut it into slips, twist them 
into various forms, fry in hot lard until they are 
of a light brown. When cold, sift sugar over 
them. 

How to make Otto of Roses, 

Gather the leaves of the hundred-leaved rose 
(rosii centifolia), put them in a large jar or cask, 
with just sufiicient water to cover them ; then put 
the vessel to stand in the sun, and in about a 
week afterward the otto (a butyraceous oil) will 
form a scum on the surface, which should be re- 
moved by the aid of a piece of cotton. 

How to Keep Fresh Fish, 
Draw the fish and remove the gills, then insert 
a piece of charcoal in their mouths, and two or 
three pieces in their bellies. If they are to be 
conveyed any distance, wrap each fish separately 
in paper and place them in a box. Fish thus pre- 
served will keep fresh for several days. 

To Varnish Articles of Iron and Steel, 

Dissolve 10 parts clear grains of mastic, 5 parts 
camphor, 15 grs. sandarac, and 5 parts elemi, in 
a sufficient quantity of jilcohol, and apply this 
varnish without heat. The articles will not only 
be preserved from rust, but the varnish will re- 
tain its transparency, and the metallic brilliancy 
of the articles will not be impaired. 

To Keep Water Pure in Iron Kettles, 

Keep an oyster-shell in the bottom of the kettle, 
this will prevent the iron from rusting and keep 
the water clear. 

To Wash Flannels. 
Wash first in warm soap-suds and rinse them 
in warm water, having the water neither too h"ot 
nor too cold. 

Pharaoh's Serpent's Eggs, 

These are little cones of sulphocyanide of mer- 
cury, which, when lighted, give forth a long, ser- 
pent-like, yellowish-brown body. 

Prepare nitrate of mercury by dissolving red 
precipitate in strong nitric acid as long as it is 
taken up. Prepare also sulphocyanide of ammo- 
nium by mixing one volume of bisulphide of car- 
bon, four of strong solution of ammonia, and four 
of alcohol. This mixture is to be frequently 
shaken. In the course of about 2 hours the bisul- 
phide will have dissolved, forming a deep red solu- 
tion. Boil this until the red color disappears and 
the solution becomes of a light yellow color. This 
is to be evaporated at about 80° Fahr. until it 
crystallizes. Add little by little the sulphocyanide 
to the mercury solution. The sulphocyanide of 
mercury will precipitate; the supernatent liquid 
may be poured off, and the mass made into cones 
about half an inch in height. The powder of the 
sulphocyanide is very irritating to the air pas- 
sages, and the vapors from the burning cones 
should be avoided as much as possible. To ignite, 
set them on a plate or the like, and light them 
at the apex of the cone. The result is certainly 
most remarkable; the fiery vapors, winding and 
twisting in the strangest fashion, render them 
objects of curiosity and astonishment to all who 
witness their performance. 



DECALCOMANIA AND MISCELLANEOUS. 



465 



DECALCOMANIA, 

Or the Art of Ornamenting China, Glass, Earth- 
enware, Wooden ware, Fancy Boxes, Ivory, and 
Pj^per Maehe Goods, Japannedware, Binding of 
Books, Fans, Leather Work, etc., etc. 

Diiectiinis. — Cover the picture entirely (taking 
earo not to go beyond the outlines) with a slight 
eoat of fixing varnish; then put the picture <in 
the object to be ornamented, being careful to place 
it properly at once, in order not to spoil it by 
n iving. The varnish newly applied being too 
liquid, the picture should be loft to dry eight or 
ten minutes, and placed on the object to be orna- 
ment'^d, when just damp enough to be still adher- 
ent ; this done, cover the back of the picture with 
a piece of cloth steejicd in water, then, by means 
of a kuiTe or pen-holder, rub it all over, so as to 
fix every cart of it; tlu^n remove the piece of cloth 
and rinse Uie paper with a paint-brush steeped in 
water; at t,he end of a few minutes tl:e paper will 
come off, leaving the painting transferred. 

Care musf be taken that the piece of cloth, with- 
out Taeing tot wet, should be suffiL'iently so for the 
paper to be entirely saturated. The picture must 
now be washed with a wet paint-brush, and dried 
very lightly witL\ soiie blotting paper. The orna- 
mented article shoull, after this, be put near the 
stove or any other fAxoi place, to make it dry 
well and to improve the adhesiveness of the pic- 
tures. The polishing varnish should not be ap- 
plied until the next day, keeping the pictures in 
the meantime carefully out of the dust. The lat- 
ter varnish should be [lut on as lightly as possible. 

If dark-colored objects are to be ornamented, 
such as bindings of books, Russian leather, leather 
bags, &c., the picture must first be covered with a 
mixture of white lead and turpentine, following 
the outlines of the design and covering it entirely. 
When this coat is perfectly dry, proceed according 
to the above instructions. 

To print on silk, paper, or materials that cannot 
bear washing after the process, proceed as follows : 
Cover the picture entirely with a light coat of fix- 
ing varnish and let it dry for an hour or two; 
then pass a sponge, lightly damped, over the 
whole surface of the paper, in order to take away 
the composition which is on it in the blank parts, 
and which often cleans the material. 

When the paper is dry, re-varnish the picture, 
and transfer it on to the material by means of a 
paper cutter, avoiding to employ the piece of cloth 
or anything damp; then, with a paint-brush 
slightly steeped in water, wet the paper lightly, 
and leave it a full quarter of au hour on the object 
before removing it. 

To remove a spoiled print, rub it with a soft rag 
imbibed in turpentine. 

Our readers will at once appreciate the merits 
of this invention; the facility with which it can 
be applied, also ito numerous applications. 



Cotmetic for the Complexion, 
Mix glycerine with water, together with a small 
quantity of alcohol, add Cologne, or other per- 
fume, and you have a preparation closely resemb- 
ling the celebrated Email de Paris. This pre- 
paration is said to impart a soft, white, and ele- 
gant skin of the texture and color of polished 
iTory, and to remove all discolorations, black worm 
•pecks, and roughness of the skin, and smooths 
out the marks of small-pox. 

Cheaji Oittaide Paint. 

Take 2 parts (in bulk) of water-lime ground fine, 

1 part (in bulk) of white lead ground in oil. Mix 

them thoroughly, by adding best boiled linseed-oil 

enough to prepare it to pass through a paiut-mill, 

30 



after which temper with oil till it can be applied 
with a common paint-brush. Make any color to 
suit. It will last three times as long as lead paint, 
is superior, and cost not one-fourth as much. 

Brilliant Whitewash, closely resembling Paint, 
Many have heard of the brilliant stucco white- 
wash on the east end of the President's house at 
Washington. The following is a receipt for :t : 

Take i bushel nice unslaked lime, slake it witli 
boiling water, cover it during the process to keep in 
the steam. Strain the liquid through a fine sieve 
or strainer, and add to it a peck of salt, previously 
well dissolved in warm water, 3 lbs. ground rice, 
boiled to a thin paste, and stirred in boiling hot^ 
i lb. powdered Spanish whiting, and 1 lb. of clean 
glue, which has been previously dissolved by soak- 
ing it well, and then hang it over a slow fire, in a 
small kettle within a large one filled with water. 
Add 5 galls, of hot water to the mixture, stir it 
well, and let it stand a few days,^3overed from the 
dirt. It should be put on right hot : for this pur- 
pose, it can be kept in a kettle on a portable furn- 
ace. It is said that about a pint of this mixture 
will cover a square yard upon the outside of a 
house, if properly applied. Brushes more or less 
may be used, according to the neatness of the job 
required. It answers as well as oil-paint for wood, 
brick, or stone, and is cheaper. It retains its 
brilliancy for many years. There is nothing of 
the kind that will compare with it, either for in- 
side or outside walls. Coloring-matter may bo 
put in, and made of any shade you like. Spanish- 
brown stirred in will make red pink, more or leas 
deep, according to the quantity. A delicate tinge 
of this is very pretty for inside walls. Finely 
pulverized common clay, well mixed with Span- 
ish-brown, makes a reddish stone-color. Yellow 
ochre stirred in makes yellow-wash ; but crome 
goes further, and makes a color generally esteemed 
prettier. In all these cases the darkness of the 
shades, of course, is determined by the quantity 
of coloring used. It is difficult to make rules, be- 
cause tastes are difi"erent; it would be best to try 
experiments on a shingle, and let it dry. Green 
must not be mixed with lime ; it destroys the 
color, and the color has an etFect on the white- 
wash which makes it crack and peel. AVhen walla 
have been badly smoked, and you wish to have 
them a clean white, it is well to squeeze indigo 
plentifully through a bag into the water you use, 
before it is stirred in the whole mixture, or add a 
little blue stone. If a larger quantity than 5 galls, 
be wanted, the same proportion should be ob- 
served. 

To render Gunpoicder Incombustible and Combutt- 
ible at pleasure. 
It has been recently announced that a plan has 
been discovered by which gunpowder may be ren- 
dered non-explosive at pleasure, and afterwards 
restored to its former condition of combustibility. 
This remarkable discovery was lately announced 
to have been made in England, but it seemed so 
improbable that little attention was paid to it. 
By experiments made during October of this year 
(1865), at Jersey City, New Jersey, under the 
charge of Mr. Handel Cossham, one of the party 
of English railway capitalists accompanying Sir 
Morton Peto to this country, the matter has been 
clearly demonstrated to be possible. At this ex- 
periment, common gunpowder was first exploded 
in the ordinary manner. Ground ghiss was then 
mixed with it, in proportion of two parts of gun- 
powder to one of ground glass. This mixture 
then refused to explode under the stimulation of 
.red-hot pokers, matches, fuses, and lighted paper. 
It took fire and burned slowly, but it would no4 



466 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



explode. After these tests the remnins of the 
same powder were sifted, and the glass cleared 
from it, when, at the slightest touch of a match, 
the whole cumpound went off at a flash. But 
the most remarkable of the experiments was the 
placing of a four-pound keg of prepared gunpow- 
der on the top of a small portable furnace, in full 
process of ignition. Under ordinary circumstan- 
ces, such an attempt would have produced a terri- 
ble explosion ; but here in a very few minutes it 
was seen to be perfectly harmless. The hoops of 
the keg soon fell apart and the powder dropped 
in the fire, almost extinguishing it. 

The addition of ground glass has no chemical 
effect, but it acts mechanically. The glass sepa- 
rates the grains of powder, and prevents continu- 
ous combustion. Each grain is consumed by its- 
self, and does not cominuniciite sufficient force to 
its neighbor to render the latter dangerous. Mixed 
in heavier proportions, the gunp(iwder will scarcely 
burn ; and by uniting four parts of ground glass 
with one of gunpowder, the latter is rendered as 
incombustible as a stone. 

The importance of this discovery can scarcely 
be estimated. It is one of the greatest safeguards 
of human life ever discovered. It will render the 
powder magazine harmless, and prevent those 
frequent and terrible events resultmg in the loss 
of life, which have sent misery and woe through 
many communities. This discovery was made by 
Mr. James Gale, of Plymouth, England, a blind 
man, who, in happier days, ere vision was denied 
him, had been extensively engaged in scientific 
pursuits. 

To prevent and correct Rancidity in Vegetable and 
Animal Oils. 

A small quantity of nitric ether ( " sweet spirits 
of nitre" ) mixed with the crude oil, carries off all 
the disagreeable odor of rancidity, whilst by sub- 
sequently warming the oil so treated, the spirit- 
uous ingredient is removed and the oil becomes 
sweet and limpid. A few drops of nitric ether 
added to a bottle of oil when first opened serves as 
a constant preventive to rancidity. 

Fatty bodies in a globular state may be kept a 
long time without becoming rnncid. This pecu- 
liar state can be imparted to fatty matters by melt- 
ing them at 130° Fahr. and adding a small quan- 
tity of yolk of egg, or bile, or albuminous sub- 
stances, or best, a solution of alkali, composed of 5 
to 10 parts for every 100 of oil, at the same tempera- 
ture. The whole is then agitated for some time to 
bring the fatty matter into a globular condition. 

A New Hydraulic Cement. 

At a sitting of the Acuderay of Sciences at 
Paris, December 4, 1865, it was announced that a 
very valuable hydraulic cement may be obtained 
by heating dolomite, commonly known as "mag- 
nesian limestone," to between 575° and 750° Fahr., 
or below a dull redness, powdering the calcined 
mass, and making it into a paste with water. This 
forms under water a stone of extraordinary hard- 
ness, which, when once set, is not affected in the 
slightest degree either by fresh or sea- water. He 
also found that a mixture of magnesia with pow- 
dered chalk or marble-dust forms with water a 
plastic mass, which, l>y exposure in water for some 
time, becomes converted into a kind of extremely 
hard artificial marble. 

Clay for Modelling and Lnling. 

The clay is first well dried, and then rendered 
plastic by admixture with glycerine. It retains 
its plasticity for months, and is capable of being 
used over and over again just like wax, with the 
advantage of always retaining the same consist- 



ence of plasticity, being neither hardened by cold 
nor softened by heat. 

Another. — A cheaper method than the above, 
available for modelling and luting, is to make a 
mixture of pipe-clay with a solution of chloride 
of calcium of the specific gravity of 1-35. This 
retains its plasticity for more than a year, and 
makes a capital luting. 

A Neio Artificial Light, 
Possessing a very high degree of actinic power, 
has been discovered by M. Sayes, of Paris. It is 
produced by the combustion of a mixture of 24 
parts of welt-dried and pulverized nitre with 7 
parts of flour of sulphur and 6 of reiilgar. This 
mixture does not cost more than 10 cents per 
pound, and its light is therefore cheaper than the 
magnesium, to which it is only very slightly de- 
ficient in actinic energy. It is not, however, 
suitable for in-door photography. 

New Waterproofing Material. 
Paraffin is melted with 5 per cent, of linseed-oil 
and run into cakes for use. When needed it is 
melted, and the mixture spread with a brush over 
the cloth, leather, stone, iron, etc. 

The above is also used as a good insulator for 
electric telegraph wires. 

To imitate Meersehaum. 
Mix 1 part of casein, or curds of milk, with 6 
parts of ciilcined magnesia and 1 part of oxide of 
zinc, and a sufficient quantity of water to form a 
pasty mass, which is left to solidify, and when dry 
it is extremely hard, susceptible of receiving a 
high polish, and is sold as a substitute for meer- 
schaum. 

To clean Silver or Plated Ware. 
Plunge the article in this solution: Hyposul- 
phite of soda, 1 lb.: sal-ammoniac, 8 oz. ; solution 
of ammonia, 4 oz. ; cyanide of potassium, 4 oz. 
Let it remain i hour, wash, and rub with buck- 
skin. The cyanide of potassium is very poisonous. 
It may be omitted, but then the solution is not so 
active. No powder is necessary in polishing. 
Estimate of Farm Seeds for an Acre. 

Wheat, broadcast, 1} to 2 bushels. 

" drilled li " 

Fiye, broadcast, 1| " 

" drilled, U to IJ " 

Barley, broadcast, 2 to 2i " 

" drilled, 1| to 2 « 

Oats, broadcast, 2 to 3 " 

" drilled, 2 " 

C When sown with grain "j 

Timothy, I in autumn, to be follow- > li to 2 galls. 

(ed by clover in spring. J 

/" Sown on grain in ^ 

I spring in connection f 

RedClover,<^ with Timothy {without >lJto2gall8. 

j Timothy double I 

i_ quantity). J 

Herbs, or Red Top, . 1 to li bushels of 14 lb&. 

Kentucky Blue Grass, 1 to li " " 14 " 

Lucerne, drilled, 10 " 

Dutch White Clover, broadcast, .... 8 " 

" " " drilled, 6 " 

Lawn Grass, . . . . 2 to 2i bushels of 15 " 

Millet, I to 1 busheL 

Corn, in hills, 1 to li gallons. 

Sorghum, or Chinese sugar cane, 2 to 3 quarts. 

Buckwheat, 1 bushel. 

Beets and Mangel- Wurzel, . . 4 to 6 lbs. 

Carrots, 2 to 3 lbs. 

Turnips and Rata Baga, . . . 1 lb. 

Parsnips, 4 to 6 lbs. 

Beans, in drills, 2i feet apart, . . li bushels. 
Potatoes, 12 " 



RINDERPEST. 



467 



THE CATTLE PLAGUE, OR RINDERPEST.* 

The followint; comprehensive article on the 
Cattle Disease has been prepared from the best 
English authorities on the subject, by a promi- 
nent physician of Philadelphia. 

The wide-spread interest at present felt in the 
Ferious disorder which is now prevailing in Eng- 
land and other parts of Europe, under the name 
of the " Cattle Plague," and which it may Justly 
bo feared is destined also to afflict the United 
States, renders it desirable to furnish, in a con- 
densed and popular form, such information as 
can be relied on, as the result of the studies of 
scientific men. 

In 18(55, a most valuable treatise " On the Cattle 
Plague; or, the Contagious Typhus of Horned 
Cattle, its History, Origin, Description, etc.," was 
published by H. Bourguignon, Doctor of the 
Faculty of Paris, etc., etc. From it much of the 
following account has been condensed. 

DURATION OP THE DISEASE. 

The duration of the cattle plague, when it 
passes through all its phases, up to the death of 
the animal; consists of from ten to twelve days. 
In this time there are usually four stages, each 
of these averaging three or four days. 

First. A period of incubation, during which 
the blood and humors of the animal are poisoned 
by noxious exhalations, and undergo important 
changes. Second. A febrile stage. Third. A re- 
vulsion, inducing stupor. Fourth. Characterized 
by free discharges from all the mucous membranes, 
as the nostrils, lungs, bowels, etc., ending in ex- 
kreme prostration and death. 

This typhus is a virulent, contagious, febrile, 
ind non-recurring disease, to regulate which, it is 
ill-important that every iiieatis -should he employed 
to prevent its extension, not only to animals, but 
also to man, especially those who, having a slight 
sore or abrasion of the skin, come in contact with 
Ihe diseased animals. 

MEASURES TO PREVENT ITS EXTENSION. 

Various measures have been taken in England 
to prevent the spread of the contagion, among the 
•most prominent of which is "the removal and 
destruction by burning or burying of all matters 
capable of reproducing the disease;" hence all 
articles which have been in contact with a dis- 
eased animal or any of its discharges, especially 
its dung, must be regarded as "infectious." Ani- 
mals diseased had better be at once killed and 
deeply buried. In order to maintain or restore the 
health of cattle, there should be furnished ahun- 
dance of pure air, dry, clean, well ventilated sheds, 
plenty of pure water, clean and dry meadows or 
pasture, frequent currying and washing of the skin, 
proper food at proper intervals, protection from 
inclement weather, the utmost cleanliness in the 
removal of manure, with its storage at a great 
distance from the cattle shed, 

SYMPTOMS OP THE DISEASE. 

It is highly important to be able to recognize 
the " ox typhus fever," that the necessary meas- 
ures may be taken to prevent contagion, and that 
the proper treatment may be pursued. 

Synipto>n». — When the contagious typhus is 
raging, keep a watchful eye on your cattle. If 
you notice in their gait, their looks, or about their 
ears, any unusual signs ; if they seem less eager, 
less active, less vigilant; if they leave part of 
their food when in the stables, or if, when in the 
fields, they no longer browse with continued alac- 
rity, — be upon your guard. If to these changes 
ef minor importance is added an appetite really 
less acute, if the rumination is less regular, if the 



animal looks sad and dispirited, if he exhibits an 
unwonted look of gloom, if his leaden eye seems 
fixed and astonished, be assured that this cruel 
distemper is spreading through his frame. 

By-and-by the animal loses his appetite mora 
and more, ruminntion is shorter and less frequent. 
He holds his head down, his ears sink and fall, 
and he grinds his teeth. Then, as to the cows, 
their milk, which was already diminished, sud- 
denly dries up altogether, and the lowness of 
spirits which had been visible for some days be- 
fore, passes into stupor. If at this time you touch 
their horns, their extremities, or their hide in any 
part, you will find that all these ditferent parts 
are sometimes warm and sometimes cold. From 
this day forward you will witness a succession of 
disorders, such as shiverings at the attachments 
of the fore and hind legs, loud, panting breathing, 
with slight cough, scanty and thick urine, with 
hard and constipated droppings, and finally gen- 
erally excessive warmth. If the back is now 
pressed, it will cause pain, and all the signs of 
intense fever will be manifest. 

Already these indications have divulged the 
nature of the malady you have to deal with, but 
others more significant succeed them, and will 
remove every doubt. 

The bre:ithing now becomes more hurried and 
oppressed, and more puffy ; from the eyes, nos- 
trils, and mouth there issues a discharge which 
is at first thin and irritating, but soon becomes 
thick and purulent, and of a fetid smell : diarrhoea 
takes the place of constipation; the cattle grow 
leaner, and some will die at this period : if they 
still hold out, the diarrh.oea becomes more fre- 
quent, more fetid, and sometimes bloody ; gases 
are developed under the skin along the spine, and 
form wide, flat tumors, which crackle when pressed 
upon; — finally, the mucus which runs from the 
head becomes still thicker and more fetid; a glu- 
tinous foam stops up the mouth; the eyes, filled 
with humor, sink in the orbits; the bodily warmth 
decreases; the animal sways his head from right 
to left, becoming insensible and cold; his head 
lolls on one side, and he dies, panting from ex- 
haustion and asph3'xia, on the tenth or twelfth 
day after the disease has been confirmed. 

The carcass exhibits a repulsive appearance; 
the hide is dry and cracked: it sticks to the 
bones, which show the form of the skeleton, and 
the putrid decomposition which had already set in 
before death, seizes rapidly on all the tissues. 

The course of the disease is not always the 
same. Sometimes the animal is agitated at first, 
and all the functions of life are so disturbed that 
death comes on in two or three days. At times 
the lungs are more affected than the other internal 
organs ; the cough is more intense, and the breath 
hurried and obstructed. 

TO DISTINGUISH FROM PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 

When once seen, it is impossible to mistake 
this disease (ox typhus — cattle plague) for any 
other, unless it be the chest complaint, called 
peri-pveumunia, which is likewise contagious ; but 
in peri- or pleuropneumonia the attack is gener- 
ally insidious, — the eyes preserve their vivacity, 
and the appetite is not lost until towards the 
close. In this disorder (pleuro- pneumonia) a 
short, dry cough shows itself from the outbreak, 
and persists; the breathing is frequent and pain- 
ful; and the sides of the chest, when struck with 
the fingers, give out the hard, solid sound of a 
full barrel (flatness), this percussion being pain- 
ful. The eyes, nose, and mouth do not discharge 
those purulent secretions seen in typhus, and the 
diarrhoea only comes on at the end, being less 



• In a letter received by Ihe publisher from Hon. J. Bidwkll, Chairman of the House Conimillee on Agriculture, dated July 14, 1866, he 
stales that the Committee intend recommending the publication by Coi.gress of an important English discovery for the cure of Rinderpest 
»nd other kindred diseases. So soon as the pamphlet is issued, we will insert Ihe information in onr next edition of this work. We are re- 
liably informed, however, that the following are the diseases cured and trealment : Rinderpest, pleuropneumonia, mange, ringworm, and 
• heel in bajn-yird animalB and horses, and the relief of phthisis and tubercular affections of the lungs in the human patient. A small 



greaie-l 



468 



EINDERPEST. 



frequent and fetid. In the milch cows the milk 
decreases, but is not quite suppressed. 

The heat of the horns and lower extremities 
is retnined, and the pneumonia runs its course 
more regularly, the animal dying about the fourth 
week. Thus it will be seen that the two distem- 
pers vyidely differ in their symptoms. 

The cattle plague (<>x typhus) is by far the 
most formidable malady which can attack ani- 
mals. When left to itself, or treated without 
judgment, it carries off ninety cattle out of a 
hundred. In prior visitations, and especially in 
1750, when six millions of horned cattle were 
swept off in Europe, England lost from three to 
four hundred thousand, and the number of cattle 
which have perished in England from June to 
October, 1865, exceeds sixty thousand. 

PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF THE CATTLE 
PLAGUE. 

Every farmer who keeps many cattle should 
divide them into several classes; thus: — First. 
The sound and healthy that have had no direct 
or indirect intercourse with tainted cattle, and 
these must be kept carefully isolated. Second. 
Cattle which, though unaffected, have been ex- 
posed in cars, ships, or markets. These are to be 
made the subject of treatment the moment the 
first sign of the disease shows itself. Third. Cattle 
actually smitten with the plague, to be treated 
according to each stage of the disease. 

The healthy cattle must be removed from the 
farm, or, if they remain at the rack, must be 
taken out twice daily for the twofold purpose of 
taking wholesome exercise and allowing their 
stalls and sheds to be thoroughly cleaned. Their 
feeding should also be carefully watched, and the 
following provisions added to their daily supplies : 
Pounded oats .... 4 pounds. 
Pounded juniper berries 1 pound. 
Powdered gentian . . 1 ounce. 
Sulphate of iron ... 2 drachms. 
Carbonate of soda . . 2 drachms. 

Whilst in the fields, the cattle should not be 
allowed to drink out of ponds or at any stagnant 
or muddy water. 

Cattle belonging to our second class (having 
been exposed to infection) must receive the same 
strengthening and tonic ration in the morning, 
and twice every day take the following anti-con- 
tagious preparation : 

Chlorate of potash . . 2 drachms. 
Water i pint. 

Dissolve and mix with one gallon sage or 
hysop tea; to be given when drink is given them. 

The use of this anti-contagious drink is of the 
highest importance. It should be continued even 
after the plague has broken out. 

During the absence of those cattle which are 
undergoing the preventive treatment, let the 
healthy condition of their stalls and sheds be 
looked to. 

Be careful to take out the litter every day; 
wash the floor and cleanse it thoroughly; venti- 
late the place well ; fumigate it with burnt sul- 
phur or dried juniper berries, sage and rosemary, 
salted with saltpetre, and a little arsenic. This 
will burn readily if placed on a pan of coals. At 
night, tar, creosote, benzine, petroleum or iodine 
may be left in the stable, to diffuse their vapors 
and modify the air. 

As the cattle plague, or ox typhus, when once 
developed in the ox, cow, or sheep, usually pur- 
sues its course, the various functions of the body 
are so changed that they vary during the different 
stages of the disorder, the fever at first producing 
excitement, but in the latter stages great ex- 



haustion. Hence it requires a high degree of 
skill, practical experience, and vigilance. During 
the disorder the ox undergoes in two weeks all 
the feverish commotion which a man laboring 
under typhoid fever would be subject to in a 
month. 

The phenomena succeed each other with terrifie 
swiftness, leaving barely time for the medicines 
to act. 

At the outbreak of the disorder, abolish solid 
feeding. This is easily done, as the animal has 
lost his appetite. 3rive him, instead, half a pail- 
ful of soaked hay, adding to it a sprinkling of 
salt; or give water, whitened with bran and flour, 
with a little vinegar, three or four times daily. 
When the animal coughs and his breathing is 
oppressed, give him warm drinks, such as steamed 
barley and oats, or a hot mash, and cover him 
well with blankets, hut don't exclude the fresh air." 

The foliowirig " hygienic measures" are to be 
taken against the extension of the plague : 

DISINFECTION. 

The contagious matters are all kinds of cattle 
of the ox tribe, and also hides, hair, horns, and 
hoofs of those killed or dead with the plague. 

The intestinal discharges are the principal 
agents that spread the disorder. 

Hence all articles that have been in contact 
with a diseased animal or any of its discharges, 
are capable of carrying the infection for an in- 
definite time, as racks of wood, or iron cribs, or 
mangers of wood, iron, or stone; collars, straps, 
ropes, chains, harness, carts, wagons, or carriages, 
which they have touched ; gutters or drains in 
which their urine has flowed ; all implements for 
removing manure ; the manure heap ; the ground 
on which they have stood; paths and roads on 
which diseased cattle have walked or been drawn, 
etc., etc.; — to all and any of which, disinfectants 
must be applied. 

Burying deeply in dry ground is the quickest, 
cheapest, and most certain way of disinfecting an 
animal dead from the plague. 

The droppings, straw, and all other matters 
contaminated should also be buried, so that they 
cannot be disturbed for a long time. 

Manure heaps and down-trodden manure of 
cattle yards, if infected by even a small quantity 
of the droppings of a diseased animal, should be 
removed to a suitable place, and covered with a 
layer of earth. 

Floors of any shed or stable in which diseased 
cattle have stood, if not formed of water-tight 
and impenetrable material, must be assumed to 
be infected to the depth of six inches. Half rotten 
wood is an especially favorable carrier of infec- 
tion. Any lining of a pen where a diseased 
animal has stood, should be broken out and 
burned. 

All infected articles, as racks of wood or iron, 
etc., can be disinfected by exposing them to a 
heat which will char wood, and all such of iron 
should then be galvanized. 

Chloride of Lime is among the cheapest and 
most p jwerful of artificial disinfectants, and 
should oe applied as much as possible in solution. 
It is r.ot applicable to large quantities of manure, 
or to matters rich in ammonia, as putrid urine. 
One pound of chloride of lime to one gallon of 
water can be distributed by a garden engine, or 
by a watering-pot, after a thorough scrubbing 
and scraping of stalls, etc. All brooms and other 
implements, or persons stepping from a dirty or 
partially cleaned place to a clean one, may sufBca 
to bring back infection. Workmen must also b© 
carei'al to wash their own bodies and hair with 



suffi 



npped i 



set in hot ashes, and a piece of stick sulphur of tlie size of a man's tl 
nt to fuiliisale thnroujhly a large cattle-shed in about twenty minu 
It be repeated four or tive linies a day, and the disease is soon got under, 
y 28, 1S67. — We have just received the pamphlet alluded to, and find thii foot-note lo coutaiu the essence of the information. — 



t. The sulphurous acid gas thus gener- 
vhich, by tile way, the cattle are said to 



TRICHINiE. 



469 



Boap, and to destroy such clothing as is of little 
value, or have the other disinfected in chloride- 
of-lime water. 

Despatches received by the Department of State 
from the United-States consul at Liverpool, under 
date of March 12, 1S66, give the following reme- 
dies now in use, said to be very effective : 

1 oz. of Peruvian bark, 1 oz. of gentian, 1 oz. 
of ground ginger, 2 drs. of sulphate of iron, 4 
table-spoonfuls of molasses, and I glass of brandy 
or whisky. Dose, once a day. 

The other prescription is: — 1 lb. of onions, 
small and strong; 1 lb. of garlic, 1 lb. of ground 
ginger, J lb. of asafoetida; to be covered with 
water and stirred on the fire till in a milky pulp; 
then put over the other articles ; add of rice-water 
3 pints for every 2 of the mixture. Dose for a 
cow — 1 pint a day. 



To keep Milk. 

Among the many methods adopted to preserve 
milk for a lengthened period, is that of M. Pasteur. 
He has found that if milk he heated to 212°, the 
boiling-point of water, it will remain sweet for a 
few days: if heated to 220° (under pressure, of 
course), it will remain sweet for several weeks; but 
if heated to 250°, the milk will keep for any num- 
ber of years. 

To detect Watered Milk. 

The cheapest and easiest method of adulterating 
milk is by adding water, and we may readily as- 
certain the exact extent of adulteration by the 
following plan. If a glass tube, divided into 100 
parts, be filled with milk and left stMnding for 24 
hours, the cream will rise to the upper part of the 
tube, and occupy from 11 to 13 divisions, if the 
milk is genuine. 

To preserve Milk. 

Milk becomes sour by the formation of lactic 
acid, which is rapidiv developed at a temperature 
of 70° to 90°. The" best way to preserve milK 
Bweet for domestic purposes, is to add to it every 
day a few grains of carbonate of soda per pint, to 
keep the milk alkaline. 



TRICHINA. 

The following account of this disease has been 
condensed from a report made in April, 1866, by a 
commission of scientific and medical men, ap- 
pointed by the Chicago Academy of Sciences, and 
may be regarded as thoroughly reliable : 

Trichina is the term applied to a minute ani- 
mal (parasite) known for some time to have ex- 
isted in the muscles of man. and which could be 
bred in the muscles of some other mammals by 
feeding them with it. More recently it has been 
discovered to occur naturally in the muscles of 
swine. It is a minute, slender, and transparent 
worm, scarcely l-20th of an inch in length. After 
this animal becouies introduced into the stomach 
of man. or other animals susceptible to its ravages, 
and which may feed upon flesh infected with it, 
the worms become freed from their capsules by 
the action of the digestive fluid, and range freely 
in the stomach and intestines of the custodian. 
Their development proceeds rapidly, and procre- 
ation takes place within 4 or 5 days; each female 
gives birth to from 60 to 100 young, and dies soon 
after. The young thread-like worm remains for a 
short time within the lining mombrane of the in- 
testines, causing irritation, diarrhoea, and some- 
times death if present in suflSciont numbers. After 
attaining a proper size and strength, these young 
trichinae begin to penetrate the walls of the intes- 



tines, and make their way toward their proper 
homes, the voluntary muscles. In traversing the 
muscles they do not seem to penetrate the fibre of 
the muscle, but to wind their way between them. 
At this time they cause to those afflicted great mus- 
cular pain and soreness, cramps, and even tetanic 
symptoms. After about 4 weeks migration they 
commence to encyst themselves in the muscular 
fibre, none having ever been found encysted in 
fat or the other tissues. They perforate the walls 
of the fibre selected as their abode, pass into it, 
and fasten themselves in the space so made. The 
worm then secretes a delicate membranous sac, 
which finally becomes calcareous by still further 
secretions. It is only in man, however, that these 
cjileareous cysts have been observed, hogs being 
usuallj' killed long before time has elapsed for the 
accumulation of sufficient lime. The young trichina 
having now reached its torpid stage, it will so re- 
main during the lifetime of its custodian. It 
feeds no longer, but goes on slowly in develop- 
ment until it has reached the coadition of puberty, 
and then awaits its chances of freedom to "com- 
mence its cycle." They can breed but once in the 
body of one and the same animal. They have 
been known to cause partial paralysis of certain 
muscles by the great number embedded in them. 
So much now for the history of this animal and 
its mode of life, and cause of disease. Now to 
what extent does this parasite exist in this country? 
An examination of this medical commission 
made in Chicago, 111., during the spring of 1866, 
of 1.394 hogs, 28 of them, or 1 in 48, were found 
to contain trichinae, and numbering in each hog 
from 48 to 18,000 trichinfe to a cubic inch. 

HOW TO PREVE.VT TRICHIN.*;. 

As no trichina nor germ of trichina has ever 
been found in vegetable food, the parasite must 
inevitably come through the eating of flesh of 
some kind. A strict attention to the feeding of 
hogs and their confinement in pens where no ani» 
mal food is accessible, is an infallible preventative 
against Trichiniasis. As the disease cannot be 
detected by external appearance, no farmer can 
tell if the disease exists among his animals, nor 
should he be blamed if he sells animals found to 
be affected with trichinae. The use of the micro- 
scope will effectually tell if the muscles of the hog 
be free from this parasite. 

HOW TO KILL THE PARASITES. 

To do this it is simply necessary to thorougMy 
cook the pork, so that every portion of the meat 
shall have experienced a temperature of at least 
160° Fahr. This is of the utmost importance; it 
is owing to eating pork uncooked that has occa- 
sioned such loss of life among the poorer classes 
in Germany. Again, by properly salting and 
smoking the meat for at least 10 days, the trichinae, 
should they exist, will be certainly killed. Simple 
desiccation of the meat, if continued for a period 
of sufficient length, will also kill them ; as for in- 
stance they will never be found in old hams ; mere 
pickling, however, does not appear to have any 
effect upon these worms. When we reflect, then 
that but 1 hog out of 48 of the 1394 examined 
was found to contain trichinas at all, and but one 
in 300 was found to contain them in sufficient 
number to cause considerable danger, and that 
even in these cases the worms are rendered inocu- 
ous by proper smoking, drying, or cooking, we 
cannot see that the popular panic which now 
exists should l;>e permitted to continue among in- 
telligent persons, and thus deprive nine-tenths of 
our agricultural population of one of their chief 
articles of food. 



470 



IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 



IMPLEMENTS OE A.ailICULTUIlE. 



MOWERS AND REAPERS. 

The Great National Field Trial of Mowers and 
Reapers held at Auburn, N. Y., in July, 1866, under 
the patronage of the Legislature and supervision 
of the New York State Agricultural Society, was 
the most thorough and extensive ever held in this 
country. Fifty-nine machines were entered fur 
competition, and over two weeks occupied in sub- 
jecting the machines to every variety of severe 
tests. The Legislature of the State appropriated 
$5000 towards the expenses and premiums.' 

The Committee of Judges was couiposed of 
practical and scientific agriculturists,* and in- 
cluded some of the first men of the State. The 
following synopsis of their report will be found to 
embody the main results of their investigation, 
and cannot fail of being of great use to Farmers. 
Invitations were extended to all the prominent 
Agricultural Implement Makers of the country. 
The following points were to be considered and 
determined by the Committee on trial. 

1. Which is the cheapest machine. 

2. The most simple in its construction. 

3. The most durable. 

4. Which requires the least power. 

5. Which has the least side-draught. 

All of which is to be determined, and the 
capacity to perform a given amount of work in a 
■workmanlike manner, in a given time, in the most 
economical way. 

6. Which does the most work in the least time. 

7. Which does the best work. 

8. Which is managed with the most facility. 
When the Judges have determined the above 

questions, they will proceed to decide which of the 
machines is best adapted to the use of the farmer, 
by having the greatest number of merits and the 
fewest defects. 

No exhibitor shall furnish other machines for 
trial than those which they habitually furnish 
from their shops to their customers. 

The following were the class divisions for entry 
of Mowers and Reapers. 

No. 1. Mowing machine for two horses. 

No. 2. Reaping machines, (hand-rakers.) 

No. 2i. Self-rakers. 

No. 3. Combined mowers and reapers, (hand- 
rakers.) 

No. 4. Combined reapers, with self-raking or 
dropping attachment. 

No. 5. Combined reapers for use as self-rakers, 
or hand-rakers, as may be preferred. 

No. 6. One-horse mowers. 

Entries under the above, and Result. 

The Society's large gold medal (costing $75 or 
more) as first premium. For the second premium, 
a cash prize of $25. 

The mowing and reaping fields were each of 
one acre in extent, and to be chosen by lot. 

Ejejdanation. — Assuming that 40 to represent 
the best work that can be done; No. 30, as repre- 
senting the best work that can be done with a 
hand-scythe; No. 20, as inferior work to any that 
would be tolerated by a respectable farmer. The 

* For full details of this trial of Implements, we would 
call attention to the valuable report of John Stanton 
Gould, Kaq., President N. Y. State Agricultural Society, 
and Chairman Committee of Judges, from whose report 
this article is condensed. 



gradations of work to be expressed by numbera 
intermediate to these. Standard speed, one houi 
per acre. 



ENTRY, AND RESULT. 
Class 1. — Two-Horse Mowers. 
D. M. Osborne & Co., Auburn, New York. Nt 
1 Mower. 

"Cut uneven and not very close." Time, 54 
minutes; quality mark, 33. 

D. M. Osborne & Co. Entry No. 2. One mower, 
(large,) entered also as No. 27, 37, 48, and 19. 

Lot No. 7, hilly; time, 50 minutes; quality, 37. 
"Worked smoothly and well." 

No. 48, hilly; time, 48 minutes; quality, 32. 

C. C. Bradley & Son, Syracuse. Entry No. 3. 
One "Hubbard" mower, "well done;" time, 61 
min. ; quality, 37. 

E. F. Herrington, Valley Falls, N. T. No. 4. 
One Eagle mower. Same as entry No. 29. 

Lot No. 20, stony and weedy; cut close; time, 
58 minutes; quality, 38. 

J. D. Wiiber, Poughkeepsie. No. 5. One Eure- 
ka mower; cut well ugainut the lay of the clover; 
not well with it ; time, 44^ minutes ; quality 
mark, 25. 

J. D. Wiiber. No. 6. One Eureka mower, 
(large;) time, 35 minutes; mark, 20; joints hot. 

Peekskill Manufacturing Co. No. 7. One Clip- 
per mower, (invented by R. Dutton.) Cut uneven, 
but well laid ; time 43 minutes ; quality, 30. 

Walter A. Wood, Hoosick Falls. No. 8. One 
mower. Lot bad to cut, stony, clover tall; cut 
tolerably well; time, 49i minutes; quality mark, 
29. 

Dow <fe Fowler, Fowlersville. No. 9. One Yan- 
kee mower. Cutting uneven, noisy, and bearings 
hot; time, 46 minutes; quality, 28. 

Adriance, Piatt & Co., Poughkeepsie. No. 10. 
One No. 2 Buckeye mower. Lot much trodden 
down; time, 55i minutes; cut even and neatly; 
quality, 40. 

American Agricultural Works, New York. No. 
11. One Columbian Junior Mower. Lot easy to 
cut; time, 66 minutes; quality, 37; very noisy. 

Dodge & Stevenson, Manufacturing Co., Au- 
burn. No. 12. One No. 2 Iron Mower, Ohio and 
Buckeye Patents combined. (Dodge's Patent.^ 
Time, 61^ minutes; quality, 29; cutting irregular. 

C. A. Wheeler, Jr., Auburn. No. 13. One 
mower, (A); No. 14. One mower, (B) ; No. 15. 
One mower, (C); No. 16. One mower (D). 

No. 13, (A,) cut well but not close; time 44 
min.; quality, 32. 

No. 14, (B,) cutting irregular; time, 48J min.; 
quality, 37. 

No. 15, (C,) cutting fair; time, 44 min; quality, 
36. 

No. 16, (D,) cutting good; time, 44i rail..; qual- 
ity, 35. 

W. H. Halladay, Auburn. No. 17. One Ameri- 
can Mower ; cut close ; time, 68 minutes ; quality, 
33. 

Rhode Island Clipper Mower Co., Newport. No, 
18. One two-horse Harvest Clipper Mower, (in- 
vented by R. Dutton.) Stubble long; time 55 
minutes; quality, 32; bearings cool. 

C. R. Brinckerhoti". No. 18i. One mower, cut- 
ting bad; time, 53; quality, 22. 



IMPLEMENTS OF AGEICULTURE. 



471 



Class 2. — Reapers (hand-rakes). 

D. M. Osborne & Co., Auburn, No. 19. One 
Reaper (hand-rake); "work good, not a fault to 
be found ; " ten sheaves were bound in 4 min. ; time 
64 min. ; quality, 40. 

C. Wheeler, jr., Auburn. No. 20. One Reaper 
(hand-rake). 

Class 2i. — Reaper (selp-rake). 
C. R. Brinckerhoflf, Rochester. No. 21. One 
Reaper (self- rake). 

C. C. Bradley & Son, Syracuse. No. 22. One 
Syracuse (self-raking) Reaper, time 48 min.; mark 
39. 

Walter A. Wood, Hoosick Fall's. No. 2.3. One 
Reaper, self-raking (chain-rake). No. 24. One 
Reaper (sweep-rake) ; same entry as No. 40. 

No. 23. Not cut close; time 47 and 55 min.; 
quality, 2S and 35. 

No. 24. Field good; tolerably well cut; time 48 
min. ; quality, 35. 

Stephen Hull, Poughkeepsie. No. 25. One 
Reaper (self-rake) ; withdrawn. , 

N. A. Dederer Greene. No. 26. One Reaper 
(self-raker) ; did not arrive. 

D. M. Osborne & Co., Auburn. No. 27. One 
Reaper (self-rake). 

Seymour, Morgan & Allen. No. 27i. One 
Reaper (self-rake). 

Class 3. — Combined Mowers and Reapers. 

D. M. Osborne & Co., No. 28. One combined 
Mower and Reaper; time 55 min.; quality, 36. 

E. F. Herrington, Valley Falls, N. Y. No. 29. 
One Eagle Combined Machine; same as entry No. 
40, except that it now has a pinion changed; 
Stubble long, bearings cool; time 62 min.; quality, 
35. 

Walter A. Wood, Hoosick Falls. No. 30. One 
Combined Mower and Reaper (hand-rake); field 
good, stubbles left high ; time 46 min. ; quality, 19. 

Adriance, Piatt & Co., Poughkeepsie. No. 31. 
One No. 1 Buckeye combined. Cutting bad; timg 
61 min. ; quality, 30. Driver unskilful. 

Aultman, Miller & Co., Akron, 0., No. 32. One 
Buckeye combined. Lot bad to cut, machine 
noisy and imperfectly geared; time 51 min. : qual- 
ity, 38. Bearings cool. 

Dodge & Stevenson Manufacturing Co., Auburn. 
No. 33. One Combined Machine (Dodge pat.) No. 
2, wood frame. 

C. Wheeler, jr.. Auburn. No.34. One Combined 
Machine (hand-rake). G. No. 35. One Combined 
(hand-rake) H. No, 34 G. time 39 min. ; quality 35. 

No. 35 H. Field stony and bad; cutting even; 
time 45 min. ; quality, 36. 

Class 4. — Combined (selp-raking). 

D. M. Osborne & Co., Auburn, No. 36. One 
Combined Machine. Field rough, stubble even; 
time 46 min. : quality, 35. 

Walter A. Wood, Hoosick Falls. No. 39. One 
Combined Machine (self- rake.) No. 40. One 
Combined Machine (self-rake.) 

Aultman, Miller & Co., Akron, 0. No. 41. One 
Buckeye combined (self-rake.) Good field, cut- 
ting good; time 65 min.; quality, 38. All the 
Buckeyes leave the grass in good condition for 
drying. 

Williams, Wallace & Co., Syracuse. No. 42. One 
No. 1 Hubbard Machine (Syracuse self-rake) No. 
43. One No. 2 Hubbard Machine (Syracuse self- 
rake). 

No. 43, work good; time 57 min. ; quality, 38; 
bearings cool ; good mower in all respects. 

Seymour, Morgan & Allen, Brockport. No. 44. 
One New York Combined Machine (self-rake). 
Field good, cutting irregular; time 38; quality 35. 



C. Wheeler, jr.. Auburn. No. 45. One Combined 
Machine (self-raking attachment). No. 46. One 
Combined Machine (dropping attachment.) 

Entry No. 45, I. Cayuga Chief, not closely 
cut; time 48 min.; quality 34; journal cool. 

No. 46, Cayuga Chief, J. A bad field to cut; 
time 37 min. ; quality 30 ; bearings hot. 

W. H. Halladay, Auburn. No. 47. One Marsh's 
Combined Machine (self-rake). No. 47i, Marsh's 
Valley Chief. 

No. 47. Field stony; cut uneven; time 46 min. ; 
quality 28. 

Class 5. — Combined Reapers, (self or 
hand-rake). 

D. M. Osborne & Co., Auburn. No. 48. One 
Combined Machine. No. 49. One Combined. 
No. 50. One Combined. 

American Agricultural Works, N. Y. No. 51, 
one Columbian Machine (hand and self-raker). 
Field bad, cutting very bad; time 57 minutes; 
quality, 26. 

Dodge & Stevenson Manufacturing Co., Auburn. 
No. 52, one Dodge's patent combined Machine 
(self or hand-raker), wood frame. No. 1. No. 53, 
one Dodge's patent combined Machine (self or 
hand-rake), iron frame, No. 1. 

No. 62, stubble not well cut, time 56 min. ; qual- 
ity, 29. No. 63, field good, time 43 min. ; qual- 
ity, 32. 

The above machines unite the patents of the 
Buckeye and the Ohio mowers, having the gear- 
ing of the former and the movable shoe of the 
latter. Both well approved machines every- 
where, and have done good work. It is strange 
that machines combining the best features of both 
patents should make so poor a record as these 
have done upon this field. 

C. Wheeler, Jr., No. 54, one combined machine, 
self or hand-rake, (K.) No. 66, the combined 
machine as dropper or hand-rake, (L.) 

No. 64, Cayuga Chief, K. Cutting not good; 
time 64 min. ; quality 30. 

No. 66, Cayuga Chief, L. Field rocky; time 43 
min. ; quality, .30. 

Twelve of the Cayuga Chiefs were entered; all 
agreeing in general structure though, not in 
minor details, they attracted much attention, but 
as a whole they did not appear well in the clover 
lots. 

Class 6. — One-Horse Mowers. 

D. M. Osborne & Co., Auburn, No. 66, (one-horse 
mower.) Field good, well cut; time 64 minutes; 
quality, 35. 

The work done by the machine of D. M. Osborne 
& Co., was done with tolerable uniformity, the 
average mark for quality of work being 34-36. 
The average time exclusive of the one-horse Ma- 
chine was 61 minutes. The machines were all re- 
markable for the steadiness of their motion and 
freedom from noise. 

R. L. Allen, N. Y. No. 57, one one-horse mower. 

C. Wheeler, jr.. Auburn, N. Y., No. 58, one one- 
horse Mower, F, Cayuga Chief, cutting good; 
time 30 min. ; quality, 34. 

Pony Clipper (invented by R. Dutton.) 

R. Dutton, Brooklyn, No. 59, one one-horse 
gleaner mower (invented by R. Dutton.) 

Trial of July 20th.— (Same Alachines.) 
Twenty machines made a trial upon lots of very 
irregular surface, which had not been ploughed for 
many years; the general surface was level, but 
broken up with many deep hollows and having a 
thick growth of sedges and rushes. The prevailing 
herbage was red top, blue-grass, and fowl meadow ; 
it was the hardest test for action in rough ground 



472 



IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTUEE. 



that could be found i* tbe vicinity. The following 
is the result,- the marks for quality of work were 1 
to 40, the latter number indicating perfect work. 

Quality of work. 
Seymour, Morgan & Allen, No. 44 ... 39 
The divider of this machine pressed down 
the grass, some of which was not cut off 
at the next round. 

Cayuga Chief, D, No. 16 37 

Cayuga Chief, A, No. 13 37 

Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 52 (wood) . . 37 
Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 53 (iron) . . 37 
A spike projecting from the ground was 
half severed by this machine. 

D. M. Osborne & Co., 37 

C. C. Bradley & Son, No. 3 38 

Williams, Wallace & Co., No. 43 38 

Walter A. Wood, No. 8 40 

E. F. Herrington, No. 4 37 

Herrington's Eagle was remarkable for its 

easy adaptation of its bar to the steep 
sides of hollows, in one case mowing with 
it sloping downward at an angle of 40 
degrees. 

Rhode Island Clipper, No. 18 40 

Adriance, Piatt & Co., No. 10 40 

Dow & Fowler, No. 9 31 

Aultman, Miller & Co., No. 32 38 

Wm. H. Halladay, No. 17 37 

Some dry grass caught on the ends of bis 
fingers which prevented him from cutting 
clean for about 20 rods. 
R. L. Allen, Pony Clipper, No. 57 ... . 36 

James S. Marsh, No. 47i 38 

J. D. Wilber, No. 6 30 

"Those who had been present at the former 
great trials, held by the society were astonished 
at the general perfection which had been attained 
by the manufacturers of mowing-machines. Every 
machine, with two exceptions, did good work, 
which would be acceptable to any farmer, and the 
appearance of the whole meadow after it had been 
raked over, was as good as it could be, and vastly 
better than the average mowing of the best farm- 
ers in the State, notwithstanding the great diffi- 
culties which they had to encounter. At previous 
trials most of the machines would clog more or 
less, and some of them so frequently that they 
were of no practical value. At this trial, not a 
single instance of clogging was observed either in 
clover or fine grass. 

"At previous trials, very few machines could stop 
in the grass and start without backing for a fresh 
start. At the present trial every machine stopped 
in the grass and started again without backing, 
without any difficulty, and without leaving any 
perceptible ridge to mark the place where it 
occurred. We look upon these facts with pride 
and pleasure, as showing the great success which 
has attended the efforts of our mechanics to meet 
the requirements of the farmer, and we have good 
reason to believe that the experiments made at 
Auburn will lead to still greater advances in the 
path of progress. . 

"Four machines were allowed to work at once, 
marked stakes being driven down at their entrance ; 
they cut entirely around the lot, passing through 
all the different kinds of bottom and of grass, and 
into all the gullies and hollows. Then four more 
succeeded them, and so on in groups of four, 
until all had gone round. Then each mnchine cut 
a double swath across the lot. After this the 
whole number of msichines were put in motion at 
once, until both meadows were cut down. In this 
way the path of each machine could be traced 
without difficulty through its entire length, and 



the work of each, under very different circum- 
stances, could be accurately compared." 



REAPING TRIALS. 

The wheat field was divided into thirty lots, of 
one acre each, the bottom generally smooth, 
tolerably level, and the grain (Mediterranean) 
stood up very well. 

Walter A. Wood, entry No. 30, with a hand- 
raker. The gavels were twisted at the bottom 
from the left-hand corner towards the right. The 
binders bound ten of these gavels in 5 minutes. 
Time of cutting 49 minutes. Mark for quality of 
work, 33. 

D. M. Osborne, No. 27, using a reel and sweep 
rake. There is a want of a proper divider. The 
rake draws forwards some of the last cut straw, 
and in its next\sweep this is twisted in raking. 
The twist is from the left-hand corner towards 
the right, and in the lower part of the gavel 
the twist is less than on the top, but what there 
is, is in the opposite direction. The binders 
bound ten bundles in 4 minutes. Time of cutting 
63i minutes. Mark for quality of work, 33. 

Cayuga Chief, J, No. 46, with a dropping attach- 
ment. The lower part of the gavel is drawn 
forward and somewhat twisted as it falls. It 
requires six men to keep up with the machine, 
who occasionally fall behind with their work in 
bad places. The binders bound ten of these 
sheaves in 5 minutes. Time of cutting, 57 min. 
Mark for quality of work, 32. 

D. M. Osborne & Co., No. 19, Itand-raker. The 
work is as good as can be done. Not a fault 
could be found with it in any way. Ten sheaves 
were bound in 4 minutes, 3 seconds. Time of 
cutting 64i minutes. Quality of work, 40. 

Lot No. 5 was cut by Dodge, Stevenson & Co., 
No. 33, (wood), hand raker. The grain in this 
lot was lodged in one or two places. One man 
drove and raked, the sickle being set almost low 
enough for mowing. The gavels are crossed, the 
bottom towards the right and the top towards the 
left. Ten bundles bound in 5 minutes. Time 66i 
minutes. Quality of work, 30. 

Lot No. 6 was not a good one for reaping. It 
was cut by Adriance, Piatt & Co., No. 31, hand 
raker. It was cut the wrong way and a good 
deal of the lodged was left upon the ground. It 
was thrown off the platform with a fork instead 
of a rake. The gavels were not very good. Time 
47 minutes. Quality of work, 31. 

D. M. Osborne & Co., No. 36, with reel and 
sweep rake. Time 53^ minutes. Work, 34. 

Aultman, Miller & Co., with a dropper. The 
gavels unevenly laid. Ten sheaves bound in 5 
minutes. Time, 58 minutes. Quality of work, 32. 

D. M. Osborne & Co., No. 37, with the combined 
rake and reel, or Bnrdiek self-rake. The gavels 
were rather better than those made by his sweep 
rake. Time, 68J minutes. Work, 34. 

W. A. Wood, No. 23, with a chain rake. The 
gavels were tolerably well laid. Time, 47 minutes. 
Work, 35. Binders were four minutes in binding 
ten sheaves. 

D. M. Osborne, No. 48, with a hand rake. The 
work excellent in all respects. Time, 39i minutes. 
Work, 40. 

W. A. Wood, No. 40, with a sweep rake. The 
cutting was very good, but the gavels not as well 
laid as the chain rake. Time, 52 minutes. Work, 
35. 

Mr. Osborne and other exhibitors protest against 
W. A. Wood's chain and sweep rake being admit- 
ted into the class of combined machines, on the 
ground that they are never sold or used as such. 



IMPLEMENTS OP AGRICULTURE. 



473 



D. M. Osborne & Co., No. 36, with the same 
that cut No. 11, now working with a sweep rake 
and a reel. Time, 53 minutes. Work, 34. 

Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 63, with iron frame 
and combined rake and reel, or Marsh's self-rake. 
He came in collision with a stump and bent the 
guard finger. The gavels are badly scattered in 
front of the platform; the gavel does not all drop 
at once, but is dragged forward. Time, 63 min- 
utes. Work, 34. 

W. A. Wood's revolving rake, No. 24. Binders 
make ten sheaves in 4 minutes, 20 seconds. 
Gavels very large. Time, 57i minutes. Work, 36. 

Williams, Wallace & Co's Hubbard Machine, 
No. 42, with Johnson's rake. Gavels laid straight 
and compact; no scattering; the swath between 
the gavels very clean. The binders make ten of 
the sheaves in 4 minutes, 12 seconds. Time, 52i 
minutes. Work, 39. 

C. Wheeler, Jr., Cayuga Chief, K, No. 54. 
Half the lot as a hand-raker, and the other half 
as a self-raker. The gavels were badly twisted 
and the straw was scattered between the gavels. 
Time, 56 minutes, 32 seconds. Work, 28. 

Columbian machine, self rake. No. 61. There 
was some lodged grain in the lot which it cut very 
well, but the gavels were strangely twisted, and 
the work as a whole was poor. Time, 57 minutes. 
Work, 31. 

C. C. Bradley & Son, No. 22, with Johnson's 
rake. The gavels admirably laid. Time, 48J 
minutes. Quality of work, 39. 

C. Wheeler, Jr., Cayuga Chief, G, No. 34. 
Mandrake. Time, 48 minutes. Quality of work, 31. 

Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 12, iron frame. 
Hand rake. Gavels very well laid. Time, 37 
minutes. Work, 32. 

Seymour, Morgan A Allen, No. 44, with their 
gweep rake. Gavels very well laid, and all the 
work was very well done. Time, 62 minutes. 
"Work, 38. 

C. Wheeler, Jr., Cayuga Chief, L, No. 55. Half 
the lot as a dropper, and the other half as a hand 
rake. Time, 59 minutes. Work, 32. 

D. M. Osborne &, Co., No. 37, with Burdtck rake. 
There was a very bad, rocky place at the end of 
this lot which he cut over very well with the wind 
against him. Time, 68^ minutes. Work, 34. 

Aultman, Miller & Co., Buckeye, senior, No. 41. 
Self rake. The gavels crossed and dragged. 
Time, 50i minutes. Work, 30. 

Wm. H. Halladay, No. 47, with Marsh's rake. 
Machine left-handed. There was some lodged 
wheat in the lot which he cut very closely, and 
the gavels were in general very well laid, but 
occasionally he would make a very bad one ; this 
want of uniformity reduced his mark. Time, 54 
minutes. Mark for quality of work, 37. 

C. Wheeler, Jr., Cayuga Chief, H, No. 35. Hand 
rake. There was a fast rock in his swath 18. 
inches high. The driver, without any devia- 
tion from his line, drove over it, dropping the 
whole height perpendicularly, demonstrating at 
the same time his own skill as a driver and the 
great strength of the machine. Although much 
of the ground was stony, the work was the best 
done by any of the Cayuga Chiefs. Time, 53 
minutes. Work, 36. 

E. F. Herrington, No. 29, hand rake. The cut- 
ting was very fine, but the gavels were not well 
laid. Time not noted. 

Dodge. Stevenson & Co. Wood frame. No. 52, 
Marsh's rake. Gavels laid square and handsome, 
without scattering. Time, 60 minutes. AVork, 37. 

Seymour, Morgan <fc Allen, No. 27i, self-rake. 
Time, 51 minutes. Work, 39. 
18 



The average time of all the machines, in cutting 
an acre, was 53 minutes. 

The longest time was made by D. M. Osborne. 
The shortest time made by any hand rake was D. 
M. Osborne. The shortest made by a self-rake, 
was by Walter A. Wood. 

The average of the marks for quality of work 
in reaping, is 34.3. 



RESULT TRIAL IN 22 ACRE LOT, GRAIN 
BADLY LODGED. 

Quality of work. 

Cayuga Chief, H, entry No. 35 30 

D. M. Osborne, Burdick rake, entry No. 48 . 32 
D. M. Osbcirne, sweep rake, entry No. 2 . . 33 
Seymour & Morgan, entry No. 44 .... 38 

Cayuga Chief, entry No. 64 32 

Dodge, Stevenson & Co., Marsh rake, entry 

No. 62 32 

Williams, Wallace & Co., Johnson rake, entry 

No. 43 36 

Buckeye, jr., dropper, entry No. 32 . . . .30 
W. A. Wood, hand rake, entry No. 30 . . 32 
Dodge, Stevenson & Co., Marsh rake, entry 

No. 53 34 

Columbian revolving rake, entry No. 61 • .30 
Walter A. Wood, sweep rake, entry No. 40 . 34 
C. C. Bradley & Son, Johnson rake, entry 

No. 22 37 

Walter A. Wood, chain rake, entry No. 23 . 33 

Cayuga Chief, G, entry No. 34 35 

Cayuga Chief, L, entry No. 56 31 

Wm. H. Halladay, entry No. 47 40 

Dodge, Stevenson & Co , entry No. 52 . . 35 
Eagle combined hand rake, eatry No. 29 . .35 
Brinckerhoff, entry No. 21 31 



RYE LOT. 

Quality of work 

C. Brinckerhoff, No. 21 31 

C. C. Bradley & Son, No. 22 37 

Seymour, Morgan & Allen, No. 27i ... 40 
Aultman & Miller, Buckeye, jr., dropper, 

No. 32 35 

Wm. H. Halladay, No. 47 33 

Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 53 29 

Cayuga, L, dropper, No. 55 34 



BARLEY LOT. 
On the same day, after the rye was cut, the ma- 
chines were tried in the barley lot, which was on 
rolling ground, the barley varying very greatly in 
the length of the straw, some of it being not more 
than 18 inches high, while in some parts it was 4 
feet long. The following table shows the record 
of the machines : 

Quality of work. 

Brinckerhoff, No. 21 35 

C. C. Bradley & Son, No. 22 . . . . . .39 

Seymour, Morgan <fc Allen, No. 27i ... 40 

Aultman & Miller, No. 32 36 

Wm. H. Hallad.iy, No. 47 38 

Valley Chief, No. 47i 36 

Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 63 .... 37 
Cayuga Chief, L, No. 55 34 



AWARD, CLASS 1. (MOWERS). 
Three machines seem to claim special considen 
ation with regard to award of premiums, each 
having received the mark of 40, indicating perfect 
work. These machines were Buckeye, entry No, 
10 ; Rhode Island Clipper, entry No. 18 ; ^and 



474 



IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. 



Wood's Mower, entry No. 8. Of these, the stubble 
of the two first were slightly the shortest, but the 
cutting in other respects was about the same, and 
was all that could be desired. The Buckeye, how- 
ever, is the only one which received the perfect 
number (40) in both fields. We are constrained 
then by th^e facts to give the preference to the 
Buckeye for qunlity of tcork, so also as to ease of 
draft, aide-draft, and durahility. As to simplicity, 
the Committee were unable to discover much 
difference, though they gave to the Buckeye the 
preference as to portability and general ease 
of management. In view of these superiorities the 
Committee awarded the premium of the gold Medal 
in the first class to Adrianee, Piatt & Co., for their 
Buckeye Mower, entry No. 10. 

Class 2. — Hand-Rakes. 
But two entries in this class, Osborne & Go's, 
No. 19, and C. Wheeler, jr.. No. 20. D. M. 
Osborne & Co., entry No. 19, having the most 
good points, the gold Medal was awarded to 
them. 

Class 2^.— Self -Raker. 
Five competitors here. Medal awarded to Sey- 
mour, Morgan &, Allen, New York, entry No. 
27i. The committee, however, strongly recom- 
mend C. C. Bradley & Son, entry No. 22. 

Class 3. — Combined Mower and Reaper, Hand- 
Rukes. 
The claims in this class rested between Cayuga 
Chief, H, entry No. 35, Eagle No. 29, and W. A. 
Wood, entry No. 30 ; all of them had special 
advantages. The medal was awarded, however, to 
W. A. Wood, entry No. 30. 

Class 4. — Combined Reaper with self-raMng or 
dropping attachments. 
Ten competitors in this class. Medal awarded 
to Williams, Wallace & Co., entry 42. 



Class 5. — Combined Reaper, Self and Hand' 
Rakes. 
As desired. No award. 

Class 6. — One-Horse Moioer. 
Award to R. L. Allen, Medal, entry No. 57. 



SECOND PREMIUMS OF $25. 

Class 1. — R. J. Clipper, entry No. 18, as com* 
ing so near to first premium. 

Glass 2. — C. Wheeler, jr., entry No. 20, G. 

Class 2i. — C. C. Bradley <fe Son, entry No. 2. 

Class 3. — E. F. Herrington, entry No. 29. 

Class 4. — Seymour, Morgan & Allen. 

Class 5, — No second premium. 

Class 6. — D. M. Osborne one-horse mower, 
entry No. 56. 

Class 12,. — Horse-Rake. First premium to 
Wanzer & Cromwell, Chicago, 111. Sulky Horse 
Rake. 

Second premium, A. B. Sprout, Muncy, Pa. 
Steel-tooth horse rake. 

Special recommendation, H. N.Tracy, Burling- 
ton, Vt., and P. S. Carver, Honeoye Falls, N. Y., 
for improvements in Revolving rake, with and 
without Sulky attachment. 

Class 15. — Horse-Povoer Hay-Fork. 

Six entries. Gold Medal to J. L. Mansfield & 
Co., Clockville, for Gladding's long-handled self- 
sustaining; weight, 24 lbs. Price, $11.00, and 
capable of pitching 2000 lbs. of hay in 13 pitches 
in 3 minutes. 

Second premium to dhapman, Hauley &, Co., 
Utica, N. Y., for Raymond's Hay-Fork ; weight, 
22 lbs. Price, $20 ; pitches 2720 lbs. in 13 pitches 
in 5 minutes ; can be used for barley and oats also. 

Special recommendation to A. B. Sprout, Muncy, 
Pa., for Hay-Fork and Knife. 

After using all Mowers, Reapers, and the like, the 
journals should be carefully wiped, all dust removed, 
the machine placed under cover in a level position where 
no part is subjected to a strain. 



INDEX TO MACKENZIE. 



INDEX. 



Abscess, 142 

in the Horse, 106 
Accidents, 143 

Compound, 149 
Acetate of Ammonia, 176 
Acids, 296, 433 

Acetic, 296 

Carbazotic, 318 

Carbolic, 436 

Carbonic, 433 

Chrysammic, 318 

Hydrochloric, 298 

Muriatic, 298 

Nitric, 298 

Nitromuriatic, 379 

Poisoning by, 151 

Pyroligneous, 298 

Sulphhydric, 433 

Sulphuric, 298 

Sulphui'ous, 433 
Adamas, 488 
Adhesive Plaster, 175 
Adulteration in Bread, 98 

Flour, 433 

Spirits, 287 

Wine, 277 
^olian Harp, to make, 454 
Age of Cattle, 121 

Dog, 449 

Horse, 104 
AGRICULTURE, 9, 470 
Ague, 123 

Cake, 129 
Ailanthus Silk Worm, 59 
Air, Fresh, Importance of, 184 

in Buildings, to cool, 435 

to purify, 163 
Aix la Chapelle Water, 300 
Alcohol, 283 

to make, 280 

from Potatoes, 283 

from Wood, 283 

Proportions of, in Wine, etc., 287 

to Deodorize, 304 
Ale, London, to Brew, 254 

from Sugar and Malt, 256 

on Mr. Cobbett's Plan, 255 

Posset, 200 

Table, 255 

to Brew, in small Families, 254 

to Brew, Burton, Nottingham, Essex, Edin- 
burgh, 256, 257 

to Fine and Preserve, 258, 259 

to Bottle, 262 

to Ripen, if Flat, when Bottled, 263 

to Manage in the Cellar, 263 
Alexiterial Water, 293 
Alkalies, Poisoning by, 152 
Alloys, 368 
Almonds, Artificial, 291 

Bitter, Oil of, 291 

MUk of, 308 



Almonds, Oil of, 301 
Alum, Cubic, 315 
Alumina, Acetate of, 315 
Aluminum Bronze, 371 
Amalgam, for Electrical Machines, 370 
Amandine, 306 
Ammonia, Acetate, 176 
Molybdate of, 313 
Water of, 176 
Amputation, 149, 151 
Anatto, 324 

Anbury, or Wart in the Horse, 106 
Anchovies, Artificial, 239 
Aneurism, 141 
Angina Pectoris, 137 
Angling, 443 
Animal Food, 247 

Animals, Bites and Stings of, 145,450 
Animation, Suspended, 151 
Aniseed Cordial, 285 

Oil of, 290 
Anisette de Bordeaux, 289 
Annuals, for the Garden, 89 
Anti-attrition, 347 

Incrustation Powder, 433 
Antimony, Ores of, 365 

Poisoning by, 152 
Antiscorbutic Water, 296 
Antiseptics, 435 

Ants, to Prevent and Destroy, 450 
Aperient Pills, 160 
Apiary, 100 
Apoplexy, 136 
Appetite, to Improve, 161 
Apple, Culture of, 68, 75, 76, 77 

Brandy, 283, 289 

Tapioca, 196 
Apricots, to Preserve, 240 
Aqua Mellis, 295 

Regia, 379 
Aquaria Cement, 354 
Aquatint, 421 
Arrack, 282 
Arrow-root, 196 
Arsenical Ores, 365 
Artichokes, 250 
Artificial Cold, 435 

Liquors, 287 

Oils, 291 

Stone, 439 

Wood, 357 
Artists' Colors, 331 
Ascarides, or Seatworm, 160 
Asparagus, to Cultivate, 81, 82 

Qualities of, 250 

Ragout, 213, 220 
Assafoetida, Pills of, 161, 
Assaying. 363 
Asthma, 127 
Asthmatic People, to Prevent Lamp Smoke from 

Afi"ecting, 185 
Astringent Injections, 166 

(476) 



INDEX. 



i17 



Astringent Mixture, 124 

Pills, 166 
Attrition, Anti-, 347 
Autography, 425 

Babbitt's Metal, 371 
Bacon, 249 
Baden Water, 299 
Balling in Horses, 114 
Balloons, 222 
Balsam, Godbold's, 176 

of Honey, 175 

Riga, 291 

Tolu, 175 
Bareges Water, 300 
Barley, 31, 466 
Barometers, to Construct, 439 

to Read, 440 
Basilicon Ointment, 174 
Bath Metal, 371 
Bathing, 183 
Batteries, Electrical, 374 
Bavarian Beer, 257 
Bead for Liquors, 283 
Beans, to Cultivate, 33, 466 

String, 195 
Bee Flowers, to Cultivate, 100 
Beef, a la Mode, 205, 231 

to Choose, 248 

and Pork, to Salt, 239 

Braized, 207 

CoUops, 211 

Corned, 190 

Dried, 190 

en Daube, 205 

Essence, 178 

Hashed, 207 

Potted, 190 

Qualities of^ 249 

Salt, and Cabbage, 208 

Sanders, 206 

Sportsman's, 449 

Steak, 206, 207 

Tea, 178 

Tongue, 205 
Beer, Amber, or Two-penny, to Brew, 258 

to Bottle, 263 

Cheap, 257 

Dead, to Enliven, 259 

Plat, to Recover, 259 

from Pea-shells, to Brew, 258 

from Sugar, 256 

Frosted, to Restore, 260 

Foxing, to Cure, etc., 259 

Ginger, 258 

Lager, 257 

Molasses, to make, 258 

Musty, to Restore. 259 

on Mr. Cobbett's Plan, 255 

Poultice, 156 

Required Time for Keeping, 258 

Root, 257 

Sar.saparilla, 257 

Spruce, 257 

Stale or Sour, to Restore, 259 

Table, to Brew from Pale Malt, 255 

to Fine, 258, 259 

to Fine and Preserve a Cask of, 25 

to give a Rich Flavor to, 260 

to Prevent becoming Stale and Flat, 259 

White, 257 

to determine Quantity of Alcohol in, 287 
BbxS, Floweri best for, 100 

in Straw Hives, 99 

Italian, 104 

Management of, 98, 102, 104 

to Avoid Injury from, 450 



Bees, to Feed, 101 

to Hive, 101 

to Swarm, 100 
Beet Brandy, 283 

Sugar, 53, 283 
Bell Metal, 371 . 

Belly, Wounds of, 145 
Benzoin, Tincture of, 176 
Bergamot, Essence of, 160 

Water, 294 
Bibron's Antidote for Snake-bites, 450 
Biennials, 89 
Biles, 141 
Bilious Fever, 123 
Birch Oil, 290 
Bird-lime, 356 
Birds, Canary, 448 

Useful to Farmers, 3 
Biscuit, Albert, 227 

Fancy, 225 

Naples, 224 

Savoy, 228 

Sponge, 202 

Sugar, 201 
Bismuth Ores, to Assay, 365 
Bites and Stings of Noxious Animals, 145, 4ftt 
Blacking, 349 
Blackberry Brandy, 236 

Cordial, 236 

Culture of, 69 

Extract, 236 

Mush, 197 

Syrup, 236 

Wine, 236, 269 
Black Drop, 175 
Bladder, Inflamed, 132 

in the Horse, 106 

Stone in, 132 
Blanc Mange, 228. 229, 288 
BLEACHING AND SCOURING, 309 
Bleeding, after Extraction of Teeth, 157 

Directions for, 153 

from the Nose, 125 

from Wounds, 144 

in the Horse, 114 
Blight in Fruit Trees, 77 

in Wheat, 29 
Blind, to Write for the, 461 
Blistering in the Horse, 106 
Blood, as Food, 249 

Spitting of, 127 

Vomiting of, 128 
Blotched Face, 140 
Blubber as Manure, 26 
Blue, Prussian, 333, 337 

Saxon or Chemic, 316 

Thenard's, 333 

Ultramarine, 332 
Board Measure, 429 
Boat, Upsetting of, 180 
Boerhaave's Rules for Health, 184 
Bog Spavin, 106 
Bone, to Stain, 325 

Boilers, Incrustations in, to Prevkitt, 41 
Boils, 141 
Bologna Sausage, 190 

Vials. 403 
Bonbons, 233 
Book-keeping, 452 
Books, Covers, to Marble, 326 

Edges of, to Sprinkle, 32T 

to Gild, 377 
Printed, to Bleach, 310 
boots, to Clean, 457 

Water-prosf, 348 
Bots, 106 
Bottle Stoppers, 434 



478 



INDEX. 



Bougies, to Pass, 153 
Buuillien Matelote, 191, 205 
Bouquet de Caroline, 305 

Essence of, 305 

Esterhazy, 305 
Bowels, luflainiiiation of, 129 

in the Horse, 107 
Boxes, Capacity of, 428 
Brain, Compression of, 144 

Concussion of, 143 

Intl:immation of, 125 
Bran Bread, 97 
Brandy, Apple, 289 

Blackberry, 236 

British, 281 

Cherry, 286 

Imitation, 289 

Peach, 289 

Peaches, 232 

to Preserve Fruits in, 240 

from Boot Beer, 283 
Brass, 371 

and Copper, to Tin Rapidly, 433 

Ornaments, to Preserve, 438 

to Polish, 349 
Brazil Paper, 299 
Bread, Adulterated, to detect, 98, 433 

of Iceland Moss and Flour, 98 

on Ciibbett's Plan, 98 

Qualities of, 250 
Bread, Scotch, 226 

to make, 90, 97, 98 
Breasts, Inflamed, 168 
Breeches Ball, 313 
Brew, to. Ale in Small Families, 254 

Amber Beer, 258 

Beer and Ale from Pea-Shells, 258 

Brown Stout, 254 

Burton, Edinburgh, Essex, and Nottingham 
Ale. 256, 257 

Lager, 257 

London Ale, 254 

Molasses Beer, 258 

Porter on the London Plan, 254 

Root Beer, 257 

Spruce Beer, 257 

Table Beer from Pale Malt, 255 

from Sugar and treacle, 255 

White Beer, 257 
Brew-House, to fit up a Small, 252 
Brewing, 251 

to choose Water for, 252 

to CDol Worts in, 253 

Utensils, to preserve, 260 
Brine, to Utilize, 463 
Bristles, to Dye, 325 
Britannia Metal, 372 
British Gum, 356 
Broiling, 190 
Bronze, 371 

Aluminum, 371 

Gun Barrels, to, 349 

Pbister Figures, 348 
Broth, Chicken, 113 

Jelly, 216 

Liebig's, 216, 461 

Mutton, 193 

Scotch, 193, 217 
Brown Stout, to Brew, 254 
Brushes in one piece, 357 

Hair, to Clean, 456 
Bubo, 133 
Buckwheat, 46, 466 

Cakes, 201 
Budding, 63 

Bugs, to Prevent, etc., 450 
Bulboiu Roots, to hasten, 84 



Buns, Common, 201 

Cross, 201 
Burgundy Pitch Plaster, 174 
Burnett's Antiseptic Fluid, 435 
Burnishing, to Gild by, 37 
Burns and Scalds, 163 
Butter, to Cure, 96 

to Remove Turnip Flavor from, 96 

Drawn, 194 

Dumbarton Mode, 98 

Maitre d'Hotel, 214 

Nuns', 194 

to make, 91 
Buttons, New Material for, 434 
Butyric Acid, 288 

Ether, 288 

Cabbages, Qualities of, 249 

to Keep Caterpillars from, 83 

to Preserve for Sea-Voyag08, 458 
Cachou Aromatis6, 307 
Cadmium, Yellow, 334 

in Fireworks, 385 
Cakes, 200 

Albany, 231 

Almond, 225, 227, 228 
Cheese, 225 

Apple, 202 

Banbury, 201 

Bath, 200 

Black, 224, 230, 231 

Bread, 202 

Cheap Fruit, 202 

Cheese, Bread, 202 

Cheese, Rice, 202 

Cider, 230 

Cocoanut. 222 

Cream, 201 

Cup, 230 

Election, 229 

Federal, 231 

Fine Cheese, 225 

Flannel, 201 

French Loaf, 224 

Fruit, Plain, 202 

Good Plain, 224 

Lemon, 225, 230 

Madison, 224 

Plain Seed, 226 

Plain, 224 

Portugal, 200 

Pound, 226 

Pudding Pound, 224 

Queen, 225 

Ratafia, 224 

Rice, 200 

Rich Plum, 224 

Rich Seed, 224 

Savoy, 200 

Shrewsbury, 200, 228 

Sponge, 224, 230 

Sugar, 230 

Swedes, 227 

Wedding. 229 
Calico Printing, 322 
Callan's Battery, 375 
Calves' Head, to Dress, 231 

Foot Jelley, 229 

to Rear, 91, 92 
Camphor, 290 

Mixture, 124 
Canary Birds, 448 
Cancer, 135 

Cancerous Ulcers, Lotion for, 164 
Candied Sugar, 232 
to Color, 234 
Lemon Peel, 233 



INDEX. 



479 



Candied Oranges, 235 

Orange Peel, 233 
Candles, Substitute for, 94 

Wax, to make, 458 
Canker in the Horse, 107-115 

in Trees, 77 
Canning Fkuit, 240 
Cantharides, Poisoning by, 152 
Canva5, to Waterproof, 347 
Caoutchouc ^^arni^:h, 348 
Capacity of Boxes, 428 
Capsicum, to Raise, 82 
Caraway Cordial, 285 

Oil, 290 
Carbazotic Acid, 318 
Carbolic Acid, 436 
Carbonic Acid, 433 
Carbuncle, 141 
Carlsbad Water, 299 
Carpets, to choose, 457 

to Restore, 311 

to Scour, 312 
Carry's Apparatus, 435 
Carrots, to Cultivate, 40 
Cartilages. Displaced, 135 
CARVING. ART OF, 241 
Case Hardening, 381 
Casks, Musty, to Sweeten, 260, 273 

New, to Season, 261 

to close without Bungs, &c., 261, 262 
Cassia Oil, to Obtain, 290 
Castor Oil, 301 

as a Dressing for Leather, 459 

Clyster. 158 
Cast Steel, 382 

Casts from Fusible Metal, 370 
Cataplasms, Cold, 154 
Cataract in the Horse, iU8 
Catarrh, or Cold, 126 
Caterpillars on Gooseberries, to Remove, 76 

on Shrubs, Plants, etc., 83 
Catheter, Directions for Passing the, 153 
Catsup for Sea Stores, 194 

Tomato, to make, 194, 214, 230 

Mushroom, 214 
Cattle, Age of, 121 

Calds in, 120 

Distemper in, 116 

Frenzy in, 120 

Garget in, 116 

Hovcn or Blown in, 121 

Jaundice in, 120 

Lung Fever in, 116 

Paunching in, 121 

Purging Drink for, 120 

Rinilerpest in, 467; Red Water in, 116 

Scouring in, 116 

Swelling with Food, 116 

Swimming in the Head in, 121 

Tar-water for, 116 

Treatment of, 116 

Wounds in, 105 
Caustic, Lunar, Poisoning by, 152 
Cayenne Pepper, to Raise, 82 
Cautions, Salutary, 178, 180 

to Painters and Glaziers, 154 
Cedrat Cordial, to make, 285 

Essence, 290 
Celery, Quiilities of, 250 
CEMENTS, 352 
Cerate of Spanish Flies, 174 

Turner's, 174 
Chafing Dish, Impromptu, 463 
Chalk Mi.\ture, 130 
Chalybeate Draughts, 166 

Pills, 166 

Water, 300 



Chalybeate Wine, 160 

Champagne, 289 
Chancres, 133 
Chapped Hocks, 107 
Skin, 156, 306 
Charcoal, Animal, 298 ^ 

as a Deodorizer, 436 
as a Purifier, 178 
Poultice, 155 

to make, 280 

to Protect from the Effects of, IM 
Charlotte Russe, 228 
Cheese Cakes, 202, 225 

Cheshire, 96 

Cottage, 214 

Damson, 237 

Green Gooseberry, 199 

Hogshead, 190 

Qualities of, 249 
Chemic Blue, 316 
CHEMICAL RECEIPTS, 432 

Landscapes, 362 
Cherries, to Dry, 240 
Cherry Brandy, 286 
Chestnuts, to Keep, 87 
Chest, Dropsy of, 127 

Wounds in the, 145 
Chicken, Fricassee, with Mushrooms, 209 

Broth, 194 

Pie, 196, 210 

Pox, 138 

Salad, 231, 

Stewed, with Corn, '210 
Chickens, to Hatch, 93 

to Manage, 93, 116 
Chilblains, 156 

Children, Management and Diseases of, 169 
Chills and Fever, 123 
Chimneys on Fire, to Extinguish, 460 

Smoky, to Cure, 455 

to Clean, 455 
China-ware, to Manufacture, 394 

and Glass, to Clean and Pack, 457 

to Clean, 457 
Chinese Sheet-lead, to make, 381 

Fire, 385 
Chintz, to Wash, 310 
Chloride of Lime, 436 

to Destroy Insects, 450 
Chlorine, 433, 436 

Water, 299 
Chlorimetry, 309 
Chlorosis, 166 
Chocolate, 200 

Cream, 227 

Glace, 227 

Qualities of, 251 
Choice of Animal Food, 247 

Plants, 69 
Choking, 153 
Cholera, 162 
Cholera Morbus, 129 
Chowder, 192 
Chrome Green, 338 

to Dye, 318 

Vermilion, 337 

Yellow, 334 
Chrysammic Acid, 318 
Cider, Cheap, from Raisins, 264 

Devonshire, 263 

General Rules fur Making, 264 

Scotch, 263 

to make, 263 

to Manage, 264 

from Pears, 264 
Cinnabar, Humid Assay of, 365 
Cinnamon, Cordial, to make, 28& 



480 



INDEX. 



Cinnamon, Oil of, to Obtain, 289 

Water, to make, 294 
Citrate of Magnesia, 175 
Citron Cordial, to make, 285 
Clam Soups, 193 
Clap, 133 
Claret Punch, 231 

Claret Wine, to Imitate, 289 [Luting, 468 

Clarifying Honey, 240; Clay for Modelling and 
Clay, Burning, Mr. Craig's Method, 24 

Lands, to Underdrain, 49, 60 
Cleaning Water Casks, 95 
Climate, Effect of, 78 
Climbing Shrubs, 88 
Cloth, Bufi'-culored, to Clean, 311 

Faded Black, to Revive, 313 

Scarlet, to Clean and Dip, 313 

the Nap on, to liaise, 313 

to Bleach, 310 

to Dry Clean, 313 

to Dye, 317 

to Full, 310 

to render Waterproof, 331, 347 

to Take Out Fruit-stains from, 314 

to Take Spots of Paint from, 314 

to Take Spots of Grease from, 314 
Clothes Ball, to make, 313 

Incombustible, 437 

on Fire, How to Act, 437 

to Brush, 456 

to Scour, 312 

to take Grease from, 314 
Clothing, 184 
Clove Cordial, to make, 286 
Cloves, Oil of, 290 
Coal-oil, 302, 4oO, 451 

to Destroy Insects, 450 
Coal-tar, 318, 435 

Ashes as Manure, 24 

Colors, 318 
Coats, to Scour, 313 
Cobalt Ores, to Assay, 365 
Cocoa, 2U0 
Cocoanut-cake, 222 

Pudding, 222 
Codfish-cakes, 191 
Coffee, 200, 202 

Qualities of, 251 

Tree, to Engraft, 75 
Coins, 427 

Easy Mode of Taking Impressions from, 438 

Relative Value of American and Foreign,431 
Cold Cream, 306 

Artilicial, 435 

Drinks, Prevent Effects of, 460 

Su!-pended Animation from, 151 
Colds, Gargles for, 159 

in the Head, 126 

in the Horse, 107 
Cole Slaw, 195 
Colic, 130 

Painter's, 131 
Collar-bone, Fractures of, 146 

Dislocation of, 148 
Collodion, 409 

CoUyria, or Eye-washes, 157 
Colocynth Pills of, 158 
Cologne-water, 304 
Colors, Chevreul's Method of Graduating, 321 

Coal-tar, 318 

Compound, 310 

to Discharge, 316 

for Confectionery, 338 

Oil, 332 
Composition, Water-proof, 331 
Composts, 21, 61 
Compression of the Brain, 144 



Concrete, 352 

Concussion of the Brain, 143 
Condy's Disinfecting Solution, 436 
Confectionery, 232 

Colors for, 338 
Conservatory, to make, 61 
Consumption, 127 
Contusions, 143, 145 
Convalescents, Soup for, 178 
Convulsions in Pregnancy, 168 

in Children, 171 

in the Horse, 107, 111 
COOKERY, 188 

Cook's, Captain, Rules for Seamen 
Copal Varnish, 341, 343 
Copper, Assay of, 364 

in Pickles or Tea, 433 

Foils, 373 

Plates, Secure from Corrosion, 422 

Poisoning by, 152 

Test for, 432 

Tubes, 376 

on Iron, 376 
Copy, on Preparing, for the Printer, 452 
Coral Branches, Artificial, 460 
Cordials or Compound Spirits, 285 

Anise-seed, Caraway, Cedrat, Cinnamon, 
Strong Cinnamon, Citron, Clove, Cori« 
ander, Eau de Bigarrade, Gold, Lemon, 
Lovage, Nectar, Noyau, Orange, Pepper- 
mint, Ratafia, Dry Raialla, Whiskey 
285—287 
Cork-screw, Substitute for, 459 
Corn, Indian, to Cultivate, 29 

Oysters, 219 

to Dry, 88, 219 
Corn-bread, 232 
Corned Beef, 190 
Corns, 166 

in the Horse, 107 
Cospietic for Complexion, 465 
Cosmetics, 306 
Costiveness, 158, 161, 167 
Cottage Cheese, 214 
Cotton, 63 
Coughs and Colds, 158, 159 

in the Horse, 107 
Court-plaster, 175, 358 
Cow Feeder, Directions to the, 91 

Milch, to Choose, 92 

to Keep, 92 

Pox, 138 
Crabs, to Choose, 248 

to Pot, 190 
Cracked Heels in the Horse, 107 
Cracks in Stoves, 458 
Cramp in the Stomach, 161 
Cramps, 168 

in Bathing, 183 
Cranberry, Culture of, 69 
Cream, Coffee, 237 

Ice, 235 

Painter's, 343 

Pistachio, 235 

Qualities of, 249 

Raspberry, 236 

Substitute for, 96 
Creme de Barbades, Real, 284 

de Noyeau de Martinique, 284 

d'Orange, 285 
Crocheting, 448 
Crops, Rotation of, 10, 26, 27 
Croquets, Chicken, 232 
Croup, 173 

Crows, to Banish, 40, 90 
Crullers, to make, 464 
Crumpets, 2UI 



\ 



INDEX. 



481 



Prust, Short, 198 

Cucuml'cis, to Cultivate, 77, 78, 79 

to Pickle, 239 
CuLiNAHV Arts, 188 
Curacoa, 289 
Currants, Culture of, 69 

Qualities of, 251 
Currant Jelly, 215, 235 

Wine, 236, 267 
Currying Leather, 387 
Curry, 216 

Inilian Sauce, 214 

Maloy's, 116 

Powder, 216 

Salmon, 210 
Custards, Almond, 222 

Apple, 230 • 

Baked, 222 

Boiled, 199 

Cold, 199 

Lemon, 222 

Orange, 222 

Rice, 222 
Cutlets, Lamb, with Peas, 208 

Mutton, 208 

Pork, 208 

Veal, 206, 232 
Cuts, Treatment of, 144 
Cuttings, lor Plants, 65 
Cypher, writing in, 459 

Dahlia-paper, 299 
Dairy, to Manage, 91 
Damson Cheese, 237 

Plums, Pickled, 231 

to Bottle, 239 
Damsons, to Preserve, 240 
Dance of St. Vitus, 137 
Decalcomania, 465 
Decanters, to Clean, 457 
Dentrifice, 308, 460 
Deodorization, 164, 435 
Depilatories, 305 
Devils, Dry, 205 
Diabetes, 132 

in the Horse, 108 
Dialysis, 463 
Diamond Cement, 356 

to Imitate, 373 
Diarrhoea, 130, 162, 171 
Diavoiini, 223 
Diet, 247 

Digestion, to Improve, 128, 161 
Diphtheria, 126 
Dippel's Oil, to Obtain, 291 
Diseases of Children, 169 

General Rules for Treating, 122 

Peculiar to Females, 165 

of Wheat, 29 
Disinfectants, 164, 184, 185, 436 
Disinfection, 185 
Dislocations, 148 
Distemper, 328, 331 

in Dogs, 115, 449 
DISTILLATION, 277 

of Compound Spirits, 285 

of Compound Waters, 292, 294 

of Essential and other Oils, 289 

General Rules for, simple waters, 293 

to Preserve Flowers for, 292 
Distilleries, Fires in, to Extinguish, 280 
Diuretic Balls, 113 
Dogs, Best Breed of, for Shooting Game, 449 

Distemper in, 115, 449 

Mange in, 115, 449 

Purging Ball for, 115 

to know the Age of, to six years, 449 



Domestic Economy, 90 

Medicines, 173 
Dough-nuts, 464 
Doses, Medicinal, 188, 241 
Dover's Powders, 173 
Dram-Drinking, to Remedy Effects of, 409 
Draining Land, 49, 60 
Drawings, Lead Pencil, to Preserve, 350 

to Varnish, 350 
Drawn Butter, 194 
Dresden China, 395 
Dresses, Incombustible, 437 
Drier for Paints, 331 
Drilling Glass, 439 

Wheat, 28 
Drop, Black, 175 
Drops, Chocolate, 234 

Clove, 234 

Coifee, 234 

Confectionery, to make, 234 

Ginger, 234 

Orange-Flower, 234 

Peppermint, 234 
Dropsy of the Bag, 134 
Belly, 132 
Chest, 127 
Knee, 135 
Medicines for, 167 
Drowning, 151, 180, 181, 182 

Assistance in. Danger of, 462 
Drying Herbs, Roots, etc., 85 

Oils, 340 
Dry-rot, 352, 432, 438 
Duchess Loaves, 226 
Duck, Wild, Salmis, 209 

to Choose, 248 
Duffy's Elixir, 175 
Dumplings, Apple, 199 

Raspberry, 198 
Dung Beds, to form, 60 
Dutch Drops, 292 

Pink, 334 
DYEING, 315 

of Leather, 390 
Dysentery, 130 
Dyspepsia, 128 

Ear, Extraneous Bodies in the, to Extract, lit 

Inflammation of, 125 

Wounds of, 145 
Eau de Barbade, 284 

de Bouquet, 304 

de Cologne, 304j 

de Javelle, 436 

de Luce, 173 

de Millefleurs, 305 

Divine, 284 

Lustrale, 305 

Sans Pareil, 294 
ECONOMY, RURAL AND DOMESTIC, 90 
Eels, to Pot, 190 
Eger Water, 299 
Eggs, ^ la Dauphin, 213 

au Gratin, 212 

to Choose, as Food, 249, 457 

to Preserve, 95, 96, 457 

with Wine, 200 
Egg-Plant, to Cook, 219, 231 
Elbow, Dislocations of, 149 
Elderberry Wine, 268 

Paper, 299 
Electric Machines, New, 435 
Electrical Machine, Alloy for, 370 
Electro-Plating, 374 
Elephant's Milk, 284 
Eli.xir, Duffy's, 175 
Elm Trees, 77 



482 



INDEX. 



Email de Paris, 465 

Embrocation for Rheumatism and Sprains, 154 

Embroidery, to Clean, 314 

Emissions, Involuntary, 133 

Ems Water, 299 

Enamel for Cooking Utensils, 393, 398 

to Paint in, 393 
ENAMELLING, 390 

Varnish for, 341 
Engrave, to, in Aquatinta, 421 

in Mezzotinto, 421 

on Chiar' Oscuro, 422 

on Precious Stones, 423 

on Steel, 420 

on Stone, 423 

on Wood, 422 
ENGRAVING, 419 

from Photographs, 418 
Engravings, Cleaning and Preservation of, 426 

on Glass, to Transfer, 407, 423 
Enlargement of Spermatic Vein, 134 
Tonsil, 126 
Uvula, 126 
Eolian Harp, to make, 454 
Epilepsy, 136 
Erysipelas, 138 
Essence of Cedrat, 290 

Lavender, 291 
Ner.ili, 291 
Petits Grains, 291 
Essential Oils, 289 
Etching, 419, 422 
Ether, to make, 281 

to Purify, 281 
Evil, the King's, 135 
Exercise, 185 
Expectation of Life, 459 
Expectorant Pills, 159 
Extracts, Toilet, 304 
Eye Waters, 157 

Inflammation of the, 125 
Eyelids, Inflamed, Remedy for, 157 
Eyes of the Horse, 108, 114 
Eyesight, to Preserve the, 186 

Fao Similes, 360 

Factitious Liquors, 287 

Failures in Photography, 417 

Fainting, 136 

Fallow, to Conduct a, 15 

Famished Persons, to Restore, 463 

Fans for Cleaning Grain, 18 

Farcy, 108 

FARRIERY, 104 

Fattening Hogs, 92 

Poultry, 92 
Feathers, to Cleanse, 313 

Dye, 325 

Preserve, 450 
Feet, to Keep Dry, 186 

Disease of in the Horse, IIS 
Felon, 142, 155, 
Females, Diseases of, 165 
Fermentation, 251, 254, 261, 262 
Fertilizers, 11 
Fever, Bilious, 123 

Hectic, 124 

Intermittent, 123 

Milk, 168 

Puerperal, 168 

Remittent, 123 

Scarlet, 137 

Simple, Inflammatory, 123 

Typhoid, 124 

Typhus, 124 
Filberts, to Keep, 87 
Film, or Cataract in the Horse, 103 



Filter, for Corrosive Liquids, 433 
Fining of Spirits, 285 

Wines, 274 
Finings, to make and Apply, 274 

of Wines and Spirits, to Force doirn the, 27'' 
Fires, 

Colored, 384 

in Distilleries, to Extinguish, 280 

in Hay-stacks, to prevent, 459 

to Escape from, 462 

to Extinguish in Chimneys, 460 
Fireproof Dresses, 437 

Paper, 437 

Wood, 437 
Fireworks, 384 
Fishing, 443 
Fish Bones*, to Extract, when swallowed, 15S 

Culture, 445 

to Cure, 94 

Poisonous, 153 

Qualities of, 249 

to Cook, 191, 206 

to Preserve with Sugar, 239 

to Keep Fresh, 464 
Fistula, 142 
Fits in Children, 171 
Fixed Oils, 301 
Flannel Cakes, 201 
Flannels, to Wash, 464 
Flatulence, 161, 170 
Flavorings for Imitated Wines, 287 
Flax, to Cultivate, Dress, etc., 42, 43 
Fleas, to Destroy, 450 
Fleur d'ltalie, 304 
Flies, to Remove from Rooms, 96 

Stables, 450 
Floors, to Stain, 457 

Cement for, 352 
Florida Water, 304 
Flounders, to Cook, 191 
Flour, Chalk in, to Detect, 433 

to Improve, 86, 96 

to Preserve, 96 
Flower Gardening, 84, 88 
Flowers, Bulbous, to Accelerate, 67 

Faded, to Restore, 84 
to Dry, 84 

for Distillation, 292 

to Grow in Winter, 82, 83 

to Preserve, 87 
Fluor Albus, 166 
Flux, 130 
Fluxes, 363 
Foils, 373 
Fomentations, 154 
Food, Qualities of, 247, 251 

of Plants, 9 
Forcemeat, 216 

Foreign Spirits, to Imitate, 281 
Foretelling,' the Weather, 439 
Forges, Water, 300 
Fothergill Process, 414 
Foul Air, Suspended Animation from, 151 
Foul Rooms, to Ventilate, 164 
Foundered Feet, 108 
Fowls, Qualities of, 249 

Choice of, 248 

Treatment of, 93, 116 

Wild, to Catch, 462 
Fractures, 146 
Frangipani, Toilet, 307 
Freckles, 306 
Frkezing Mixtures, 435 
French Polish. 344 

Rolls, 228 
Fresco, 331 
Fresh Water from Salt, 179 



INDEX. 



483 



Fricassee, 209 

Friction for Rheumatism, etc., 162, 185 

to lessen, 347, 438 
Fritters, 199 
Frogs, to Coolt, 232 
Frostbite, 151 

in Fruit Trees, 75 

in Piitatoes, 35 
Fruit Es.<ences, 28S 

to Protect, from Insects, 71, 450 

Trees, 67, 69, 70, 75, 76, 77 

Spots, to Remove, 314 

Stains, to Remove, 314, 436 
Fruits, 85, 86, 87, 88 

to Preserve, 86-88, 240 

without Sugar, 240, 246 

Qualities of, 250, 251 

to Pack, 87 
Frumenty, 197 
Frying, 190 
Fuel, Cheap, 95 
Fulling Cloths, etc., 310 
Fumigation, 163, 164, 436 
Fundament, Falling of, 171 
Furnace, Sand-heat, to make a, 278 
Furnaces, Portable, 278 
Furniture, Oil, 350 

Paste, to m.ake, 349 

to Clean, 465 

Varnished, to Polish, 349 
Furs, to Preserve, 450 
Fusel Oil. 283 
Fusible Metal, 369 

Gallipot Mastic, for Grinding Colors, 345 

Varnish, to make, 345 
Ganglion, 141 

Gardeners, Practical Directions to, 90 
Gardening, 60, 66, 88 
Gargle for Thrush, 159 

Sore Throat, 159 
Gas Burners, 430 

Meter, to Read, 430 

to Save, 430 
Geese, to Choose, 248 
Gems, Artificial, 403 
Gems, to Engrave, 423 
Geneva, English, to make, 282 
Gentian Water, 296 

Wine, 160 
Geraniums, 89 
German Silver, 372 
Gild by Burnishing, 378 

Edges of Paper, 377 

Glass and Porcelain, to, 376 

Leather, 377 

on Wood, with 011,377 

Silk, Satin, Ivory, etc, by Hydrogen Gas, 377 
Gilding, 376-379 

Electro-, 375 

Fire, 379 

Jewellery, 379 

Solution, 375 
Gilders, Cautions to, 185 

Varnish for, 346 
Gin, to Prepare, as in Holland, 282 

to Imitate, 288 
Ginger Beer, 258 

Nuts, 202 

Pop, 257 

Powders, 433 

Syrup, 176 

to Candy, 233 
Gingerbread, Plain, 200, 228 

Poundciike, 200. 228 

Short, 228 

Soft, 224 



Gingerbread, without Butter, 200 
Glands, Inflamed, 135 
Glanders, 115 
Glass, 399 

to Anneal, 401 

and Porcelain, to Paint and Stain, 406, 408 

to Draw on, 407 

Globes, Liquid Foils for Silvering, 370 

Ground, to Imitate, 439 

in Imitation of Muslin, 423 

" " Precious Stones, 403 

Powdered, Poisoning by, 152 

to Break, in any Required Way, 403 

to Clean, 409 

to Drill, 439 

to Etch upon, 422 

Stoppers, to Loosen, 434 

to Ornament, in Imitation of Engraring, 
402, 407 

to Pack, 457 

to Polish and Grind, 402 

to Silver, 370 

Jars, like China, to make, 458 
Glaziers, Caution to, 164 
Glazings for Earthenware, etc., 396, 398 
Gleet, 133 
Gloves, to Cleanse, 315 

to Dye, 325 

to Prepare Skin for, 389 
Glue, 354, 355 

Liquid, 356 

Marine, 354 
Goadby's Solution, 435 
Goat's" Flesh, Qualities of, 249 

Skins, 389 
Godbold's Balsam, 176 
Godfrey's Cordial, 175 
Goitre, 136 
Gold, Amalgam of, in the Large Way, 379 

Assay, 367 

Lace, to Clean, 314 

Ores and Earths containing, 367 

Poisoning by, 152 

Powder, 378 

Solder, to Prepare, 369 

Test for, 433 

to Dissolve in Aqua Regia, 379 

to Separate from Gilt, Copper, and Silvw» 
380 

Varnish, 351 
Gonorrhoea, 133 

Goodfellow's, Mrs., Lemon Pudding, 222 
Goose, Choice of, 242 
Gooseberries, Culture of, 69, 76 
Gooseberry Cheese, Green, 199 
Gout, 134, 162 

Chelsea Pensioner's Remedy for, HI 

Cordial, to make, 161 

Lotion, 134 

Portland Powder for, 460 

Pradier's Cataplasm for, 459 

Rheumatic, 134 
Grafting, 63, 65 

Wax, 459 
Grain, Damaged, to Correct, 96 

to Preserve from Vermin, 98 

Reaping before Ripe, 31 
Grapes, to Cultivate, 73 

to Keep, 88 

Sugar from, 233 
Gravel, 131 

Remedies for the, 131 

Walks, to make, 60 
Gravy, 215, 230 

Cakes, 194 
Grease, in Horses, 108, 115 

Spots, 312, 314, 438 



i84 



INDEX. 



Grecian Painting, 339 
Green, Chrome, 338 

Colors free from Arsenic, 338 
House, to make, 61 
Scheele's, 338 
Schweinfiirth, 338 
Sickness, 166 
Grindstones, to make, 458 
Gripes in the Horse, 108 
Grip ng in Children, 170 
Grottoes, to Embellish, 460 
Gruel, to mjike, 177 
Guano, 10, 11 

Gum Benzoin, Oil of, to obtain, 290 
Elastic, to Dissolve, 339, 354 
the Yellow, 170 
6un Barrels, to Brown, 349 
Cotton, 366 

as a Filter, 433 
Cement, 356 
Explosive, 384 

Link's, 384 
Soluble, 409 
Metal, 371 
Powder, 384 

to render Incombustible at pleasure, 

465 
White, 384 
Gutta-percha, Solution of, 348, 354 
Solvents for, 339 

Hair Brush, to Clean, 456 

Dyes, 305 

Honey-water for the, 305 

Superfluous, to Remove, 305 

Washes, etc., 305 
Hams, Qualities of, 248 

to Cure, 91 

to Cook, 207 

to Salt, 239 
Hanging, Suspended Animation from, 151 
Hangings, Paper, to Rest ire, 314 
Hare, Roast, 209 
Harrowgate Water, 300 
Harrows, 16 

Hartshorn Jelly, to make, 235 
Hash of Beef, 206 
Hats, to Dye, 324 

Straw, to Clean, 315 

to Preserve, 467 
Hay Milking, 46 

Stacks, to Save from Fire, 459 
Headache, to Relieve, 125 
Health, Pkeservation of, 183 
Heartburn, 128, 161 
Heart, Palpitation of, 127 
Hearths, to Paint, 331 
Heat, Excessive, to Guard Against, 136 
Hectic Fever, 124 
Hedge-hog, Usefulness of the, 29 
Hedges, Thorn, 51 
Heels, Cracked, 107 
Heliotrope, 89 

Hemorrhage after Pulling Teeth, 157 
Hemp, to Cultivate, 40, 41 

Process of Grassing, 41 
Herbs, to Propagate, 76, 83 

to Dry, 85 
Herpes, 139 
Herrings, to Cure, 94 

to Choose, 243 
Hiccup, 128 

in Children, 170 
Hiera Picra, 158 
Hip-joint Disease, 135 
Hives, Cobbett's, 104 

Langstroth's, 104 



Hives, Thorley's, 103 
Hoarhound, to Candy, 23S 
Hocks, Chapped, 107 
Hodge-Podge, 215, 217 
Hog Cholera, 117 
Hogs, to Fatten, 92 
Hogs, 116, 121 
Hogshead Cheese, 190 
Hominy, 98 
Honey, to Clarify, 240 

to Manage, 102 

Water, 295, 305 
Hoof-bound, 108 
Hooping-cough, 172, 173 
Hops, to Cultivate, etc., 43, 44, 4ft 

to Choose, 253 

to Keep, 263 
Horn, to Dye Various Colors, 327 
Horse, Abscesses in, 106 

Anbury, or Wart in, 106 

Balling with Snow, 114 

Balls for, 106 

Bladder, Inflamed, in, 106 

Bleeding in, 110 

Bleeding, to Stop, in, 114 

Blistering Ointment for, 106 

Bog Spavin in, 106 

Bone Spavin in, 106 

Bots in, 106 

Broken Knees in, 107 

Broken Wind in, 107, 111 

Burns or Scalds in, 107 

Canker in, 107 

Cataract in, 108 

Chapped Hocks in, 107 

Cold in, 107 ' 

Convulsions in, 107, 111 

Corns in, 107 

Cough in, 107, 110 

Cracked Heels in, 107 

Curb in, 107 

Diabetes in, 108 

Disease of Feet in, 113 

Diuretic Balls for, 113 

Drink for, 110 

Dysentery, 109 

Eyes of, 108, 114, 462 

Farcy in, 108 

Fever in, ll.l 

Foundered Feet in, 108 

Glanders, 115 

Grease, 108, 115 

Green Ointment, 106 

Gripes, 108, 112 

Hoof Bound, 108 

Inflamed Bowels, 106 

Inflamed Lungs, 108, 110, 114 

Jaundice, 111 

Lameness, 114 

Lampas in, 108 

Laxity in, 108 

Lock-Jaw, 115 

Looseness in, 110 

Mallenders, 108 

Mange, 108, 111, 114 

Molten Grease, 109 

Ointment, 105 

Poll Evil, 109 

Pulling at the Halter) 461 

Purging, 108, 110 

Purging Ball, 108, 110 

Quittor, 109 

Ring-Bone, 109 

Rupture, 115 

Sallenders, 109 

Sand-Crack, 109 

Scratched Heels, 114 



INDEX. 



485 



Horse, Shoeing in 'Winter, 114 
Sitting a, 463 
Sit-fasts, 109 
Sores and Bruises, 105 
Spavin, 106 
Staggers, 109 
Staling Profusely, 111 
Strains, 109, \U, 115 
Strangles, 109 
Strangury, 109 
Surfeit, 111 
Teeth, 104 

Tetanus, or Lock-jaw, 115 
Thrush, 109, 114 

to Take out of a Stable on Fire, 462 
Unsoundness, 105 
Vives, 109 
Wart, 106 
Wind-galls, 109 
Worms, 106. Ill 
Wounds, 105, 109 

HORTICULTUUE, 60 

Hot-houses, 67 

Hot-beds. 60 

Hortus Siccus, 459 

Houses on Fire, How to Escape from, 462 

Painting, 327 
Hoven in Cattle, 121 
Humus, 9 

Hunger and Thirst, to Restore Famished Per- 
sons, 463 
Hungary Wnters, 295, 304 
HUSBANDRY, 9 

Implements of, 15, 470 
Huxham's Tincture of Peruvian Bark, 176 
Hydraulic Cement, 352, 466 
Hydrogen, 433 
Hydrometers, 430 
Hydrophobia, 145 
Hysteric Fits, 165, 167 

Ice, to make, 95, 435 

to Extricate Persons from Broken, 181 

from a Powder, to Procure, 95, 435 

Cream, Water-ice, 235, 236, 237 

House, Portable, 94 

for Culinary Purposes, to Produce, 95 
Icing for Cakes, 200 
Iceland Moss Bread, 98 
Impotency, 134 
Inclosures, to Form, 51 
In-arching, 62 
Incombustible Wood, 437 

Dresses, 437 
Incontinence of Urine, 132 
Indelible Writing, 437 
Indian Shields, to Prepare Varnish for, 351 
Indigo, for Dyeing, to prepare, 316 

Paper, 299 

Solution of, 316 
Inflammation of the Bladder, 132 

to Diminish, 154 

Brain, 125 

Ear, 125 

Eye, 125 

Glands, 135 

Intestines, 129 

Kidneys, 131 

Liver, 128 

Stomach, 128 

Throat, 126 
India-rubber, Solvents for, 339 
Varnish, 343,348 
Blacking, 349 
Cement, 354 
Solutions of, 354 
Indian-oorn, 29, 466 



Indian-corn, Pone, 197 
Indigestion, 128 

Medicines for, 160, 161 
Injection, Laxative, 158 
Instruments, Musical, to Stain, 328 
INKS and Writing-fluids, 358 
Ink, Indelible, 358, 359 

Perpetual, for Writing on Tombs, etc., 361 

Powder, 359 

Printers', 360 

Marking, to Take Out, 359 

Horticultural, 361 

for Zinc Labels, 361 

Indian, to make, 36 / 

Substitute for, 361 

Permanent, for Marking Linen, 359 

Sympathetic, 361 

to Write on Grensy Pn'per or Parchment, 359 

to Restore Decayed Writings, 359 

to Take Out Writing, 313 

Spots, to Take Out, 314, 434 
Insects on Plants, etc., 38, 39, 71, 72, 76, 79, 83, 
84, 90, 449 

to Destroy, 449 

Persian Powder for, 449 

Stings and Bites, 145, 173 
Intermittent Fever, 123 
Intestines, Inflammation of, 129 
Intoxication, 179 
Iodine, Tincture of, 167 
Irish Whiskey, to Imitate, 289 
Iron, Acetate of, 316 

Nitrate of, 316 

Ores, to Assay, 363 

and Steel, to Brown, 349 
to protect, 351 

Cast, Cement for, 353 

Polished, to Preserve, 438 

to Plate, 380 

Vessels, to Tin, 380 

to Keep from Rust, 464 

Ore, to Reduce into Malleable, 3S1 

to Shingle and Manufacture, New Way, 381 

to Weld, 381 

Hardening of, 381 

to Convert into Steel, 381 

to Deposit Copper on, 376 

Test for, 433 

Mould, to Remove, 313 

Varnish for, 464 
Isinglass-jelly, to make, 178 
Itch, 139, 156 
Itching, 167 
Ivory, to Gild, 377 

to Bleach, 350 

Artificial, 358 

to Dye Various Colors, 325 

Mode of Silvering, 434 

Transparent, 350 

Jelly, 171 

Jam, Raspberry, to make, 237 

Strawberry, 237 
Japan-black, 348 
Japanning Old Tea Trays, 456 
Jaundice, 129 

in the Horse, 111 
Jessamine-water, to Prepare, 294 
Jelly, Isinglass, 178 

Apple, 236 

Hartshorn, Currant, etc., etc., 235 — 237 

Calves'-fuot, 229, 236 

Gooseberry, 236 

Ivory, 171 

Pineapple, 237 

Punch, 237 

Raspberry, 237 



486 



INDEX. 



Jelly, Strawberry, 236 
Jewelry, Metal for Common, 372 

Paste for, 403 
Jockey-Club, 304 
Joints, Cartilage in, 135 

Wounds of, 146 
Jujube Paste, 238 
Jumbles, 202, 228 
Juniper, Compound Spirit of, 295 

Kail, Sea, to Cultivate, 82 
Kalydor, 307 

Kettles, Iron, to Keep from Eust, 464 
Kew-garden Nosegay, 304 
Kidneys, Inflammation of, 131 

to Cook, 204, 206 
Kid-Skins, 389 
Kirchwasser, 283 
Kitchener's Pudding, 196 
King's Evil, 135 
Knee-joint, Dropsy of, 135 
Knives and Forks, to Clean, 456 
Knife handles. Ivory, to Bleach, 350 
Knitting, 448 
Knots, to Tie, 446 
Krumholz' Oil. to Procure, 291 
Kustitien's Mebil for Tinning, 372 
Kyan's Antiseptic Fluid, 435 

Labdanum Plaster, 174; 176 
Labarraque's Solution, 436 
Lace, to Wash, 310 

Veils, White, to Clean, 311 
Black, to Clean, 311 

Point, to Cle:in and Starch, 311 

Gold and Embroidery, to Clean, 314 
Lackers of Various Tints, to make, 345, 346 
Lacquer, for Brass, 345 
Lacquers, 345 
Lakes, 335, 336 
Lager Beer, 257 
Lamb, Qualities of, 247 

Cutlets, 208 

Kidneys, 204 
Lampas, 108 

Lamps, to Prevent being Pernicious to Asthmatic 
persons, 185 

to Prevent Smoking, 458 
Lampblack, 328 

Land, Arable, Management of, 9 
Lands, Clay, to Underdrain, 49, 50 
Landscape, Chemical, 362 
Lard, 301 

Laudanum, Poisoning by, 152 
Laughing-gas, 433 
Lavender, Oil of (Foreign), to obtain, 291 

Spirit, 166, 295 

Water, to Prepare, 176, 296 

for Immediate Use, 296 
Lawns, to Wash and Starch, 311 
Lax, 130 

Laxative Solutions, 158, 175 
Layering, 62 
Lead Ores, to Assay, 364 

Tests for, 433 

Chinese Sheet, to Prepare, 381 

Chromate of, 334 

Paper, 299 

Pencil Drawings, etc., to Preserve, 350 

Colic, 131 

Poisoning by, 152 

Water, 156 

Tree, to Prepare the, 380 
Leather, to Gild, 377 

Dressing for, 459 

to Clean, 314 

to Render Water-proof, 348, 349 



Leather Chairs, to Restore the Blackness of, 350 

Sheep, to Prepare, 387 

Morocco, to Manufacture, 888 

to Convert Old Parchment into, 390 

to Preserve from Mould, 390 

Morocco and Sheep, to Dye, 388, 390 

Russia, to Manufacture, 388 

to Color, 390 
Leaven, Bread, 97 

Ledoyen's Disinfecting Solution, 164, 436 * 
Leeches, Application of, 156 
Lemonade, Portable, 300 
Lemon Cordial, to make, 286 

Juice, Preservation of, 457 

Peel, to Candy, 234 

Water, to Prepare, 296 
Leprosy, Lotion for, 156 
Leprous Affections, 156 
Letters, to Disinfect, of the Plague, 164 
Leueorrhcea, 166 
Liard, for Lubricating, 347 
Lice, to Destroy, 449 
Liebig's Soup and Broth, 461 
Life, Expectation of, 459 
Life-boat, 181 ; Light, Artificial, 466 
Lightning, to Guard Against, 4(52 
Lime as a Manure, 22 

to Burn, Without Kilns, 24 

Juice, to Preserve, 467 
Line Engraving, 419 
Linear Measurement, 428 
Linen, to Render Water-proof, 347 

Cloth for Screens, etc., to Thicken, 347 

to Remove Iron-moulds from, 313 

Mildew on, to Take Out, 314 

Fire-proof, 437 

and Cotton, to Dye, 320 
Liniment, Compound Soap, 173, 

of Ammonia, 173 
Linseed Poultice, 154 
Lip-salve, 174 
Liqueurs, to make, 284 
Liquid Manure, 25 

Paste, with Drying-oil, to make, 347 
Liquorice, Extract of, to make, 234 

Juice, to make, 235 

Lozenges, 234 

Refined, to Prepare, 235 
Liquors, Factitious, 287 

Bead for, 288 
Lisbon Diet-drink, 258 
LITHOGRAPHY, 423 
Lithographic Ink, 424 

Pencils, 425 
Litmus, for Dyeing, 324 

Paper, 299 
Liver, Inflammation of the, 128 
Lock-jaw, 137 
Looking-glass Plates, 400 
Looking-glasses, to Plate, 370, 402 
to Repair, 370 
etc., to Clean, 455 
Lobsters, to Pot, 190, 221 

to Boil, 191 

to Choose, 248 
Lobster Butter, 221 

Salad, 221 
Looseness, to Check, 130 
Lovage Cordial, to make, 286 
Lozenges, Liquorice, 234 

Black Pectoral, 176 

AVhite Pectoral, 176 
Lubricating Compound, 347, 438 
Lumbago, 162 

Lung-fever in the Horse, 108 
Lutes, to make, 355 
Luting for Grafting, 459; Luting Clay, 466 



INDEX. 



487 



Lye, to make, 311 

Macadamized Koads, 454 
Macaroni. 195, 206 

a I'ltatienne, 220 
au Gratin, 220 
with Cream, 220 
Macaroons, 224, 228 
English, 202 
Macassar Oil, 306 
Mackerel, etc., to Cure, 94 
Madder, to Cultivate, 45 
Red. 319 
Use of, 46 
Mad-dog, Bite of, 145 
Madeira Wine, 289 
Magnesia, Citrate of, 175 
Mahogany, to Take Stains out of, 315 
Male Fern, Remedy for Worms, 159 
Mallenders, 108 
Malt, 252, 253 

Poultice, 155 
Manganese Ore, to Assay, 365 

Test for, 433 
Mange, 108, 111, 114, 115, 449 
Manheim Gold, 373 
Manure, 10, 18, 22-26 
Bone, 25 
for a Garden, 60 
Liquid, 25 
Mineral, 11 
Organic, 11 
Plaster, 25 
Solid, 10 

Spreading ofl9, 20 
Manuscripts, to Renovate, 359 
Maple Sugar, 52 
Maraschino Cordial, 289 
Marble, to Clean, 314 

Cements for, etc., 355 
Marine Glue, 354 
Marking Inks, 359 

to take out, 314 
Proof, 452 
Marl, 22, 23 
Marmalade, 232, 235 
Mastic, 352 '• ■ 

Matches, 384 
Matting. Gold, 378 
Mayonnaise, 210 
Sauce, 215 
Mead, 258 

Meadows, to Water, 51 
Mealy-bug, 90 
Measles, 138 
Mkasuees, 427 
Measuring-glasses, 188, 241 
of Boards, 429 
of Stonework, 429 
Meats, to Cook, 188, 190 

to Preserve without Ice, 458 
Salt to Freshen, 463 
Qualities of, 248, 249 
Medals, to Copy, 375 
to Bronse, 376 
MEDICINE, 122 
Medicines, Domestic, 173 
Medlars, to Preserve, 87; Meerschaum, 466 
Melons, irregular Growth of, to Prevent, 79 
Menses, the, 166, 167, 173 
Mensuration, 428 
Mercurial Ointment, 174 

Ores, 366 
Mercury, Poisoning by, 152 
to Purify, 439, 440 
Test for, 433 
to Protect Gilders from Effects of, 185 



Meringues, 227 

METALLURGY, 362 

Metallic Injection, 370 

Metals, Voltaic, Protection of, 376 

to Clean all sorts of, 311 
Mezzotint, 421 
Mildew, 29 

to Remove, 314, 437 
on Fruit Trees, 77 
Milk, Qualities of, 249 ; Watered, to detect, 469 
and Cream, Substitutes for, 96 
to free from Turnip Flavor, 98 
of Roses, 306 
Fever, 168 
Punch, 200 
to Preserve, 458, 469 
Mince Meat, 221, 
Pies, 198 
Mineral Waters, 300 
Mint. Oil of, 291 

MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS, 446 
Mock Turtle, 218, 231, 232 
Moiree Metallique, 370 
Molybdate of Ammonia, 318 
Mont d'Or Water, 300 
Monthly Sickness, 166 
Montpellier Yellow, 334 
Morocco, 388, 390 
Mordants, 315, 346 
Mortars, 352, 353 
Mortification, 153 
Mosaic Gold, 368, 393 

to make, 393 
Moss, as Manure, 21, 22, 25 
Land to Improve, 23 
on Trees, to Destroy, 76 
Moths, to Drive away, 450 
Mother of Pearl, to Imitate, 352 
Mouth Wash, 307 
Mucilaginous or Fixed Oils, 301 
Muffins, 201 

Mulberry Tree, to Cultivate, 59 
Munro's Cough Mixture, 159 
Muntz Metal, 371 
Murexide, 318 
Muriatic Acid, 298 

Mussels and Periwinkles as food, 250 
Mushrooms, 79, 196 

Catsup, 214 
Mush, 197 
Musk Mixture, 124 
Mustard, to Cultivate, 94 
Musical Instruments, to Stain, 326 
Mutton, Qualities of, 248 
Broth, 194 
Cutlets, 207 
Leg of, 206 
Shoulder of, 204 
to Choose, 248 
a I'Anglaise, 206 
Myrtle Water, 294 

Napoleon's Pectoral Pills, 159 
Naples Water, 300 
Yellow, 334 
Nature Printing, 425 
Neat's-foot Oil, 301 
Nectar, 202 
Nettle-rash, 139 
Neuralgia, 137, 162 
Neutral Spirit, 287 
Nickel Ore, to Assay, 365 
Nii;htmare, 161 
Nipples, Sore, 168 
Nitrous Oxide, 433 
Noodles, 193 
Nose, bleeding of, 125 



488 



INDEX. 



Nose, Injuries of, 145 
Koxious Vapors, 184, 43(J 
Noyeau, 286 
Nutmegs, Oil of, 291 
Nut Oil, 301 

Oak, to Dye, 326 
Oaks, to Raise, 52 
Oats, 32, 466 

Qualities of, 250 
Oatmeal Gruel, 196 

Odors, Unpleasant, to Remove, 185, 435 
Oil and Water Colors (see Colors), 332 
Artificial, of Quince, 288 
Wine, 288 
Apple, 278 
Jargonelle Pear, 288 
Bitter Almonds, 291 
Geranium, 291 
Macassar, 306 
OILS, Essential, etc., 289 
Adulterations of, 292 
Siccitive, 331, 340 
Furniture, to make, 350 
Fixed, 301 

of Sweet Almonds, 301 
Beech-nut, 301 
Brick, 303 
Hazel-nut, 301 
Mace, 301 

Olives, Siilad, or Sweet, 301 
Castor, 301 

to Purify, 303 
Mixture, 129 
Croton, 301 
Rape, 301 

to Purify, 301 
Vegetable, to Purify, 301 
Watchmaker's, 303 
Coal, to Clarify, 302 

to Test, 451, 
Drying, 331, 340 
Pumpkin, to make, 301 
Animal, and Fat, etc., 301 
Hog's Litrd, 302 

to Purify and Bleach, 302 
Spermaceti, to Refine, 302 
Trotter, or Neat's-foot, 302 
Greenland Whale and Seal, to Refine, 302 
to Extract from Stone or Marble, 314 
out of Boards, 438 
Fish, to Purify, and Apply the Refuse to 

Useful Purposes, 302 
to Prevent becoming Rancid, 303, 466 
for making Hard Soap, to prepare, 302 
Ointments, 174 
Olio Broth, to make, 205 
Omelette, 212 

Souflae, 237 
Onions, to Cultivate, 81 
Opodeldoc, 173 
Opium, Poisoning by, 152 
Optical Glasses, to Polish, 402 
Oreide, a New Brass, 371 
0;«tt to Assay, 363 

and Earths containing Gold, 367 
Ormolu, or Mosaic Gold, 368 
Orange Cordial, to make, 286 
Marmalade, 232 
Flower Water, 294 
Drops, 234 
Paste for Hands, 308 
to Candy, 233, 235 
Orchards, to Manage, 69, 70 
Orfila's Hair Dye, a05 
Osborn's Photographic Process, 418 
Otto of Roses, 464 



Oxygen, 433 

Oxymel of Squills, 177 

Oysters, to Fry, 191 

to Choose, 248 

Corn and, 219 

Pan, 191 

Pickle, 191 

Roast, 191 

Scollop, 191 

Spice, 191 

to Stew, 191 

and Cockles, Qualities of, 249 
Ozone, Tests for, 299 

Paint, Cheap, for Outside Work, 465 
Painter's Cream, to make, 343 

Colic, 131 
PAINTING, 327, 465 

on Glass, etc., 406 
Paintings, to Clean and Restore, 339 
Paints, 327, 465 

Old, Solvents for, 339 
Flexible, 347 

for Coarse Wood-work, 347 
Palpitation, 127 
Palsy, 136 
Panada, 177, 219 
Pancakes, 199 

Paper, to Gild the Edges of, 377 
Fire-proof, 437 

to Remove Spots of Grease from, 314 
Hangings, to Clean, 314 
Water-Proof, 356 
Parchment, 436 
for Draughtsmen, 436 
Tracing, 425 
Papier-Mache, 350 

Parchment, Old, to Convert into Leather, 390 
to make, 389 

to Dye, various Colors, 326 
Paper, 436 
Paregoric, 158 
Parsley, Qualities of, 250 

Parsnips, Mode of Cultivating in Guernsey, 40, 260 
Parting. Process of, 367 
Passy Water, 300 
Paste, Liquid, to make, 355 
Brioche, 225 
Chinese, to make, 356 
for Artificial Gems, 403 
Ward's, for the Piles, 157 
Furniture, 349 
Orgeat, 237 
Puff, 198, 230 
Raspberry, 237 
Short, 230 
for Tarts, etc., 198 
Pastils, 307 

PASTRY, ETC., Qualities of, 260 
Patchouli, Oil of, 291 
Pate de Guimauve, 238 

de Jujube, 238 
Pattinson's Process, 368 
Paunching in Cattle, 116 
Peach, Culture of, 08, 77 

Brandy, 283, 289 
Peaches, Brandy, 232 
Pearlash, to Purify, 402 

Powder for the Face, 337 
Pearly Lustre, to Produce, 352 
Pears, Culture of, 68 
Peas, to Raise, 34, 80 

to Keep from Mice, 80 

to Boil, 195, 220 

to Steam, 220 

Qualities of, 250 

and Bacon, to Cook, 191 



INDEX. 



489 



Peat, as Manure, 24 

Peats, 95 

Pectoral Lozenges, 176 

Pelisses, to Scour, 312 

Pencil Drawings and Writings, to Preserve, 250 

Pennyroyal. Oil of, to Obtain, 291 

Peppermint, Spirit, 296 

Water, Simple, to make, 293 

Oil of, to Procure, 291 

Water, to Prepare, 293 
Pepperpot, 193 
Perennials, 89 
PERFUMERY, 303 
Perry, to make, 264 
Peruvian Bark, Tincture of, 175 
Petroleum, 451 

Pewter, 369 ; Pharaoh's Serpent's Eggs, 464 
Pheasants, to Breed, 92 

Roast, 210 
Phial, Bologna, to make, 403 
Philicomes, 306 
Philip's Rules for Health, 183 
Philosophical Instruments, Lacker for, 346 
Phosphorus, to Preserve, 433 

Poisoning by, 153 
Photogalvanography, 419 
Photographs, to Engrave from, 418 

on Porcelain, 415 
PHOTOGRAPHY, 409 

Failures and Imperfections, 417 
Photolithography, 417 
Photozincography, 418 
Piccalilli, 238 
Pickling, 238 

Artificial Anchovies, 239 

Cucumbers, 239 

in Brine, 239 

Mushrooms, 238 

Onions, 238 

Piccalilli, 238 

Salmon, 239 

Samphire, 238 

Sour-krout, 238 

Seed-wheat, 28 

to Detect Copper in^ 433 

Walnuts, White, 239 
Pictures, to Clean, 339 

to Restore, 339 

to Preserve, 339 

Ancient, to Restore the White of, 339 

on Wax, 339 
Pies, Beefsteak and Oyster, 211 

Chicken, 211, 212 

Crust, 198 

Giblet, 210 

Mince, 198 

Oyster, 231 

Perigord, 211 

Pigeon, 210 

Rabbit, 211 

Raised, French, 211 

Raised Ham, 211 

Raised Pork, 2U 

Rhubarb, 199 

Rumpsteak, 211 
Pig, Age of, 121 

Roasted, 206 
Pigeon, 5. la Gauthier 209 

to Catch, 462 

Boiled, 210 

Roasted, 210 

Pie, 210 
Pilchards, to Cure, 94 
Piles, 142, 157, 158, 162, 167 

Ointments for, 142 

Ward's Paste for, 15V 

Electuary for, 158 



Pills, Aperient, 160, 161 

Chalybeate, 166 

Compound Aloetic, 158, 173 

Aloetic and Myrrh, 173 

Assafoetida, 173 

Plummer's, 173 

Compound Colocyntb, 158 

Aloetic, 158, 173 

Compound Rhubarb, 158 

Expectorant, 159 

Napoleon's Pectoral, 159 

Anti-hysteric, 173 
Pimento, Oil of, to Procure, 291 
Pinchbeck, 371 
Pineapple Rum, 289 

Jelly, 237 

to Raise, 71, 72 
Pinery, to Manage a, 71, 72 
Pink Saucers, 335 
Pinks, 89 

Pipings, a Mode of Cultivating Plants by Cut- 
ting, 65 
Pippins, 75 

Pismires, in Grass, to Prevent, 38 
Pisciculture, 445 
Pistachio, Cream, 235 
Pitch Plaster, 174 

Plague, to Disinfect Substances of the, 164 
Plant, to. Shrubs and Trees, 66, 68 
Plants, to Accelerate, in Hot-houses, 67 

to Choose, 69 

Insects on. to Destroy, 38, 39, 71, 72, 76, 79, 
• 83, 84, 90, 449 

to Preserve from Frosts, 75 

to Preserve from Slugs, 450 
Plaster, of Spanish Flies, 174 

Compound Burgundy Pitch, 174 
Labdanum, 174 

Adhesive, 175 

Court, 358 

for Rooms, 352 

of Paris, as manure, 25 
Plate, to. Looking-glasses, 370 

to Clean, 313, 466 
Plated Copper, from, to Obtain Silver, 379 
Platina, Muck, to Prepare, 371 
Plating. 375 

Electro, 376 

Silver Solder for, 369 
Pleurisy, 127 

Plumbers, Painters, and Glaziers, Cautions to, 164 
Plums, Culture of, 62 

Pickled, 231 
Poisoned Wounds, 145 

Bibron's Antidote for, 450 
Poisonous Fish, 153 
Poisons, 151-153 

from Acids, 151 

Alkalies, 162 

Arsenic, 152 

Antimony, 152 

Copper, 152 

Hemlock, 153 

Laudanum, 152 

Lead, 152 

Lunar Caustic, 152 

Mercury, 152 

Nightshade, 153 

Opium, 152 

Phosphorus, 152 

Powdered Glass, 152 

Sal Ammoniac, 152 

Saltpetre, 152 

Salts of Tin, 152 

Salts of Bismuth, Gold, and Zinc, 163 

Spanish Flies, 152 

Spurred Rye, 153 



490 



INDEX. 



Poisons, Toadstools, 153 

Tobacco, 153 
Polish, to, Varnish, 352 

French, 344 

Varnished Furniture, 349 

Wood, 349 

Brass Ornaments Inlaid in Wood, 349 
Poll Evil, 109 

Polygraph, an Instrument for Writing Two Let- 
ters at Once, 459 
Polypus, 135 
Pomatum, 306 
Pomade, Divine, 306 

Dupuytren, 305 

a. la Rose, tJOe 

of Bitter Almonds, 306 

Stick, 306 
Pone, 197, 232 
Porcelain, ti> Manufacture, 394 

to Gild, 376 

Enamel for, 391 

New Enamel for, 391 

to Paint on, 406 

Photographs on, 415 
Pork, Qualities of, 249 

Pies, 211 

to Salt, 239 

Choice of, 242, 248 

Cutlets, 208 
Port Wine, 289 
Portable Lemonade, 300 
Porter, to Brew, London System, 254 

Three Barrels of, 264 

from Sugar and Malt, 255 

to make a Butt of Stout, 260 

to Bottle, 262 

to Ripen, if Flat, when Bottled, 263 
Portland Cement, 352 

Powder for the Gout, 460 
Portugal AVater, to Prepare, 294 
Posset, Ale, 200 
Potatoes, Culture of, 34, 36, 79, 466 

jl la Creme, 220 

g, la Maitre d'Hotel, 219 

and Greens, 195 

Balls, 195 

Bread from, to make^ 

Boiled, 195 

Cold, Fried, 195 

Early, to Produce, in Great Quantity, 36 

Escaloped, 195 

Fourteen Ways of Dressing, 195 

Fried in Slices, 195 
Mashed, 195 
with Onions, 195 
Whole, 195 

Frosted, to Use, 36, 196 

to make Starch of, 36 

Irish Method of Cultivating, 36 

Mode of Taking up and Stirring the Crop, 
36 

Mashed, 195 

Pie, 195 

Qualities of, 250 

Quantity of Seed for, 34 

Roasted, 195 

Snow, 195 

for Sea Provisions, to Keep, 196 

to Boil, Mealy, 195 

to Cultivate, 34 

to Extrapt Alcohol from, 283 

to Grow Constantly on the Same Piece of 
Ground, 36 

to Prepare the Ground for, 34 

to Preserve from Frost, 35 

to Preserve, 36 

to Raise, Advantageous Method, 35 
31 



Potatoes, to Remove Frost frcm, 35 

to Steam, 196 
Potichomania, 458 
Pot-pie, 196 
Potted Beef, 190 

Lobster, 190 

Shad, 190 
POTTERY, 394 

Englii'h Stoneware, to Manufacture, 394 

Yellow, or Queensware, 394 
Poultices, Various, 154 
Poultry, to fatten, etc., 92. 94 
Poundcake, Plain, 200 

Gingerbread, 200 
Powders, Seidletz, 178 

Portland, 460 

Dover, 173 

Alvotic, with Iron, 173 

for Gilding, 378 

Ginger Beer, 433 

Toilet, 306 
Pox, 133 

Pradier's Cataplasm for Gout, 460 
Precious Stones, to Imitate, 374, 403 

to Engrave on, 423 
Pregnancy, Diseases of, 167 
Prescriptions, Various, 154 
Pkeserving, 239 
Pretsch's Process, 419 
Prince Ruperts' Drops, 403 
Princes' Metal, 371 
Printing, Photographic, 413 

Ink, 360 

Nature, 425 
Prints, to Bleach, 310 

to Wash without Fading, 313 

to make. Resemble Paintings, 347 
Privies, to Deodorize, 164 
Proof Marking, 452 
Provisions, Salt, to Freshen, 463 
Prussian-Blue, to make, 330, 337 
Soluble, 337, 380 
to Dye, 317 
to Paint, 33C 
Psoas Abscess, 142 
Pudding, Apple, 223, 229 

Baked Apple, 229 
Indian, 229 

Batter, 198 

Beefsteak and Oyster, 212 

Biddle, 230 

Boiled, 199 

Bread, 198, 223 

Brown-bread, 223 

Carrot, 197 

Cheshire, 197 

Citron, 229 

Cocoanut, 222, 229 

Cottage, 222 

Cream, 229 

Currant, 232 

Custiird, 199, 222, 229 

Dutch, 197 

Eve's, 222 

Friend AVilson's Plum, 230 

Hominy, 229 

Indian, 199, 229 

Kidney, 212 

Kitchener's 196 

Lemon, 198, 222, 223 

Goodfellow's, 222 

Meringue, 198, 230 

Newcastle, 193 

Newmarket, 1J8 

Nottingham, 197 

Oldbury, 198 

Orange; 229 



INDEX. 



491 



Padding, Patterdale, 222 

Plain, 197 

Rice, 197, 229 

Plum, 223 

Potato, 197, 229 

Potato Rice, 197 

Pumpkin, 199 

Queen's, 222 

Quince, 198 

Rice, 197, 229 

Sago, 229, 

Suet, 199 

Sweet Potato, 229 

Swiss, 197 

Tapioca, 223, 232 

Transparent, 197 

Vermicelli, 198 

Wedding Cake, 222 

Wedding, 229 

Windsor, 197 

White Potato, 222 

Yorkshire, 197 
Puerperal Fever, 16S 
Puff Paste, 198, 230 
Pullna Water, 299 
Pulse, the, 122 

Pumps, Temporary, at Sea, 182 
Punch, 202 

Milk, 200, 202 

Chiret, 231 

Fish-House, 458 

Paris a la Nina, 231 
Purgatives, 158, 176 
Purification of Water by Charcoal, 178 
Purple of Cnssius, 408 
Putrid Sore Throat, 126 
Putty, Old, to Soften, 339 
Pyrmont Water, 300 
Pyroligneous Acid, 298 
PYROTECHNY, 384 

Quass, to make, 298 

Queen's Metal, 368 

Quince, Marmalade, to make, 235 . 

to Keep, 87 
Quinine Mixture, 124 
Quittor, 109 

Rabbit Pie, 209 

Rabbits, a la Bourguingnonne, 209 
Radishes at all seasons, 82 
Ragout of Asparagus, to make. 213 

Mushrooms, to make, 213 

Artichokes, to make, 213 

Calves' Sweet-bread, to make, 214 

with Roots, to make, 214 
Raisin Spirits, 283 
Raspberry, to Cultivate, 69 

Brandy, 287 

Cream, to make, 236 

Dumplings, 198 

Jam, to make, 237 

Paste, to make, 237 

Vinegar, 237 
Ratafiii, 284. 285, 286 
Rattlesnake Bites, 145 

Bibron's Antidote for, 450 
Razors, to Ilone, Strop, etc., 461 

Paste for Sharpening, 461 
Reading Proof, 453 
Reapers, 17, 470 
Reaping Unripe Grain, 31 
Reboulet's Antiseptic Fluid, 435 
Red Spider, 83. 90 
Refrigerant Lotion, 154 

Mixtures, 123 
Retention of Urine, 132 



Rheumatism. 135 

Medicine for, 177 

Pills, etc., for, 162 

Portland Powders for, 460 
Rhodium, Oil of, 291 
Rhubarb, to Cultivate, 80 

Pills, 158 

Tincture of, 175 
Rice Cups, 223 

Diavolini, 223 

Flummery. 223 

Fritters, 223 

Pudding, 197, 229 
Rickets, 172 

Ridgwood's Disinfectant, 164 
Riding, 463 
Riga Balsam, 291 
Rinderpest, 467; Ringbone, 109 
Ringworm. 139, 156, 172 
Roach Poison, 450 
Roads, to make, 454 
Rockets, 385 
Rollers, for Land, 16 
Rolls, French, 228 
Roman Cement, 352 

Candles, 385 
Roofing, Composition for, 353 
Rooms. Cement for, 352 
Root Beer, 257 

Roots, to Preserve and Pack, 70, Si 
Rosemary, Oil of, 291 
Rosendale Cement, 352 

Water of, 293 
Roses, 88 

Butter of 291 

Milk of. 306 

Otto of, 464 
Rot, Dry, 352, 432, 438 
Rotation of Crops, 26 
Rouge, 335 

Jeweller's, 397 
Rowing, thk Art of, 453 
Rue, Oil of, 291 
Rugs, to Scour, 312 
Rum, Jamaica, 281 

to Imitate, 288 

from Molasses, 282 

Shrub, 285 

Ether, 288 
Ruperts' Drops, 403 
Ruptures, 140 

in the Hog, 117 
Horse, 115 
RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY, M 
Rusks, 201, 202, 226 
Russell's Tannin Process, 414 
Russia Leather, 388 
Rust, to Prevent, 30. 351, 438 

in Kettles, 464 
Rutabaga Turnips, 38 
Rye, 33, 466 

Sachets, Toilet, 307 
Safety-matches, 386 
Saffron, Bastard, 324 
Sail-cloth, Water- proof, 347 
Salads. 220,221, 231 
Sal lenders, 109 
Sally Lunn, 202 
Salmis of Wild Duck, 209 
Salmon, to Pickle, 239 

Curry, 210 
Salt, Spirit of, 298 
Salt Meat, to Freshen, 463 
Salting of Meats, 239 
Salutary Cautions, 178-180 
Samphire, to Pickle, 238 



492 



INDEX. 



Sand pot, Portable, 298 
Crack, 109 

Impressidns in, to Preserve, 437 
Sandwiches, 220 
Sanfoin, 39 
Sarsaparilla, 177 
Beer, 258 
Sarsenets, to Clean, 310 
Sassafras, Oil of, 292 
Satins, to Gild, 377 
Sauce, Apple, 194 

Be.ihatnel, 213 

Boar's Head, 215 
Brown, 194 

Brown Oyster, 214 

Caper, 2l"5 

Cherry, 215 

Common, 194 

Cream, for a Hare, 194 

Cream, Bechamel, 214 

Currant-jelly, 215 

Curry, 215 

Damson, 231 

Fish, 194 

for Veal, 213 

Fried Bread, 215 

German Sweet, 214 

Iiiilian Curry, 214 

Italienne, 213 

Kitchener's Superlative, 213 

Mayonnaise, 215 

Miser's, 194 

Nivernoise, 194 

Nonpareil, 194 

Nun's, 213 

Parson's, 194 

Piquante, 213 

Plain Curry, 215 

Poivrade, 214 

Pontiff's, 213 

Poor Man's, 214 

Queen's, 194 

Sailor's, 194 

Sweet, 194 

Wine, 214 
Sausages, 190 
Saxon or Chemic Blue, 316 

Artificial, 333 
Sayce's Photographic Process, 416 
Scald Head, 139, 156, 172 
Scalds, 153 
Scale on Plants, 90 

Boiler, 433 
Scalp, Wounds of, 145 
Scarlet-fever, 137 
Schnapps, to Imitate, 288 
Sciatica, 162 
Scions, to Choose, 65 
Scirrhus, 135 
Scorbutic Eruptions, 154 
Scouring, 312 
Sarapple, 191 
Scrofula, 135 
Bcurvy, 140 

Grass, Spirit of 
Sea Bathing, Substitute for, 183 

Kail, to Cultivate, 82 

Voyages, 178 

Water, to Render Fit for Washing, 180 
to Drink, ISO 

Weed as Manure, 23 
Sealing-wax, 357 
Seamen, 178 

Health of, to Preserve, 180 
Seatworms, 160 
Sedative Lotion, 154 

Cataplasm, 154 



Seeds, to Sow, 66, 466 

Farm, Estimate, per Acre, 468 
to Preserve, 84 
to Improve All Sorts of, 3t 
Seed-wheat, to Pickle, 28 
Seidlitz Powders, to Prepare, 178 

Water, 300 
Seltzer-water, 300 
Senna, as a Laxative, 158 
Serpents, Bites of, 145 
Shad, to Pot, 190 

to Choose, 248 
Shampoo Liquor, 305 
Shawls, Silk, to Dye, 321 
Sheep, Foot- rot in, 117 
Age of, 121 
Maggots in, 117 
Scab in, 117, 118 
Skins, to Prepare, 387, 389 
to Prevent Catching Cold after Shearing.llT 
Water in the Heads of, to Cure, 118, 119 
Sheeps' Tongues, 204 
Shellac, to Bleach, 300 
Sherry Wine, 289 
Shield-budding, 63 

Ships, Health on Board of, to Preserve, 178, 180 
Hints on board, 180 
to Fumigate, 179 

to Render Sinking Impossible, 182 
Shipwrecks, Preservation in case of, 182 
Shoes, to Render Water-proof, 348 
Shot Metal, 369 
Shower-bath, 183 
Shrubbery, 88 

Shrubs, Brandy, to make, 285 
Rum and Currant, 285 
to Plant, 66 
Sick Rooms, 164 
Sight, Weak, Remedy for, 157 

Dimness of, 125 
Silica, Soluble, 434 
Silk, to Gild, 377 

to Clean, 311 

to Extract Grease-spots from, 312 
Silks, to Clean, 312 
to Bleach, 310 
to Dye, 317 
to Varnish, 348 
Varnish for, 343 
Silkworms, 53-69 

Ailanthus, 69 
Silver, Test for, 432 

Imitation of, 372 
Plate, to take Stains out of, 314 
Plate, 379 
Plating, 375 
Solder, 369 
Solutions, 375 
Tree, to Prepare the, 381 
to Clean, 456, 466 
to Recover, from Baths, 375, 417 
Plate, 380 
Silvering Glass Globes, Liquid Foil for, 370 
Copper Ingots, 379 
Electro, 376 
Glass, 370 
Powders, 379 
Sirailor, or Manheim Gold, 373 
Sitfasts, 109 

Size, Isinglass, to make, 355 
Skin, Eruptions, 166, 171 
Small-beer, to Brew, 256 
Small-pox, 139 

Vaccination, 138 
Smee's Battery, 375 
Smoky Chimneys, to Cure, 45S 
Smut, 30, 31 



INDEX. 



493 



Snail-water, Small, to make, 294 
Snake-bites, 4oO 

Bibron's Antidote for, 450 
Soap-liniiuent, 173 
8oAPS, 308 

Soapstoiie as a lubricator, 438 
Soda-water, to Prepare, 433 
sSoil for a Gurden, 60 

for Window-gardening, 90 
Soiling, 21 

Soils, Constituents of, 12-14 
Solid Measurement, 428 
Solder, 369. 372 

Brass, for Iron, 372 

for Steel Joints, 372 

Gold, 369 

Hard, 369 

Soft, 369 

Silver for Jewellers, 369 
Boleil, Coup de, 136 
Soluble Silica, 434 
Sore Legs, 155 

Nipples, 168 

Throat, 159 
Sores, Dressing for, 460 

Clay as a Dressing for, 460 
Sorghum, 29, 466 
Soup, Asparagus, 192 

Beef-gravy, 192 

Charitable, 192 

Che;ip, 193 

Chicken, 193 

Chicken, without Chicken, 231 

Clam, 193 

Corn, 193 

Dr. Green's Bean, 231 

for Convalescents/ 178 

Giblet, 192 

Herring, 193 

Hodge-podge, 215, 217 

Julienne, 217 

Letuce and Pea, 217 

Liebig's, 216, 461 

Maigro, 192 

Mock-turtle, 213 

Mullaga-tawny, 215 

Noodle, 193 

Nutritious, 193 

O-t-cheek, 219 

Ox-taii, 219 

Oyster, 193 

Pea, 193 

Pepperpot, 193 

Portable, 192 

Rice and Meat, 192 

Scotch Broth, 193 

Spring, 217 

Turtle, 217 

Veal-gravy, 192 

Vegetable. 193 

Vermicelli and Vegetable, 216 

White, 216 

Winter, 215 
Sour-krout, 238 
Soy, Tomato, 230 
Sozoilont, 307 

Spanish Flies, Ointment of, 174 
Spavin, 106 

Spearmint-water, Simple, 294 
Specific Gravity, 429 
Spectacles, Use of. 186 
Specula, for Telescopes, 371 
Spermaceti, to Refine, 362 
Spinach, 219, 250 
Spine, Cru.iked, 172 
Bpirits, to Distil, from Carrots, 282 

to Dulcify, 280 



Spirits, to Fine, 283 

of Nutmeg, 176 

of Salt, or Marino Acid, 298 

of Wine, to make, 280 

Foreign, to Imitate, 287 

Proof, 283 
Spleen, Enlarged, 129 
Sponge, to Bleach, 437 
Sportsman's Beef, 449 
Sprains, 143, 154 

Spruce-beer, Brown and White, 257 
Squills, Oxymel of, 177 

Syrup of, 176 

Vinegar of, 177 
Staggers, 109 
Staining Wood, etc., 325 
St. Anthony's Fire, 138 
Stapleton's Antiseptic Fluid, 435 
Starch, 457 

from Frosted Potatoes, 37 
Starvation, Effects of, 463 
Statues, Ancient, Composition of, 371 
Steak a la Soyer, 206 

Franfiiise, 207 

Plain Rump, 207 
Steel, 382 

Bessemer Process for, 383 

Goods, to Preserve, 351 

Improved Mode of Hardening, 382 

Tungsten, 372 

to Color Blue, 382 

to Distinguish from Iron, 382 

to Engrave on, 420 

to Gild, 376 

XJchatius, 383 

Varnish for, 464 
Steinbuhl Yellow, 334 
Stereoscopic Pictures, 411 
Stereotype Plates, 369 
Stereotyping, Rapid, 425 
Stews. 191 
Still, Hot, to make a, 279 

Large, to make a, 279 

New Worm for, 279 

for Simple Waters, 293 
Stings and Bites, 145 
Stockings, Silk, to Clean, 312 

to Dye, 321 
Stomach, Inflamed, 128 

Cramp in, 128 
Stomachic Pills, 160 
Stone in the Bladder, 132 

Artificial, 439 
Stoneware, 394 

Stonework, Measurement of, 430 
Stoppers, Chemical, to Prevent Sticking, 434 

to Loosen, 434 
Stores, Cracks in, to Mend, 353 
Cement for, 458 
Strangury, 133 

in the Horse, 109 
Strangles, 109 

Straw Hats to Clean, 313, 315 
to Dye, 321 

Importance of, 46, 49 
Strawberry Water, 294 

Jelly, to make, 236 

Jam, 237 

to Cultivate, 69, 82 

Qualities of the, 248 

to Preserve the, Whole, 240 
Strictures, 133 
Stucco, 354 
St. Vitus' Dance, 137 
Styes, 158 
Suffocation, by Noxious Vapors, 151 

by Hanging, 151 



494 



INDEX. 



Buffocation, Drowning, 151 

by Strangling, 153 
Sugar, 232, 233, 234 

Brown, to Clarify, 233 

Candy, to make, 233 

Cane, 52 

to Obtain from Beets, 283 
Birch, 233 
Grapes, 233 
Pears, 233 
Starch, 233 

to make Devices in, 234 

Ornaments in, 234 
Sulphur in Electrical Machines, 439 
Sulphuretted Hydrou;en, 433 
Sulphurous Acid, 310, 433 
Sunflower, the, 83 
Sunstroke, 136 
Suppuratiim, 154 
Surface Measurement, 428 
Sweetbreads, 206, 208 
Swelling, White, 135 

of the Feet, 167 
Swimming, Art of, 183 
Swine, Age of, 121 

Cholera in, 117 

to Fatten, 92 

Kidney Worm in, 116 

Measles, etc., in, 116, 117 

Rupture in, 117 

Trichinae, 469; Sore Throat in, 117 
Syllabub, Whipped, to make, 234 

Solid, to make, 234 
Syphilis, 133 
Syrup of Ginger, 176 

Poppies, 177 

Squills, 177 

Violets, 177 

Table Beer, 257 

Talmi Gold, 368 

Tanning, and the Treatment of Leather, 386 

Tape Worm, 160 

Tapioca, 196, 223, 232 

Tar, Oil of, to Procure, 292 

Water, to Prepare, 177 
Tartar Emetic, Poisoning by, 152 
Tarts, 198 

Paste for, 198 
Taupenot's Collodio — Albumen Process, 415 
Tea, Beef, to make, 178 

Qualities of, 251 

Trays, to Clean, 456 
Teeth, Cutting the, 171 

Cements for, 358 

Diseases of the. Remedies for, 157 

Extraction of, to Check Hemorrhage in, 157 

Preservation of, 186 

Remedies for, 157, 187 
Telegraph, Electric, 451 
Telescopes, Specula for, 371 
Tendons, Wounds of, 146 
Tepid Bath, 183 
Terrapins, 210 
Test Papers, 299 
Testicle, Cancer of, 134 
Tests, Chemical, 432 

for Gold, Silver, and Copper^ 432 

Iron, Lead, Manganese, 433 

Liquors, 299 

Mercury, 433 
Tetanus, 137 

in the Horse, 115 
Tetter, 139 
Thermometers, 442 

Thenard bleu de, 333 
Thorn-hedges, 51 



Threshing: Machines, 17 
Throat, Wounds in, 145 

Foreij^n Bodies in. 153 

Giirgie for, 126, 159 

Inflammatory, 126, 159 

Putrid, 126, 159 

Strictures in, 126 

Ulcerated, 159 
Thrush in Children, Remedies for, 159, 171 

Gargles for, 159 

in the Horse, 109, 114 
Thunder, etc., 462 
Thyme, Oil of, 292 
Tic Douloureux, 137 
TiflFanies, to Wash and Stain, 311 
Tiles, Red Distemper for, 331 

to Preserve, 348 
Tillage, 14 
Timber, to Preserve, 352, 438 

to Prevent from Splitting, 438 

to Detect Decay in, 438 

Measure, 429 
Timothy, 466 
Tincture of Benzoin, 176 

Catechu. 176 

Ginger, 175 

Guaiacum, 176 

Japonica, to Prepare, 281 

Peruvian Bark, 176 

Rhubarb. 175 

Senna, 175 

of Tolu, 175 
Tin Ores, to Assay, 364 

to Ornament Surface of, 370 

Tree, to Prepare the, 381 
Tinning, 376 

Brass and Copper, Rapid, 380, 433 

Kustitien's Metal for, 372 
Tobacco, 53 

Poisoning by, 153 

Pipes, 396 
Toadstools, Poisoning by, 153 
Toilet Powders, 306 
Tomato Catsup, 194, 214, 230 

to Bake, 196 

to Broil, 196 

Soy, 230 
Tombac, to Prepare, 368, 369 
Tonsils, Swollen, 126 
Tongues, Sheeps', 204 

Beef and Champagne, 205 
Tonics, 160, 166 
Toothache, 187 

Powders and Pastes, 308 

Cements, 358 

Remedies for the, 187 
Toovelv's Photolithographic Process, 417 
Tortoise Shell, to Weld, 356 
Tourmaline, Artificial, 434 
Tracing Paper, 425 
Trees, to Graft, 64; to Force, 68 

to Pack for Exportation, 88 

to Plant, 66, 68 

to Protect from Hares, 76 

to Transplant, 67, 83 
TnicHiN.E IN Swine, 469 
Tropical Climate, Cautions when in, 179 
Tubes, Copper, by Electrotype, 376 
Tumors, 140, 141 
Tunisian Cement, 354 
Turkeys, Qualities of, 249 

Choice of, 242 

Dropsy in the Crops of, 119 

Roast, 207 
Turmeric Paper, 299 
Turner's Cerate, 174 
Turnips, to Cultivate, 37, 466 



INDEX. 



495 



TDmips, Flavor of, in Butter, 96 

Insects in, 38 

Qualities of, 249 

Ruta-baga, 38 

to Reiuuve Tapte from Bntter, 96 
Turnsole, or Litmus Blue, for Dyeing, 324 
Turpentine, Oil of, 292 
Turtle, to Dress, 290, 230 

to Dress Calf's Head like, 231 
Tutania, or Britannia Metal, 372 
Tutenag, to Prepare, 369 
Twiggs' Hair Dye, 305 
Twining's Ice Machine, 435 
Tying Knot?, 446 
Tympany, 133 
Type Metal, 369 
Typhoid Fever, 124 
Typhus Fever, 124 

Ulcers, 126, 142, 143, 154. 155 

and Pimples on the Tongue, 154 
Ultramarine, 332 ^ 

Artificial, 333 
Underdraining. 49 

Unventilated Places, to Explore, 436 
Urine, Incontinence of, 132, 168 

Difficulty of, 132 

Suppression of, 132 
Usquebaugh, 285 
Uvula, Enlarged, 126 

Vaccination, 138 
Varnishes, 339, 464 

to Polish, 352 
Veal, Qualities of, 249 

Breast, Glacee, 204 

Cake, to make. 205 

Cutlet, 206,232 

Ragout, 205 

Savory, Dish of, to make, 204 

Shoulder, en Galantine, 204 

to Choose, 248 
Vegetables, to Propagate; 62 

Qualities of, 250 

to make Tender, 459 

to Preserve, 85 

to Protect, 67 
Veils, to Clean, 311 
Veins, Enlarged, Spermatic, 134, 168 
Vellum, to make, 390 

Artificial, 436 

to Stain, Green, 326 
Veneers, to Print from, 425 
Venereal Warts, 134 
Venison Chops, 209 

Pastry, 230 

Scallops, 208 
Ventilation, 163, 184 
Verbenas, 89 
Verbena, Extract of, 304 
Verditer, 334 
Vermin, 38, 39, 98 
Vichy Water, 300 
Vinegar, to make, 296 

Adulteration, 296 

Aromatic, 164, 303 

Ice or Glacial, 298 

of Squills, 177 

Quass, to make, 298 

Ras])berry, 237 

Strength of, to Determine, 296 

Tarragon. 308 

to Deprive of Color, 298 

to Purify. 296 

to Strengthen, 297 
Vin«s, Culture of, 73, 74, 265 
Vinous Fermeutation, 251 



Violets, Essence of, 304 
Vives, 109 

Vol -an- Vent, to make, 211 
Vomiting in Pregnancy, 167 
in Children, 170 

AV.affles, 202. 228, 230 
Walks, Gravel, to make, 60 
Wallflower, Essence of, 304 
AVall Trees, 66, 71 
Walnuts, to Pickle, 239 

to Keep, 87 
Ward's Paste for Piles, 157 
AVarping of Planks. 438 
Warts, Common, 157 

in the Horse, 106 

Venereal, 134 
Watch, AVorks, Oil for, 303 
Water, Casks, to Clean, 95 

Distilled, 294 

Fresh, from Sea, to Obtain, 179 ' 

Gruel, 177 

Pipes, to Manage, in Winter, 454 

Sea, to Render Fit for Washing, 189 

Soda, 433 

to Determine if Hard or Soft, 433 

to Keep Pure in Iron Kettles, 464 

to Purify, 437 
Water-bath, Solutions for, 290 
Watering Gardens, 66 

Meadows, 51 

Wall Trees, 66 
Water-proof Cloth, 347 ; Water-proofing, 466 
Boots, 348 
Leather, 349 
Paper, 356 
Waters, Simple, Rules for Distilling, 492 

Aerated, 299 

Chalybeate, 300 

Compound Distilled, 294 

Medicinal, 299 

Stills for, 293 

to Purity, 438 
Wax, Sealing, to make, 357 

Bordering, for Engravers, 420 

Candles, to make, 459 

Painting on, 339 
Weather, to Foretell, 187, 439 
Weeds, to Destroy, 39 

to Prevent Growth of, 76 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 241, 427 
Welding, 381 
Welsh Rabbit, 463 
Wheat, to Cultivate, 27, 28, 466 

Diseases.of, 29, 30 

to Preserve, 96 
Whips, 230 

Whiskey, Factitious, 288, 289 
White Beer, 257 

Metal, 369 

Swelling, 155 
Whites in Women, 166 
Whitewash, to, 468, 465 

Resembling Paint, 465 
Whitlow, Treatment of, 142, 155 
AVild-Fowls as Food, 249 

en Salmis, 210 
to Capture, 462 
Wind Broken, 107 

Galls, 109 
Window Glass, 400 
Windows, to Keep up, 457 
Wine Gardening, 90 

Vaults, to Manage, 27S 

Whey, 178, 200 
WINES, A-»i ERIC AN, 265 

American honey, 271 



496 



INDEX. 



Wines, Port, to make Rough, 276 

and Spirits. Cellar of, to fit up, 275 

Apricor. 270 

Balm. 273 

Blackberry, 269 

Bottling; nnd Corking, 266 

Claret, '2S9 

Cherry, 269 

Currant red. 267 
Black, 267 
Dutch, 267 
"White, 267 

Domestic, M.mngement of, 266, 273 

Elderberry, 268 

Fining, 274 

Foul, to Restore, 276 

Ginger, 272 

Gooseberry, 266 

and Currant, 267 

Honey, 269 

111 Scent of, 274 

Juniperberry, 269 

Lemon, 269 

Madeira, 289 

Mead, 271 

Mulberry, 268 

other Mi.xed Berries, 268 

Peach, 270 

Port, to Imitate, 268, 269 

Raspberry, 268 

Red into White, 277 

Rhubarb, 272 

Sherry, 289 

Strawberry, 268 

to Check the Fermentation of, 274 

to Decant, 457 

to Determine Quantity of Alcohol in, 287 

to make Sparkling, 266 

Various Kitid.s, 271-273, 289 

"White, to Convert into Red, 276 

Whortle, or Bilberry, 269 
"Wintergreen, Oil of, 292 
"Woad for Dyeing, to Prepare, 324 
Wood, to Preserve, 84, 347, 352 

Artificial, 357 

Decoction of, 178 

for Dyeing, to Prepare, 325 

Oil Gilding on, 377 

to Dye "Various Colore, 325 

to Engrave on, 422 

to Render Incombustible, 437 



Wood, to Polish, 349 
Wool, to Dye, 316 

to Bleach, 310 
Woollens, Undyed, to Scour, 310 

Fuller's'Purifier for, 313 

to Dye, 31 6 

to Full, 310 
Worms, 131, 132, 158, 159 

in Dogs, 444 

in the Hor^e, 106 

Medicines for, 159, 160 
Wormwood, Oil of, to Procure, 292 
Worthlytype Process, for Photography, 416 
Worts, to Boil, 254 

to Cool, 254 

to Determine the Strength of, 253 

to Mix the Yeast with the, 254 
Wounds, 144 

in Trees, 76 
Writing, Fluids, .'.56, 360 

for the Blind, 461 

in Cypher, 4^9 

on Greasy Paper, 359 

to Gild, 377 

to make New look Old, 359 

to Produce Fac Simile of, 360 

to take out, 313 
Writings, Decayed, to Restore, 359 

to Copy, 360 

Yarn, to Scour, 312 
Yeast Poultices, 155 

Substitutes for, 261 

to Keep, 262 
Yellow Fever, 123 

Cadmium, 334 

Chrome, 334 

Gum, in Children, 170 

Montpellier, 334 

Naples, 334 

Steinbuhl, 334 

Zaffre, 408 

Zeiodolite, 353 

Zinc Ores, to Assay, 366 

Black "Varnish for, 351 
Poisoning by, 152 
Paint, Drying Oil for, 340 
Dryer for, 340 
White, 338 




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